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Johannsen H, Muppala V, Gröschel C, Monecke S, Elsner L, Didié M, Zimmermann WH, Dressel R. Immunological Properties of Murine Parthenogenetic Stem Cells and Their Differentiation Products. Front Immunol 2017; 8:924. [PMID: 28824647 PMCID: PMC5543037 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The perspective to transplant grafts derived from pluripotent stem cells has gained much attention in recent years. Parthenogenetic stem cells (PSCs) are an alternative pluripotent stem cell type that is attractive as source of grafts for allogeneic transplantations because most PSCs are haploidentical for the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). This reduced immunogenetic complexity of PSCs could tremendously simplify the search for MHC-matched allogeneic stem cells. In this study, we have characterized immunological properties of the MHC haploidentical PSC line A3 (H2d/d) and the heterologous PSC line A6 (H2b/d). Both PSC lines largely lack MHC class I molecules, which present peptides to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and serve as ligands for inhibitory natural killer (NK) receptors. They express ligands for activating NK receptors, including the NKG2D ligand RAE-1, and the DNAM-1 ligands CD112 and CD155. Consequently, both PSC lines are highly susceptible to killing by IL-2-activated NK cells. In vitro-differentiated cells acquire resistance and downregulate ligands for activating NK receptors but fail to upregulate MHC class I molecules. The PSC line A6 and differentiated A6 cells are largely resistant to CTLs derived from T cell receptor transgenic OT-I mice after pulsing of the targets with the appropriate peptide. The high susceptibility to killing by activated NK cells may constitute a general feature of pluripotent stem cells as it has been also found with other pluripotent stem cell types. This activity potentially increases the safety of transplantations, if grafts contain traces of undifferentiated cells that could be tumorigenic in the recipient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Johannsen
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Vijayakumar Muppala
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Carina Gröschel
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Monecke
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Leslie Elsner
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Didié
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wolfram-Hubertus Zimmermann
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ralf Dressel
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Wang Y, MacDonald RG, Thinakaran G, Kar S. Insulin-Like Growth Factor-II/Cation-Independent Mannose 6-Phosphate Receptor in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 54:2636-2658. [PMID: 26993302 PMCID: PMC5901910 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9849-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The insulin-like growth factor II/mannose 6-phosphate (IGF-II/M6P) receptor is a multifunctional single transmembrane glycoprotein. Recent studies have advanced our understanding of the structure, ligand-binding properties, and trafficking of the IGF-II/M6P receptor. This receptor has been implicated in a variety of important cellular processes including growth and development, clearance of IGF-II, proteolytic activation of enzymes, and growth factor precursors, in addition to its well-known role in the delivery of lysosomal enzymes. The IGF-II/M6P receptor, distributed widely in the central nervous system, has additional roles in mediating neurotransmitter release and memory enhancement/consolidation, possibly through activating IGF-II-related intracellular signaling pathways. Recent studies suggest that overexpression of the IGF-II/M6P receptor may have an important role in regulating the levels of transcripts and proteins involved in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-the prevalent cause of dementia affecting the elderly population in our society. It is reported that IGF-II/M6P receptor overexpression can increase the levels/processing of amyloid precursor protein leading to the generation of β-amyloid peptide, which is associated with degeneration of neurons and subsequent development of AD pathology. Given the significance of the receptor in mediating the transport and functioning of the lysosomal enzymes, it is being considered for therapeutic delivery of enzymes to the lysosomes to treat lysosomal storage disorders. Notwithstanding these results, additional studies are required to validate and fully characterize the function of the IGF-II/M6P receptor in the normal brain and its involvement in various neurodegenerative disorders including AD. It is also critical to understand the interaction between the IGF-II/M6P receptor and lysosomal enzymes in neurodegenerative processes, which may shed some light on developing approaches to detect and prevent neurodegeneration through the dysfunction of the receptor and the endosomal-lysosomal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M8, Canada
- Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - R G MacDonald
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - G Thinakaran
- Departments of Neurobiology, Neurology, and Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - S Kar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M8, Canada.
- Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2M8, Canada.
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3
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Gamma/delta intraepithelial lymphocytes in the mouse small intestine. Anat Sci Int 2016; 91:301-12. [PMID: 27056578 DOI: 10.1007/s12565-016-0341-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Although many studies of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) have been reported, most of them have focused on αβ-IELs; little attention has been paid to γδ-IELs. The function of γδ-IELs remains largely unclear. In this article, we briefly review a number of reports on γδ-IELs, especially those in the small intestine, along with our recent studies. We found that γδ-IELs are the most abundant (comprising >70 % of the) IELs in the duodenum and the jejunum, implying that it is absolutely necessary to investigate the function(s) of γδ-IELs when attempting to delineate the in vivo defense system of the small intestine. Intraperitoneal injection of anti-CD3 mAb stimulated the γδ-IELs and caused rapid degranulation of them. Granzyme B released from their granules induced DNA fragmentation of duodenal and jejunal epithelial cells (paracrine) and of the IELs themselves (autocrine). However, perforin (Pfn) was not detected, and DNA fragmentation was induced even in Pfn-knockout mice; our system was therefore found to present a novel type of in vivo Pfn-independent DNA fragmentation. We can therefore consider γδ-IELs to be a novel type of large granular lymphocyte without Pfn. Fragmented DNA was repaired in the cells, indicating that DNA fragmentation alone cannot be regarded as an unambiguous marker of cell death or apoptosis. Finally, since the response was so rapid and achieved without the need for accessory cells, it seems that γδ-IELs respond readily to various stimuli, are activated only once, and die 2-3 days after activation in situ without leaving their site. Taken together, these results suggest that γδ-IELs are not involved in the recognition of specific antigen(s) and are not involved in the resulting specific killing or exclusion of the relevant antigen(s).
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Radiation-induced autophagy potentiates immunotherapy of cancer via up-regulation of mannose 6-phosphate receptor on tumor cells in mice. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2014; 63:1009-21. [PMID: 24943275 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-014-1573-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is a significant body of evidence demonstrating that radiation therapy (XRT) enhances the effect of immune therapy. However, the precise mechanisms by which XRT potentiates the immunotherapy of cancer remain elusive. Here, we report that XRT potentiates the effect of immune therapy via induction of autophagy and resultant trafficking of mannose-6-phopsphate receptor (MPR) to the cell surface. Irradiation of different tumor cells caused substantial up-regulation of MPR on the cell surface in vitro and in vivo. Down-regulation of MPR in tumor cells with shRNA completely abrogated the combined effect of XRT and immunotherapy (CTLA4 antibody) in B16F10-bearing mice without changes in the tumor-specific responses of T cells. Radiation-induced MPR up-regulation was the result of redistribution of the receptor to the cell surface. This effect was caused by autophagy with redirection of MPR to autophagosomes in a clathrin-dependent manner. In autophagosomes, MPR lost its natural ligands, which resulted in subsequent trafficking of empty receptor(s) back to the surface. Together, our data demonstrated a novel mechanism by which XRT can enhance the effect of immunotherapy and the molecular mechanism of this process.
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Ramakrishnan R, Gabrilovich DI. Novel mechanism of synergistic effects of conventional chemotherapy and immune therapy of cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2013; 62:405-10. [PMID: 23423351 PMCID: PMC11029489 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-012-1390-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There is mounting evidence to support the use of a combination of immunotherapy with chemotherapy in the treatment of various types of cancers. However, the mechanism(s), by which these modalities are synergized, are not fully understood. In this review, we discuss several possible mechanisms of the combined effect of immunotherapy and chemotherapy of cancer. We will examine various aspects of this issue such as the combination of different treatment options, the dosage for each arm of treatment, and, more importantly, the timing and sequence of the administration of these treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupal Ramakrishnan
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, MRC 2067, 12902 Magnolia Dr., Tampa, FL 33612 USA
| | - Dmitry I. Gabrilovich
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, MRC 2067, 12902 Magnolia Dr., Tampa, FL 33612 USA
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Granzyme B-dependent and perforin-independent DNA fragmentation in intestinal epithelial cells induced by anti-CD3 mAb-activated intra-epithelial lymphocytes. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 352:287-300. [PMID: 23361111 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1549-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We previously found that an i.p. injection of anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody (mAb) into mice caused DNA fragmentation in the intestinal villous epithelial cells (IVECs) of the duodenum and the jejunum. In this study, in order to elucidate the mechanism of DNA fragmentation in IVECs, we searched for the inducer(s) of DNA fragmentation by using immunohistochemistry. The release of cytoplasmic granules from intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) and the formation of large gaps between IELs and IVECs were observed electron microscopically after antibody administration. The presence and distribution pattern of Granzyme B (GrB), a serine protease in cytolytic granules present in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and considered to be the responsible molecule for DNA fragmentation in target cells, was examined in detail in intestinal villi by immunohistology. GrB was detected in cytoplasmic granules in nearly all IELs. The time-kinetics of granule release from IELs after mAb injection coincided not only with that of the extracellular diffusion of GrB, but also with that of DNA fragmentation in IVECs. On the other hand, perforin (Pfn), assumed to cooperate with GrB in DNA fragmentation, could not be detected in IELs, and its release was not confirmed after the anti-CD3 mAb injection. Anti-CD3 mAb injection also induced DNA fragmentation in IVECs in Pfn-knockout mice. These results support the notion that DNA fragmentation in IVECs by the stimulated IELs in the present study is induced by a mechanism involving GrB, but independent of Pfn.
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7
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Ramakrishnan R, Huang C, Cho HI, Lloyd M, Johnson J, Ren X, Altiok S, Sullivan D, Weber J, Celis E, Gabrilovich DI. Autophagy induced by conventional chemotherapy mediates tumor cell sensitivity to immunotherapy. Cancer Res 2012; 72:5483-93. [PMID: 22942258 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy attenuates the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy but its effects on immunotherapy have been little studied. Here, we report that chemotherapy renders tumor cells more susceptible to lysis by CTL in vivo. Moreover, bystander tumor cells that did not express antigen were killed by CTL. This effect was mediated by transient but dramatic upregulation of the mannose-6-phosphate receptor (MPR) on the tumor cell surface. Antitumor effects of combined treatment related to the kinetics of MPR upregulation and abrogation of this event abolished the combined effect of immunotherapy and chemotherapy. MPR accumulation on the tumor cell surface during chemotherapy was observed in different mouse tumor models and in patients with multiple myeloma. Notably, this effect was the result of redistribution of the receptor caused by chemotherapy-inducible autophagy. Together, our findings reveal one molecular mechanism through which the antitumor effects of conventional cancer chemotherapy and immunotherapy are realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupal Ramakrishnan
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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9
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A novel expression and purification system for the production of enzymatic and biologically active human granzyme B. J Immunol Methods 2011; 371:8-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2011.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Revised: 06/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Stewart SE, D'Angelo ME, Bird PI. Intercellular communication via the endo-lysosomal system: translocation of granzymes through membrane barriers. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1824:59-67. [PMID: 21683168 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Revised: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CLs) are responsible for the clearance of virally infected or neoplastic cells. CLs possess specialised lysosome-related organelles called granules which contain the granzyme family of serine proteases and perforin. Granzymes may induce apoptosis in the target cell when delivered by the pore forming protein, perforin. Here we follow the perforin-granzyme pathway from synthesis and storage in the granule, to exocytosis and finally delivery into the target cell. This review focuses on the controversial subject of perforin-mediated translocation of granzymes into the target cell cytoplasm. It remains unclear whether this occurs at the cell surface with granzymes moving through a perforin pore in the plasma membrane, or if it involves internalisation of perforin and granzymes and subsequent release from an endocytic compartment. The latter mechanism would represent an example of cross talk between the endo-lysosomal pathways of individual cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Stewart
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
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Ramakrishnan R, Gabrilovich DI. Mechanism of synergistic effect of chemotherapy and immunotherapy of cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2011; 60:419-23. [PMID: 20976448 PMCID: PMC11029574 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-010-0930-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2010] [Accepted: 10/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the combination of cancer immunotherapy with standard therapeutic modality is gaining credibility due to a number of clinical trials demonstrating therapeutic success of such combination therapies. However, the mechanism of this phenomenon is poorly understood. Here, we will discuss recent findings that suggest novel mechanisms of synergistic effect of cancer immunotherapy and chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupal Ramakrishnan
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center, MRC 2067, 12902 Magnolia Dr, Tampa, FL 33612 USA
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12
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Li XJ, Ong CK, Cao Y, Xiang YQ, Shao JY, Ooi A, Peng LX, Lu WH, Zhang Z, Petillo D, Qin L, Bao YN, Zheng FJ, Chia CS, Iyer NG, Kang TB, Zeng YX, Soo KC, Trent JM, Teh BT, Qian CN. Serglycin is a theranostic target in nasopharyngeal carcinoma that promotes metastasis. Cancer Res 2011; 71:3162-72. [PMID: 21289131 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-3557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is known for its high-metastatic potential. Here we report the identification of the proteoglycan serglycin as a functionally significant regulator of metastasis in this setting. Comparative genomic expression profiling of NPC cell line clones with high- and low-metastatic potential revealed the serglycin gene (SRGN) as one of the most upregulated genes in highly metastatic cells. RNAi-mediated inhibition of serglycin expression blocked serglycin secretion and the invasive motility of highly metastatic cells, reducing metastatic capacity in vivo. Conversely, serglycin overexpression in poorly metastatic cells increased their motile behavior and metastatic capacity in vivo. Growth rate was not influenced by serglycin in either highly or poorly metastatic cells. Secreted but not bacterial recombinant serglycin promoted motile behavior, suggesting a critical role for glycosylation in serglycin activity. Serglycin inhibition was associated with reduced expression of vimentin but not other epithelial-mesenchymal transition proteins. In clinical specimens, serglycin expression was elevated significantly in liver metastases from NPC relative to primary NPC tumors. We evaluated the prognostic value of serglycin by immunohistochemical staining of tissue microarrays from 263 NPC patients followed by multivariate analyses. High serglycin expression in primary NPC was found to be an unfavorable independent indicator of distant metastasis-free and disease-free survival. Our findings establish that glycosylated serglycin regulates NPC metastasis via autocrine and paracrine routes, and that it serves as an independent prognostic indicator of metastasis-free survival and disease-free survival in NPC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Departments of Pathology and Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is the most abundant serine protease in killer cell cytotoxic granules. GzmA activates a novel programed cell death pathway that begins in the mitochondrion, where cleavage of NDUFS3 in electron transport complex I disrupts mitochondrial metabolism and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS drives the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex into the nucleus, where it activates single-stranded DNA damage. GzmA also targets other important nuclear proteins for degradation, including histones, the lamins that maintain the nuclear envelope, and several key DNA damage repair proteins (Ku70, PARP-1). Cells that are resistant to the caspases or GzmB by overexpressing bcl-2 family anti-apoptotic proteins or caspase or GzmB protease inhibitors are sensitive to GzmA. By activating multiple cell death pathways, killer cells provide better protection against a variety of intracellular pathogens and tumors. GzmA also has proinflammatory activity; it activates pro-interleukin-1beta and may also have other proinflammatory effects that remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy Lieberman
- Immune Disease Institute and Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Ramakrishnan R, Assudani D, Nagaraj S, Hunter T, Cho HI, Antonia S, Altiok S, Celis E, Gabrilovich DI. Chemotherapy enhances tumor cell susceptibility to CTL-mediated killing during cancer immunotherapy in mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:1111-24. [PMID: 20234093 DOI: 10.1172/jci40269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 355] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy faces a serious challenge because of low clinical efficacy. Recently, a number of clinical studies have reported the serendipitous finding of high rates of objective clinical response when cancer vaccines are combined with chemotherapy in patients with different types of cancers. However, the mechanism of this phenomenon remains unclear. Here, we tested in mice several cancer vaccines and an adoptive T cell transfer approach to cancer immunotherapy in combination with several widely used chemotherapeutic drugs. We found that chemotherapy made tumor cells more susceptible to the cytotoxic effect of CTLs through a dramatic perforin-independent increase in permeability to GrzB released by the CTLs. This effect was mediated via upregulation of mannose-6-phosphate receptors on the surface of tumor cells and was observed in mouse and human cells. When combined with chemotherapy, CTLs raised against specific antigens were able to induce apoptosis in neighboring tumor cells that did not express those antigens. These data suggest that small numbers of CTLs could mediate a potent antitumor effect when combined with chemotherapy. In addition, these results provide a strong rationale for combining these modalities for the treatment of patients with advanced cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupal Ramakrishnan
- H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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Dressel R, Nolte J, Elsner L, Novota P, Guan K, Streckfuss-Bömeke K, Hasenfuss G, Jaenisch R, Engel W. Pluripotent stem cells are highly susceptible targets for syngeneic, allogeneic, and xenogeneic natural killer cells. FASEB J 2010; 24:2164-77. [PMID: 20145206 DOI: 10.1096/fj.09-134957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Multipotent adult germ-line stem cells (maGSCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) could be used to generate autologous cells for therapeutic purposes, which are expected to be tolerated by the recipient. However, effects of the immune system on these cells have not been investigated. We have compared the susceptibility of maGSC lines to IL-2-activated natural killer (NK) cells with embryonic stem cell (ESC) lines, iPSCs, and F9 teratocarcinoma cells. The killing of pluripotent cell lines by syngeneic, allogeneic, and xenogeneic killer cells ranged between 48 and 265% in chromium release assays when compared to YAC-1 cells, which served as highly susceptible reference cells. With the exception of 2 maGSC lines, they expressed ligands for the activating NK receptor NKG2D that belong to the RAE-1 family, and killing could be inhibited by soluble NKG2D, demonstrating a functional role of these molecules. Furthermore, ligands of the activating receptor DNAM-1 were frequently expressed. The susceptibility to NK cells might constitute a common feature of pluripotent cells. It could result in rejection after transplantation, as suggested by a reduced teratoma growth after NK cell activation in vivo, but it might also offer a strategy to deplete contaminating pluripotent cells before grafting of differentiated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Dressel
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University of Göttingen, Humboldtallee 34, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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Perforin activates clathrin- and dynamin-dependent endocytosis, which is required for plasma membrane repair and delivery of granzyme B for granzyme-mediated apoptosis. Blood 2009; 115:1582-93. [PMID: 20038786 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-10-246116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells destroy target cells via the polarized exocytosis of lytic effector proteins, perforin and granzymes, into the immunologic synapse. How these molecules enter target cells is not fully understood. It is debated whether granzymes enter via perforin pores formed at the plasma membrane or whether perforin and granzymes are first endocytosed and granzymes are then released from endosomes into the cytoplasm. We previously showed that perforin disruption of the plasma membrane induces a transient Ca(2+) flux into the target cell that triggers a wounded membrane repair response in which lysosomes and endosomes donate their membranes to reseal the damaged membrane. Here we show that perforin activates clathrin- and dynamin-dependent endocytosis, which removes perforin and granzymes from the plasma membrane to early endosomes, preserving outer membrane integrity. Inhibiting clathrin- or dynamin-dependent endocytosis shifts death by perforin and granzyme B from apoptosis to necrosis. Thus by activating endocytosis to preserve membrane integrity, perforin facilitates granzyme uptake and avoids the proinflammatory necrotic death of a membrane-damaged cell.
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Bird PI, Trapani JA, Villadangos JA. Endolysosomal proteases and their inhibitors in immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:871-82. [PMID: 19935806 DOI: 10.1038/nri2671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The cellular endolysosomal compartment is dynamic, complex and incompletely understood. Its organelles and constituents vary between different cell types, but endolysosomal proteases are key components of this compartment in all cells. In immune cells, these proteases function in pathogen recognition and elimination, signal processing and cell homeostasis, and they are regulated by dedicated inhibitors. Pathogens can produce analogous proteases to subvert the host immune response. The balance in activity between a protease and its inhibitor can tune the immune response or cause damage as a result of mislocalized proteolysis. In this Review, we highlight recent developments in this area and emphasize the importance of studying the role of endolysosomal proteases, and their natural inhibitors, in the initiation and regulation of immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip I Bird
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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18
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Dressel R, Guan K, Nolte J, Elsner L, Monecke S, Nayernia K, Hasenfuss G, Engel W. Multipotent adult germ-line stem cells, like other pluripotent stem cells, can be killed by cytotoxic T lymphocytes despite low expression of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Biol Direct 2009; 4:31. [PMID: 19715575 PMCID: PMC2745366 DOI: 10.1186/1745-6150-4-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2009] [Accepted: 08/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Multipotent adult germ-line stem cells (maGSCs) represent a new pluripotent cell type that can be derived without genetic manipulation from spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) present in adult testis. Similarly to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), they could provide a source of cellular grafts for new transplantation therapies of a broad variety of diseases. To test whether these stem cells can be rejected by the recipients, we have analyzed whether maGSCs and iPSCs can become targets for cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) or whether they are protected, as previously proposed for embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Results We have observed that maGSCs can be maintained in prolonged culture with or without leukemia inhibitory factor and/or feeder cells and still retain the capacity to form teratomas in immunodeficient recipients. They were, however, rejected in immunocompetent allogeneic recipients, and the immune response controlled teratoma growth. We analyzed the susceptibility of three maGSC lines to CTL in comparison to ESCs, iPSCs, and F9 teratocarcinoma cells. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules were not detectable by flow cytometry on these stem cell lines, apart from low levels on one maGSC line (maGSC Stra8 SSC5). However, using a quantitative real time PCR analysis H2K and B2m transcripts were detected in all pluripotent stem cell lines. All pluripotent stem cell lines were killed in a peptide-dependent manner by activated CTLs derived from T cell receptor transgenic OT-I mice after pulsing of the targets with the SIINFEKL peptide. Conclusion Pluripotent stem cells, including maGSCs, ESCs, and iPSCs can become targets for CTLs, even if the expression level of MHC class I molecules is below the detection limit of flow cytometry. Thus they are not protected against CTL-mediated cytotoxicity. Therefore, pluripotent cells might be rejected after transplantation by this mechanism if specific antigens are presented and if specific activated CTLs are present. Our results show that the adaptive immune system has in principle the capacity to kill pluripotent and teratoma forming stem cells. This finding might help to develop new strategies to increase the safety of future transplantations of in vitro differentiated cells by exploiting a selective immune response against contaminating undifferentiated cells. Reviewers This article was reviewed by Bhagirath Singh, Etienne Joly and Lutz Walter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Dressel
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University of Göttingen, Heinrich-Düker-Weg 12, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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Abstract
The cytotoxic granzyme B (GrB)/perforin pathway has been traditionally viewed as a primary mechanism that is used by cytotoxic lymphocytes to eliminate allogeneic, virally infected and/or transformed cells. Although originally proposed to have intracellular and extracellular functions, upon the discovery that perforin, in combination with GrB, could induce apoptosis, other potential functions for this protease were, for the most part, disregarded. As there are 5 granzymes in humans and 11 granzymes in mice, many studies used perforin knockout mice as an initial screen to evaluate the role of granzymes in disease. However, in recent years, emerging clinical and biochemical evidence has shown that the latter approach may have overlooked a critical perforin-independent, pathogenic role for these proteases in disease. This review focuses on GrB, the most characterized of the granzyme family, in disease. Long known to be a pro-apoptotic protease expressed by cytotoxic lymphocytes and natural killer cells, it is now accepted that GrB can be expressed in other cell types of immune and nonimmune origin. To the latter, an emerging immune-independent role for GrB has been forwarded due to recent discoveries that GrB may be expressed in nonimmune cells such as smooth muscle cells, keratinocytes, and chondrocytes in certain disease states. Given that GrB retains its activity in the blood, can cleave extracellular matrix, and its levels are often elevated in chronic inflammatory diseases, this protease may be an important contributor to certain pathologies. The implications of sustained elevations of intracellular and extracellular GrB in chronic vascular, dermatological, and neurological diseases, among others, are developing. This review examines, for the first time, the multiple roles of GrB in disease pathogenesis.
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Granzyme B delivery via perforin is restricted by size, but not by heparan sulfate-dependent endocytosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:13799-804. [PMID: 18772390 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0801724105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
How granzymes gain entry into the cytosol of target cells during killer cell attack has been the subject of several studies in the past, but the effective delivery mechanism during target cell encounter has not been clarified. Here we show that granzyme B (GzmB) mutants lacking binding to negatively charged, essentially heparan-sulfate-containing membrane receptors are poorly endocytosed yet are delivered to the cytosol with efficacy similar to that of WT GzmB. In a cell-based system GzmB-deficient natural killer cells provided perforin (pfn) by natural polarized secretion and synergized with externally added GzmB. Whereas receptor (heparan sulfate)-dependent endocytosis was dispensable, delivery of larger cargo like that of GzmB fusion proteins and GzmB-antibody complexes was restricted by their size. Our data support the model in which granzymes are primarily translocated through repairable membrane pores of finite size and not by the disruption of endocytosed vesicles. We conclude that structurally related translocators, i.e., perforin and cholesterol-dependent cytolysins, deliver deathly cargo across host cell membranes in a similar manner.
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The tumorigenicity of mouse embryonic stem cells and in vitro differentiated neuronal cells is controlled by the recipients' immune response. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2622. [PMID: 18612432 PMCID: PMC2440803 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Embryonic stem (ES) cells have the potential to differentiate into all cell types and are considered as a valuable source of cells for transplantation therapies. A critical issue, however, is the risk of teratoma formation after transplantation. The effect of the immune response on the tumorigenicity of transplanted cells is poorly understood. We have systematically compared the tumorigenicity of mouse ES cells and in vitro differentiated neuronal cells in various recipients. Subcutaneous injection of 1×106 ES or differentiated cells into syngeneic or allogeneic immunodeficient mice resulted in teratomas in about 95% of the recipients. Both cell types did not give rise to tumors in immunocompetent allogeneic mice or xenogeneic rats. However, in 61% of cyclosporine A-treated rats teratomas developed after injection of differentiated cells. Undifferentiated ES cells did not give rise to tumors in these rats. ES cells turned out to be highly susceptible to killing by rat natural killer (NK) cells due to the expression of ligands of the activating NK receptor NKG2D on ES cells. These ligands were down-regulated on differentiated cells. The activity of NK cells which is not suppressed by cyclosporine A might contribute to the prevention of teratomas after injection of ES cells but not after inoculation of differentiated cells. These findings clearly point to the importance of the immune response in this process. Interestingly, the differentiated cells must contain a tumorigenic cell population that is not present among ES cells and which might be resistant to NK cell-mediated killing.
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Beseničar MP, Metkar S, Wang B, Froelich CJ, Anderluh G. Granzyme B translocates across the lipid membrane only in the presence of lytic agents. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 371:391-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.04.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 445] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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24
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Hallermalm K, Seki K, De Geer A, Motyka B, Bleackley RC, Jager MJ, Froelich CJ, Kiessling R, Levitsky V, Levitskaya J. Modulation of the Tumor Cell Phenotype by IFN-γ Results in Resistance of Uveal Melanoma Cells to Granule-Mediated Lysis by Cytotoxic Lymphocytes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:3766-74. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.6.3766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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25
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26
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Lettau M, Schmidt H, Kabelitz D, Janssen O. Secretory lysosomes and their cargo in T and NK cells. Immunol Lett 2006; 108:10-9. [PMID: 17097742 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2006.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2006] [Accepted: 10/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Secretory lysosomes are specialized organelles that combine catabolic functions of conventional lysosomes with an inducible secretory potential. They are present in various hematopoietic cell types commonly characterized by the need for rapid mobilization and secretion of effector proteins. As an example, the cytotoxic effector function of T cells and natural killer cells strictly depends on the activation-dependent mobilization of such vesicles to the cytotoxic immunological synapse. This review focuses on some molecules that have been identified as cargo of secretory lysosomes and which play a major role in effector function of CTL and NK cells. We also briefly point to the fact that the dysregulation of formation and transport of secretory vesicles is causative for severe immunodeficiencies and autoimmunity observed in patients and also in mice that have been used as representative model systems to analyze the pathophysiological relevance of secretory vesicles in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Lettau
- Institute of Immunology, Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel, Michaelisstr. 5, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
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27
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NK cell-based immunotherapies against tumors. Open Med (Wars) 2006. [DOI: 10.2478/s11536-006-0023-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractNatural killer (NK) cells provide the first line of defence against pathogens and tumors. Their activation status is regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and by ligands that either target inhibitory or activating cell surface receptors belonging to the immunoglobulin-like, C-type lectin or natural cytotoxicity receptor families. Apart from non-classical HLA-E, membrane-bound heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) has been identified as a tumor-specific recognition structure for NK cells expressing high amounts of the C-type lectin receptor CD94, acting as one component of an activating heterodimeric receptor complex. Full-length Hsp70 protein (Hsp70) or the 14-mer Hsp70 peptide T-K-D-N-N-L-L-G-R-F-E-L-S-G (TKD) in combination with pro-inflammatory cytokines enhances the cytolytic activity of NK cells towards Hsp70 membrane-positive tumors. Based on these findings cytokine/TKD-activated NK cells were adoptively transferred in tumor patients. These findings were compared to results of clinical trials using cytokine-activated NK cells.
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Estella E, McKenzie MD, Catterall T, Sutton VR, Bird PI, Trapani JA, Kay TW, Thomas HE. Granzyme B-mediated death of pancreatic beta-cells requires the proapoptotic BH3-only molecule bid. Diabetes 2006; 55:2212-9. [PMID: 16873683 DOI: 10.2337/db06-0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Perforin-deficient NOD mice are protected from diabetes, suggesting that cytotoxic granule contents of CD8(+) T-cells have a significant role in killing beta-cells. Despite this, cytotoxic granule effects on human or mouse pancreatic islets have not been reported. We tested the susceptibility of human and mouse islet cells to purified recombinant perforin and granzyme B and measured apoptotic death using a number of assays. Perforin and granzyme B impaired insulin secretion from islet cells, and this was accompanied by cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and DNA fragmentation. Granzyme B-mediated apoptotic changes only occurred in the presence of perforin. When compared with hemopoietic cells, traditionally used as targets to measure cytotoxic T-cell function in vitro, islet cells were relatively resistant to perforin and granzyme B. Inhibition of caspases prevented DNA fragmentation but not cytochrome c release, indicating that mitochondrial disruption due to granzyme B is independent of caspase activation. Consistent with this, islet cells from mice deficient in the BH3-only protein Bid were resistant to cytochrome c release and were protected from apoptosis after exposure to perforin/granzyme B. Our data suggest that Bid cleavage by granzyme B precedes mitochondrial disruption and apoptosis in pancreatic islets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene Estella
- St. Vincent's Institute, 41 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Victoria, 3065, Australia
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29
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Giesübel U, Dälken B, Mahmud H, Wels W. Cell binding, internalization and cytotoxic activity of human granzyme B expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris. Biochem J 2006; 394:563-73. [PMID: 16336214 PMCID: PMC1383706 DOI: 10.1042/bj20050687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme B (GrB) is an apoptosis-inducing protease of cytotoxic lymphocytes. We have investigated intracellular and extracellular effects of human GrB using recombinant protein expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris. GrB was rapidly taken up by HeLa cells, and accumulated in vesicular structures in the cytoplasm. There it remained inactive and could not be liberated by the endosomolytic reagent chloroquine, indicating that the vesicular structures are distinct from late endosomes and lysosomes. Direct cytosolic delivery of GrB with a cationic lipid-based transduction reagent, however, resulted in the induction of apoptotic cell death. After prolonged incubation at or above 125 nM, GrB on its own induced pronounced morphological changes in human tumour cells, leading to partial loss of contact to the culture support. This extracellular effect was dependent on enzymatic activity and could be reversed by removal of the protein, suggesting GrB-dependent cleavage of extracellular matrix components as the underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Giesübel
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42–44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Benjamin Dälken
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42–44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Hayat Mahmud
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42–44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Winfried S. Wels
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42–44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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Veugelers K, Motyka B, Goping IS, Shostak I, Sawchuk T, Bleackley RC. Granule-mediated killing by granzyme B and perforin requires a mannose 6-phosphate receptor and is augmented by cell surface heparan sulfate. Mol Biol Cell 2005; 17:623-33. [PMID: 16280358 PMCID: PMC1356574 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e05-07-0631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
During granule-mediated killing by cytotoxic T lymphocytes or natural killer cells, the serine protease granzyme B enters the target cell by endocytosis and induces apoptosis. Previous studies suggested a role for the mannose 6-phosphate receptor, but further experiments with purified granzyme B indicated this was not essential. Additionally, it is now clear that grB is exocytosed from killer cells in a high-molecular-weight complex with the proteoglycan serglycin. Here granzyme B was delivered as a purified monomer, or in complex with either glycosaminoglycans or serglycin, and killing was evaluated. When granzyme B was a monomer, soluble mannose 6-phosphate had a limited impact, whereas apoptosis induced by the complexed grB was effectively inhibited by mannose 6-phosphate. Most importantly, when granzyme B and perforin were delivered together from granules, inhibition by mannose 6-phosphate was also observed. In pulldown assays mediated by the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor, granzyme B bound to the receptor more intensely in the presence of immobilized heparan sulfate. We therefore propose the model that under physiological conditions serglycin-bound granzyme B is critically endocytosed by a mannose 6-phosphate receptor, and receptor binding is enhanced by cell surface heparan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirstin Veugelers
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H7
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31
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Dälken B, Giesübel U, Knauer SK, Wels WS. Targeted induction of apoptosis by chimeric granzyme B fusion proteins carrying antibody and growth factor domains for cell recognition. Cell Death Differ 2005; 13:576-85. [PMID: 16179940 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The serine protease granzyme B (GrB) of cytotoxic lymphocytes efficiently induces apoptosis by direct activation of caspases and cleavage of central caspase substrates. We employed human GrB as an effector function in chimeric fusion proteins that also contain the EGFR ligand TGFalpha or an ErbB2-specific single-chain antibody fragment (scFv) for selective targeting to tumor cells. GrB-TGFalpha (GrB-T) and GrB-scFv(FRP5) (GrB-5) molecules expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris were bifunctional, cleaving synthetic and natural GrB substrates, and binding specifically to cells expressing EGFR or ErbB2 target receptors. Upon cell binding the chimeric molecules were internalized into intracellular vesicles, but could be released into the cytosol by the endosomolytic reagent chloroquine. Treatment with picomolar to nanomolar concentrations of GrB-5 and GrB-T resulted in selective and rapid tumor cell killing, accompanied by clear signs of apoptosis such as chromatin condensation, membrane blebbing, formation of apoptotic bodies and activation of endogenous initiator and effector caspases.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dälken
- Chemotherapeutisches Forschungsinstitut Georg-Speyer-Haus, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42-44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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Bird CH, Sun J, Ung K, Karambalis D, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Bird PI. Cationic sites on granzyme B contribute to cytotoxicity by promoting its uptake into target cells. Mol Cell Biol 2005; 25:7854-67. [PMID: 16107729 PMCID: PMC1190293 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.25.17.7854-7867.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzyme B (GrB) is a key effector of cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated cell death. It is delivered to target cells bound to the proteoglycan serglycin, but how it crosses the plasma membrane and accesses substrates in the cytoplasm is poorly understood. Here we identify two cationic sequences on GrB that facilitate its binding and uptake. Mutation of cationic sequence 1 (cs1) prevents accumulation of GrB in a distinctive intracellular compartment and reduces cytotoxicity 20-fold. Mutation of cs2 reduces accumulation in this intracellular compartment and cytotoxicity two- to threefold. We also show that GrB-mediated cytotoxicity is abrogated by heparin and that target cells deficient in cell surface sulfate or glycosaminoglycans resist GrB. However, heparin does not completely prevent GrB internalization and chondroitin 4-sulfate does not inhibit cytotoxicity, suggesting that glycosaminoglycans are not essential GrB receptors. We propose that GrB enters cells by nonselective adsorptive pinocytosis, exchanging from chondroitin sulfate on serglycin to anionic components of the cell surface. In this electrostatic "exchange-adsorption" model, cs1 and cs2 participate in binding of GrB to the cell surface, thereby promoting its uptake and eventual release into the cytoplasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherina H Bird
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Raja SM, Metkar SS, Höning S, Wang B, Russin WA, Pipalia NH, Menaa C, Belting M, Cao X, Dressel R, Froelich CJ. A Novel Mechanism for Protein Delivery. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:20752-61. [PMID: 15788411 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501181200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular interaction of secreted granzyme B-serglycin complexes with target cells remains undefined. Targets exposed to double-labeled granzyme B-serglycin complexes show solely the uptake of granzyme B. An in vitro model demonstrates the exchange of the granzyme from serglycin to immobilized, sulfated glycosaminoglycans. Using a combination of cell binding and internalization assays, granzyme B was found to exchange to sulfated glycosaminoglycans and, depending on the cell type, to higher affinity sites. Apoptosis induced by purified granzyme B and cytotoxic T-cells was diminished in targets with reduced cell surface glycosaminoglycan content. A mechanism of delivery is proposed entailing electrostatic transfer of granzyme B from serglycin to cell surface proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srikumar M Raja
- Department of Medicine, Evanston Northwestern Healthcare Research Institute, Evanston, Illinois 60201, USA.
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Shi L, Keefe D, Durand E, Feng H, Zhang D, Lieberman J. Granzyme B Binds to Target Cells Mostly by Charge and Must Be Added at the Same Time as Perforin to Trigger Apoptosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:5456-61. [PMID: 15843543 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.9.5456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Perforin (PFN) delivery of granzymes (Gzm) into the target cell at the immunological synapse is the major pathway for inducing apoptosis of virus-infected cells and tumors. A validated model for how PFN delivers Gzm into the cytosol is still lacking. PFN was originally thought to work by forming pores in the target cell plasma membrane that allow Gzm entry. This model was questioned when it was shown that GzmB is endocytosed without PFN. Moreover, apoptosis could be triggered by adding PFN to washed cells that have previously endocytosed GzmB. In this study, we show that GzmB binds to the plasma membrane mostly via nonspecific charge interactions. Washing in saline does not remove bound Gzm. However, if externally bound GzmB is completely removed, subsequent addition of PFN does not release previously endocytosed GzmB and does not trigger apoptosis. Therefore, PFN must be coendocytosed with GzmB to deliver it into the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianfa Shi
- CBR Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Kurschus FC, Bruno R, Fellows E, Falk CS, Jenne DE. Membrane receptors are not required to deliver granzyme B during killer cell attack. Blood 2005; 105:2049-58. [PMID: 15528317 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-06-2180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractGranzyme B (GzmB), a serine protease of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, induces apoptosis by caspase activation after crossing the plasma membrane of target cells. The mechanism of this translocation during killer cell attack, however, is not understood. Killer cells release GzmB and the membrane-disturbing perforin at the contact site after target recognition. Receptor-mediated import of glycosylated GzmB and release from endosomes were suggested, but the role of the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor was recently refuted. Using recombinant nonglycosylated GzmB, we observed binding of GzmB to cellular membranes in a cell type–dependent manner. The basis and functional impact of surface binding were clarified. GzmB binding was correlated with the surface density of heparan sulfate chains, was eliminated on treatment of target cells with heparinase III or sodium chlorate, and was completely blocked by an excess of catalytically inactive GzmB or GzmK. Although heparan sulfate–bound GzmB was taken up rapidly into intracellular lysosomal compartments, neither of the treatments had an inhibitory influence on apoptosis induced by externally added streptolysin O and GzmB or by natural killer cells. We conclude that membrane receptors for GzmB on target cells are not crucial for killer cell–mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian C Kurschus
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Max-Planck-Institute of Neurobiology, Am Klopferspitz 18, D-82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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Pardo J, Bosque A, Brehm R, Wallich R, Naval J, Müllbacher A, Anel A, Simon MM. Apoptotic pathways are selectively activated by granzyme A and/or granzyme B in CTL-mediated target cell lysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 167:457-68. [PMID: 15534000 PMCID: PMC2172484 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200406115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Purified cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) proteases granzyme (gzm)A and gzmB with sublytic dose of perforin (perf) initiate distinct proapoptotic pathways. Their physiological relevance in CTL-mediated target cell apoptosis is elusive. Using ex vivo virus-immune CD8(+) T cells from mice deficient in perf, gzmA and/or gzmB, and the Fas-resistant EL4.F15 tumor target cell, we show that (a) CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice similarly induced early proapoptotic features, such as phosphatidyl serine (PS) exposure on plasma membrane, Delta Psi(m) loss, and reactive oxygen radical generation, though with distinct kinetics; (b) CTL from gzmA(-/-) but not from gzmB(-/-) mice activate caspase 3 and 9; (c) PS exposure induced by CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice is prevented, respectively, by caspase inhibitors or by reactive oxygen scavengers without interfering with target cell death; and (d) all gzm-induced apoptotic features analyzed depend critically on perf. Thus, perf is the principal regulator in CTL-mediated and gzm-facilitated intracellular processes. The ability of gzmA and gzmB to induce multiple independent cell death pathways may be the hosts response to circumvent evasion strategies of pathogens and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julián Pardo
- Departmento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, E-50009 Zaragoza, Spain
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Tardy C, Autefage H, Garcia V, Levade T, Andrieu-Abadie N. Mannose 6-Phosphorylated Proteins Are Required for Tumor Necrosis Factor-induced Apoptosis. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:52914-23. [PMID: 15452110 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m408261200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas caspases are essential components in apoptosis, other proteases seem to be involved in programmed cell death. This study investigated the role of lysosomal mannose 6-phosphorylated proteins in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced apoptosis. We report that fibroblasts isolated from patients affected with inclusion-cell disease (ICD), having a deficient activity of almost all lysosomal hydrolases, are resistant to the toxic effect of TNF. These mutant cells exhibited a defect in TNF-induced caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and release of cytochrome c. In contrast, TNF-induced p42/p44 MAPK activation and CD54 expression remained unaltered. Human ICD lymphoblasts and fibroblasts derived from mice nullizygous for Igf2 and the two mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) receptors, Mpr300 and Mpr46, which develop an ICD-like phenotype, were also resistant to CD95 ligand and TNF, respectively. Moreover, correction of the lysosomal enzyme defect of ICD fibroblasts, using a medium enriched in M6P-containing proteins, enabled restoration of sensitivity to TNF. This effect was blocked by exogenous M6P but not by cathepsin B or L inhibitors. Altogether, these findings suggest that some M6P-bearing glycoproteins modulate the susceptibility to TNF-induced apoptosis. As a matter of fact, exogenous tripeptidyl peptidase 1, a lysosomal carboxypeptidase, could sensitize ICD fibroblasts to TNF. These observations highlight the hitherto unrecognized role of some mannose 6-phosphorylated proteins such as tripeptidyl peptidase 1 in the apoptotic cascade triggered by TNF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudine Tardy
- INSERM U466, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rangueil, 1 Avenue Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, 31059 Toulouse cedex 9, France
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Choy JC, Hung VHY, Hunter AL, Cheung PK, Motyka B, Goping IS, Sawchuk T, Bleackley RC, Podor TJ, McManus BM, Granville DJ. Granzyme B Induces Smooth Muscle Cell Apoptosis in the Absence of Perforin. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24:2245-50. [PMID: 15472125 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000147162.51930.b7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE T cell-induced cytotoxicity, of which granzyme B is a key mediator, is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory vascular diseases. In this report, we investigate the mechanism of granzyme B-induced smooth muscle cell (SMC) death. METHODS AND RESULTS The addition of purified granzyme B alone to cultured SMCs caused a significant reduction in cell viability. Chromatin condensation, phosphatidylserine externalization, and membrane blebbing were observed, indicating that the mechanism of granzyme B-induced SMC death was through apoptosis. Activated splenocytes from perforin-knockout mice induced SMC death through a granzyme B-mediated pathway. Inhibition of the proteolytic activities of caspases and granzyme B prevented granzyme B-induced SMC death, whereas attenuation of granzyme B internalization with mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) did not. Further, granzyme B induced the cleavage of several SMC extracellular proteins, including fibronectin, and reduced focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that granzyme B can induce apoptosis of SMCs in the absence of perforin by cleaving extracellular proteins, such as fibronectin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan C Choy
- The James Hogg iCAPTURE Centre for Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Dressel R, von Figura K, Günther E. Unimpaired Allorejection of Cells Deficient for the Mannose 6-Phosphate Receptors Mpr300 and Mpr46. Transplantation 2004; 78:758-61. [PMID: 15371683 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000131815.43399.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) play an important role in the rejection of allogeneic cells and organs. CTL secrete granzymes and perforin as cytotoxic effector molecules. The mannose 6-phosphate receptor (Mpr)300 has been reported to function as receptor for granzyme B on target cells and to be essential for the rejection of allogeneic cells in vivo. Using mouse embryonal fibroblasts from Mpr300 and Mpr46 knockout mice, we show that both Mpr 300 and Mpr46 are dispensable on target cells for lysis and apoptosis mediated by alloreactive CTL in vitro and for allorejection in vivo. In agreement with a postulated function of Mpr300 as a tumor suppressor gene, deficiency of Mpr300 appears to promote cellular proliferation and tumorigenicity but not resistance to allorejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Dressel
- Division of Immunogenetics, University of Göttingen, Heirich-Duker-Weg 12, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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Waterhouse NJ, Clarke CJP, Sedelies KA, Teng MW, Trapani JA. Cytotoxic lymphocytes; instigators of dramatic target cell death. Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 68:1033-40. [PMID: 15313398 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2004] [Accepted: 05/27/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most mammalian cells are constantly threatened by viral infection and oncogenic transformation. To maintain healthy function of organs and tissues it is critical that afflicted cells are efficiently detected and removed. Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CL) are chiefly responsible for efficiently seeking out and eliminating damaged or infected cells. It is known that CLs must specifically recognize and bind to their targets, but the molecular events that occur within the target cell that lead to its death are still poorly understood. The two main processes initiated by CLs to induce target cell death are mediated by ligation of surface receptors or release of toxic proteins from secretory granules (granule exocytosis) of the CL. Here we review some of the key findings that have defined our knowledge of the granule exocytosis-mediated pathways to CL-mediated killing and discuss recent insights that challenge conventional views in the important area of CL effector function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel J Waterhouse
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Locked Bag 1, A'Beckett St, Melbourne, Vic. 8006, Australia.
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