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Anju T, Rai NKSR, Kumar A. Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.: a multipurpose plant with multiple uses in traditional ethnic culinary and ethnomedicinal preparations. JOURNAL OF ETHNIC FOODS 2022; 9:10. [PMCID: PMC8900104 DOI: 10.1186/s42779-022-00125-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Various plants form the basis of multiple traditional ethnic cuisines and ethnomedicinal practices across the globe. The ethnic cuisines cater to the nutritional, dietary and medicinal requirements of the tribal and rural communities even today. Using literature from various scholarly databases, this study was conducted to consolidate a comprehensive review on the use of Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. in various traditional ethnic cuisines and ethnomedicinal preparations across the globe. The survey shows that it is used in multiple ethnic cuisines and is variously known in different countries and among the communities. Further, it possesses multiple nutritional and ethnomedicinal properties. Considering its importance in ethnic foods and ethnomedicinal preparations, it is important to investigate the nutritional composition, phytochemical constitution and pharmacological basis of ethnomedicinal uses. Therefore, we further compiled this information and found that it is a rich source of both micro- and macronutrients and packed with several bioactive compounds. Survey of pharmacological studies on its traditional medicinal uses supports its ethnomedicinal properties. Despite its importance in traditional food and ethnomedicinal systems, it remains underexplored. Limited information on the toxicity of its various extracts shows that further studies should be conducted to understand its safety aspects. Further clinical studies to prospect possible drug candidates from it should be attempted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thattantavide Anju
- Department of Plant Science, School of Biological Sciences, Central University of Kerala, Periye, Kasaragod, Kerala 671316 India
| | - Nishmitha Kumari S. R. Rai
- Department of Plant Science, School of Biological Sciences, Central University of Kerala, Periye, Kasaragod, Kerala 671316 India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Plant Science, School of Biological Sciences, Central University of Kerala, Periye, Kasaragod, Kerala 671316 India
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Seyed MA, Ayesha S. Marine-derived pipeline anticancer natural products: a review of their pharmacotherapeutic potential and molecular mechanisms. FUTURE JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1186/s43094-021-00350-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Cancer is a complex and most widespread disease and its prevalence is increasing worldwide, more in countries that are witnessing urbanization and rapid industrialization changes. Although tremendous progress has been made, the interest in targeting cancer has grown rapidly every year. This review underscores the importance of preventive and therapeutic strategies.
Main text
Natural products (NPs) from various sources including plants have always played a crucial role in cancer treatment. In this growing list, numerous unique secondary metabolites from marine sources have added and gaining attention and became potential players in drug discovery and development for various biomedical applications. Many NPs found in nature that normally contain both pharmacological and biological activity employed in pharmaceutical industry predominantly in anticancer pharmaceuticals because of their enormous range of structure entities with unique functional groups that attract and inspire for the creation of several new drug leads through synthetic chemistry. Although terrestrial medicinal plants have been the focus for the development of NPs, however, in the last three decades, marine origins that include invertebrates, plants, algae, and bacteria have unearthed numerous novel pharmaceutical compounds, generally referred as marine NPs and are evolving continuously as discipline in the molecular targeted drug discovery with the inclusion of advanced screening tools which revolutionized and became the component of antitumor modern research.
Conclusions
This comprehensive review summarizes some important and interesting pipeline marine NPs such as Salinosporamide A, Dolastatin derivatives, Aplidine/plitidepsin (Aplidin®) and Coibamide A, their anticancer properties and describes their mechanisms of action (MoA) with their efficacy and clinical potential as they have attracted interest for potential use in the treatment of various types of cancers.
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Abdullah N, Tamimi Y, Dobretsov S, Balushi NA, Alshekaili J, Al Balushi H, Al Kindi M, Hassan SI, Bahlani SA, Tsang BK, Burney IA. Malformin-A1 (MA1) Sensitizes Chemoresistant Ovarian Cancer Cells to Cisplatin-Induced Apoptosis. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123624. [PMID: 34199287 PMCID: PMC8231817 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
High-grade epithelial ovarian cancer is a fatal disease in women frequently associated with drug resistance and poor outcomes. We previously demonstrated that a marine-derived compound MalforminA1 (MA1) was cytotoxic for the breast cancer cell line MCF-7. In this study, we aimed to examine the effect of MA1 on human ovarian cancer cells. The potential cytotoxicity of MA1was tested on cisplatin-sensitive (A2780S) and cisplatin-resistant (A2780CP) ovarian cancer cell lines using AlamarBlue assay, Hoechst dye, flow cytometry, Western blot, and RT-qPCR. MA1 had higher cytotoxic activity on A2780S (IC50 = 0.23 µM) and A2780CP (IC50 = 0.34 µM) cell lines when compared to cisplatin (IC50 = 31.4 µM and 76.9 µM, respectively). Flow cytometry analysis confirmed the cytotoxic effect of MA1. The synergistic effect of the two drugs was obvious, since only 13% of A2780S and 7% of A2780CP cells remained alive after 24 h of treatment with both MA1 and cisplatin. Moreover, we examined the expression of bcl2, p53, caspase3/9 genes at RNA and protein levels using RT-qPCR and Western blot, respectively, to figure out the cell death mechanism induced by MA1. A significant down-regulation in bcl2 and p53 genes was observed in treated cells compared to non-treated cells (p < 0.05), suggesting that MA1 may not follow the canonical pathway to induce apoptosis in ovarian cancer cell lines. MalforminA1 showed promising anticancer activity by inducing cytotoxicity in cisplatin-sensitive and cisplatin-resistant cancer cell lines. Interestingly, a synergistic effect was observed when MA1 was combined with cisplatin, leading to it overcoming its resistance to cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Abdullah
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (N.A.); (N.A.B.)
| | - Yahya Tamimi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (N.A.); (N.A.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Sergey Dobretsov
- Department of Marine Science & Fisheries, College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman;
- Centre of Excellence in Marine Biotechnology, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman
| | - Najwa Al Balushi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (N.A.); (N.A.B.)
| | - Jalila Alshekaili
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (J.A.); (H.A.B.); (M.A.K.)
| | - Hamed Al Balushi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (J.A.); (H.A.B.); (M.A.K.)
| | - Mahmood Al Kindi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman; (J.A.); (H.A.B.); (M.A.K.)
| | - Syed Imran Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman;
| | - Shadia Al Bahlani
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman;
| | - Benjamin K. Tsang
- Departments of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Cellular & Molecular Medicine and the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences and the Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, Chronic Disease Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada;
| | - Ikram A. Burney
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 50, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman;
- Panjwani Center for Molecular Diseases and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, Karachi University, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
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Lalitha L, Sales T, Prince.P.Clarance, P.Agastian, Kim YO, Mahmoud A, Mohamed SE, Tack J, Na S, Kim HJ. In-vitro phytopharmacological and anticancer activity of Loranthus Longiflorus Desv. Var. Falcatuskurz against the human lung cancer cells. JOURNAL OF KING SAUD UNIVERSITY - SCIENCE 2020; 32:1246-1253. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2019.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
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Kochmarov V, Marinov L, Kozuharova E, Hristova-Avakumova N, Hadjimitova V, Traykov T, Biljali S, Nuhiu N, Benbassat N, Momekov G. Exploration of collagenase, cyclooxigenases, angiogenesis and free radical processes as the putative pharmacological targets of Arum maculatum L. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2020.1722239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Kochmarov
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
- Panacea 2001 Ltd, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Lyubomir Marinov
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ekaterina Kozuharova
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Nadya Hristova-Avakumova
- Department of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Vera Hadjimitova
- Department of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Trayko Traykov
- Department of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Sefedin Biljali
- Clinical Center Skopje, University Clinic of Clinical Biochemistry, Skopje, North Macedonia
| | - Nexhibe Nuhiu
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Tetova, Tetova, North Macedonia
| | - Niko Benbassat
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Georgi Momekov
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
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Assessment of the cytotoxic effects of aporphine prototypes on head and neck cancer cells. Invest New Drugs 2019; 38:70-78. [PMID: 31102120 DOI: 10.1007/s10637-019-00784-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Among alkaloids, abundant secondary metabolites in plants, aporphines constitute a class of compounds with interesting biological activities, including anticancer effects. The present study evaluated the anticancer activities of 14 substances, including four aporphine derivatives acquired through the biomonitoring of (±)-apomorphine hydrochloride total synthesis from 2-phenethylamine and 3,4-dimethoxybenzaldehyde against head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Methods The cytotoxic effects of compounds against a panel of HNSCC cell lines were determined by PrestoBlue cell viability assay, while the genotoxicity of substances was evaluated by micronucleus test. Cell death was detected by flow cytometry (Annexin V/7AAD) and western blot analysis was used to detect the presence of cleaved Caspase-3 molecules. Results The aporphine and isoquinoline derivatives APO, C1, and A5 significantly reduced HNSCC cell viability and promoted DNA damages in these cells. Further, by activating the Caspase-3 pathway, these substances were able to induce apoptosis. Conclusion Our results revealed that APO, C1, and A5 exhibit cytotoxic effects in HNSCC cells. The mechanisms of action appear to be partly via the generation of DNA damages and apoptosis induction through Caspase-3 pathway activation. This study provides preclinical data that suggest a potential therapeutic role for APO, C1, and A5 against head and neck cancer cells.
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The effect of medicinal plants on multiple drug resistance through autophagy: A review of in vitro studies. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 852:244-253. [PMID: 30965056 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Multiple drug resistance (MDR) often occurs after prolonged chemotherapy, leading to refractory tumor and cancer recurrence. Autophagy as a primarily process during starvation or stress has a bipolar nature in cancer. It can cause MDR to become more difficult or make resistant cancer cells more susceptible to chemotherapeutic agents. A number of natural products have been introduced to drug discovery for many years. Some of these compounds have been shown to reverse drug resistance by different regulatory mechanisms. In this review, the focus is on the role of medicinal plants in the MDR phenomenon, primarily through the autophagy process.
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Dembitsky VM, Levitsky DO, Gloriozova TA, Poroikov VV. Acetylenic Aquatic Anticancer Agents and Related Compounds. Nat Prod Commun 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x0600100914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although acetylenes are common as components of terrestrial plants, it is only within the last 30 years that biologically active polyacetylenes having unusual structural features have been reported from aquatic organisms: cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, invertebrates, and other sources. Naturally occurring aquatic acetylenes are of particular interest since many of them display important biological activities and possess antitumor, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antifouling, antifungal, pesticidal, phototoxic, HIV inhibitory, and immuno-suppressive properties. There is no doubt that they are of great interest, especially for the medicinal and/or pharmaceutical industries. This review presents structures and describes cytotoxic and anticancer activities of more than 230 acetylenic metabolites isolated from aquatic organisms. With the computer program PASS some additional biological activities are also predicted, which point toward possible new applications of these compounds. This review emphasizes the role of aquatic acetylenic compounds as an important source of leads for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valery M Dembitsky
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 12065, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Dmitri O Levitsky
- CNRS UMR 6204, Biotechnologie, Biocatalyse et Biorégulation, Faculté des Sciences et des Techniques, Université de Nantes, P.O. Box 92208, 44322 Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Tatyana A Gloriozova
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow 119121, Russia
| | - Vladimir V Poroikov
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow 119121, Russia
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Numan M, Bashir S, Mumtaz R, Tayyab S, Rehman NU, Khan AL, Shinwari ZK, Al-Harrasi A. Therapeutic applications of bacterial pigments: a review of current status and future opportunities. 3 Biotech 2018; 8:207. [PMID: 29623249 PMCID: PMC5884752 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-018-1227-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-toxicity, biodegradability and non-carcinogenicity of the natural pigments, dyes and colorants make them an attractive source for human use. Bacterial pigments are colored metabolites secreted by bacteria under stress. The industrial uses of bacterial pigments have increased many folds because of several advantages over the synthetic pigments. Among natural resources, bacterial pigments are mostly preferred because of simple culturing and pigment extraction techniques, scaling up and being time economical. Generally, the bacterial pigments are safe for human use and therefore have a wide range of applications in pharmaceutical, textile, cosmetics and food industries. Therapeutic nature of the bacterial pigments is revealed because of their antimicrobial, anticancer, cytotoxic and remarkable antioxidant properties. Owing to the importance of bacterial pigments it was considered important to produce a comprehensive review of literature on the therapeutic and industrial potential of bacterial pigments. Extensive literature has been reviewed on the biomedical application of bacterial pigments while further opportunities and future challenges have been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Numan
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320 Pakistan
- UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products, University of Nizwa, Nizwa-616, Sultanate of Oman, Nizwa-616, Birkat Al Mauz, P.O Box 33, 616 Nizwa, Oman
| | - Samina Bashir
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320 Pakistan
| | - Roqayya Mumtaz
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320 Pakistan
| | - Sibgha Tayyab
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320 Pakistan
| | - Najeeb Ur Rehman
- UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products, University of Nizwa, Nizwa-616, Sultanate of Oman, Nizwa-616, Birkat Al Mauz, P.O Box 33, 616 Nizwa, Oman
| | - Abdul Latif Khan
- UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products, University of Nizwa, Nizwa-616, Sultanate of Oman, Nizwa-616, Birkat Al Mauz, P.O Box 33, 616 Nizwa, Oman
| | - Zabta Khan Shinwari
- Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320 Pakistan
- Qarshi University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products, University of Nizwa, Nizwa-616, Sultanate of Oman, Nizwa-616, Birkat Al Mauz, P.O Box 33, 616 Nizwa, Oman
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Alcoholic Extract of Eclipta alba Shows In Vitro Antioxidant and Anticancer Activity without Exhibiting Toxicological Effects. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2017; 2017:9094641. [PMID: 28250894 PMCID: PMC5307245 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9094641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
As per WHO estimates, 80% of people around the world use medicinal plants for the cure and prevention of various diseases including cancer owing to their easy availability and cost effectiveness. Eclipta alba has long been used in Ayurveda to treat liver diseases, eye ailments, and hair related disorders. The promising medicinal value of E. alba prompted us to study the antioxidant, nontoxic, and anticancer potential of its alcoholic extract. In the current study, we evaluated the in vitro cytotoxic and antioxidant effect of the alcoholic extract of Eclipta alba (AEEA) in multiple cancer cell lines along with control. We have also evaluated its effect on different in vivo toxicity parameters. Here, we found that AEEA was found to be most active in most of the cancer cell lines but it significantly induced apoptosis in human breast cancer cell lines by disrupting mitochondrial membrane potential and DNA damage. Moreover, AEEA treatment inhibited migration in both MCF 7 and MDA-MB-231 cells in a dose dependent manner. Further, AEEA possesses robust in vitro antioxidant activity along with high total phenolic and flavonoid contents. In summary, our results indicate that Eclipta alba has enormous potential in complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of cancer.
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Ahmed HM. Ethnopharmacobotanical study on the medicinal plants used by herbalists in Sulaymaniyah Province, Kurdistan, Iraq. JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE 2016; 12:8. [PMID: 26821541 PMCID: PMC4730727 DOI: 10.1186/s13002-016-0081-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medicinal plants still play an important role in the Kurdish community. Sulaymaniyah Province in South Kurdistan (Iraq) has a great diversity of plants, including medicinal plants, yet very few scattered ethnobotanical studies conducted in Kurdistan are available in the scientific literature. Thus the study of Kurdish ethnobotany may be crucial for understanding local medicinal plant uses and their relationships to surrounding areas. Therefore, the objective of this investigation was to document traditional medicinal plant uses among healers of southern Kurdistan. METHODS An ethnobotanical survey was conducted to document traditional knowledge on medicinal plants uses among traditional healers in the Province of Sulaymaniyah during 2014 and 2015. The data were collected by interviewing 45 traditional healers (36 males and 9 females between the ages of 25 and 80 years) who retain traditional knowledge on medicinal plants. Furthermore, the use value (UV) of taxa was determined and informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Further analysis was carried out to compare the field data with the Kurdish ethnobotanical literature. RESULTS The present study found a total of sixty-six plant species, belonging to sixty-three genera within thirty-four plant families, used to treat ninghty-nine different types of ailments and diseases. The most important family was Lamiaceae (7 species), followed by Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae (6 species each). The most frequently used parts were leaves (46 %), followed by flowers (15 %), and seeds (10 %). The most common preparation method was decoction (68 %), whereas few taxa were consumed as a vegetable (13 %) or ingested in powder form (10 %). The respiratory issues category had the highest ICF value (0.68), followed by inflammations and women's diseases (0.58 and 0.54, respectively). The highest UVs were recorded for the species Zingiber officinale (0.48), Matricaria chamomilla (0.37), Adiantum capillus-veneris (0.31), Thymus vulgaris (0.31) and Pimpinella anisum (0.31). A comparison with previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in Kurdistan (especially within the territory of present-day Turkey) and surrounding areas showed that several medicinal plant reports recorded in the current investigation are new to Kurdish ethnomedicine, and that they have possibly been influenced by other scholarly medical traditions. CONCLUSIONS The present study demonstrates that the area is rich in medicinal plant knowledge. The information reported by the traditional healers of this region is invaluable for further research in the field of cross-cultural ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiwa M Ahmed
- Department of Agricultural Extension, Bakrajo Agricultural Technical Institute, Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Kurdistan, Iraq.
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Oke-Altuntas F, Demirtas I, Tufekci AR, Koldas S, Gul F, Behcet L, Gecibesler HI. Inhibitory Effects of the Active Components Isolated from Satureja Boissieri
Hausskn. Ex Boiss. On Human Cervical Cancer Cell Line. J Food Biochem 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ibrahim Demirtas
- Department of Chemistry; Cankiri Karatekin University; 18100 Cankiri Turkey
| | - Ali Riza Tufekci
- Department of Chemistry; Cankiri Karatekin University; 18100 Cankiri Turkey
| | - Serkan Koldas
- Department of Chemistry; Cankiri Karatekin University; 18100 Cankiri Turkey
| | - Fatih Gul
- Department of Chemistry; Cankiri Karatekin University; 18100 Cankiri Turkey
| | - Lutfi Behcet
- Department of Biology; Bingöl University; 12000 Bingöl Turkey
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Taylor P, Colman L, Bajoon J. The search for plants with anticancer activity: pitfalls at the early stages. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2014; 158 Pt A:246-254. [PMID: 25446637 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/19/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition assays on tumour cells in vitro are commonly used to confirm the activity of extracts, fractions and compounds from plants reported to be antitumoural. The majority of assays report the IC50 (50% inhibitory concentration), whereas others distinguish between inhibition of cell proliferation (cytostasis) and cell death (cytotoxicity). Here, we offer some suggestions as to the different types of assay, the cell lines that may be used, control cells and drugs, as well as the interpretation of the results. Using both theoretical considerations and experimental data, we specifically question the frequent overinterpretation of reported results regarding the selectivity for cancer cells of the plant extract or compound under study, concluding that this "selectivity" is due to a quantitative difference in cell proliferation rates, rather than a qualitative difference between normal and tumour cells. Inhibition assays will always represent one of the first steps in the discovery of clinically valuable new drugs, but these assays do not allow us to conclude that we have found the "magic bullet".
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Affiliation(s)
- P Taylor
- Laboratorio de Patología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado 20632, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela.
| | - L Colman
- Laboratorio de Patología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado 20632, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela
| | - J Bajoon
- Laboratorio de Patología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Apartado 20632, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela
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Choi E, Kim G. Effect of Artemisia species on cellular proliferation and apoptosis in human breast cancer cells via estrogen receptor-related pathway. J TRADIT CHIN MED 2013; 33:658-63. [DOI: 10.1016/s0254-6272(14)60038-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Abstract
Polyketides are a very diverse family of natural products with an extremely broad range of biological activities and pharmacological properties, including antiproliferative, antibiotic, antifungal, or antiplasmodial activities, and in many cases specific targets are addressed at the molecular level. Their structures are characterized by diverse assemblies of methyl- and hydroxyl-bearing stereogenic centers enabling large numbers of stereochemical permutations, which are often embedded into macrolide rings. This complexity renders the stereochemical assignment and directed total synthesis challenging tasks. Within this review, we will detail practicable approaches for the stereochemical determination of diverse complex polyketides of myxobacterial origin by using computational and NMR methods in combination with novel procedures based on bioinformatics. Furthermore, we have developed efficient preparative strategies for the synthesis of these compounds, which have culminated in several first total syntheses. Key aspects of these various endeavors, which will also focus on the importance of conformational bias in complex polyketide analysis and synthesis, will be discussed within this review in the realm of the potent macrolide antibiotics etnangien and rhizopodin. Along these lines, we will also summarize novel methods for the rapid assembly of key structural elements of polyketides including a novel domino concept relying on a combination of a nucleophilic addition and a Tsuji–Trost reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Essig
- 1Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Heidelberg, INF 270, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dirk Menche
- 2Kekulé-Institut für Organische Chemie und Biochemie der Universität Bonn, Gerhard-Domagk-Str. 1, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
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Dieckmann M, Menche D. Stereoselective synthesis of 1,3-anti diols by an Ipc-mediated domino aldol-coupling/reduction sequence. Org Lett 2012; 15:228-31. [PMID: 23259690 DOI: 10.1021/ol3033303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A novel domino process for 1,3-anti diol synthesis by the union of a methyl ketone with an aldehyde is described. The operationally simple procedure is based on an Ipc-boron-aldol coupling and subsequent Ipc-mediated reduction of the intermediate β-hydroxy-ketone. The sequence proceeds with excellent anti-selectivities and enables the rapid construction of complex polyketide fragments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dieckmann
- Universität Heidelberg, Institut für Organische Chemie, INF 270, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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17
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Taylor P, Arsenak M, Abad MJ, Fernández A, Milano B, Gonto R, Ruiz MC, Fraile S, Taylor S, Estrada O, Michelangeli F. Screening of Venezuelan medicinal plant extracts for cytostatic and cytotoxic activity against tumor cell lines. Phytother Res 2012; 27:530-9. [PMID: 22648665 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There are estimated to be more than 20,000 species of plants in Venezuela, of which more than 1500 are used for medicinal purposes by indigenous and local communities. Only a relatively small proportion of these have been evaluated in terms of their potential as antitumor agents. In this study, we screened 308 extracts from 102 species for cytostatic and cytotoxic activity against a panel of six tumor cell lines using a 24-h sulphorhodamine B assay. Extracts from Clavija lancifolia, Hamelia patens, Piper san-vicentense, Physalis cordata, Jacaranda copaia, Heliotropium indicum, and Annona squamosa were the most cytotoxic, whereas other extracts from Calotropis gigantea, Hyptis dilatata, Chromolaena odorata, Siparuna guianensis, Jacaranda obtusifolia, Tapirira guianensis, Xylopia aromatica, Protium heptaphyllum, and Piper arboreum showed the greatest cytostatic activity. These results confirm previous reports on the cytotoxic activities of the above-mentioned plants as well as prompting further studies on others such as C. lancifolia and H. dilatata that have not been so extensively studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Taylor
- Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela.
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18
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Kviecinski M, Benelli P, Felipe K, Correia J, Pich C, Ferreira S, Pedrosa R. SFE from Bidens pilosa Linné to obtain extracts rich in cytotoxic polyacetylenes with antitumor activity. J Supercrit Fluids 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2010.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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19
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Hu Q, Pan R, Wang L, Peng B, Tang J, Liu X. Platycodon grandiflorum induces apoptosis in SKOV3 human ovarian cancer cells through mitochondrial-dependent pathway. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2010; 38:373-86. [PMID: 20387232 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x10007919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC., a Chinese food and medicine, has been used as expectorant traditionally. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Platycodon grandiflorum extract (PGE) on SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells. 3-(4,5- dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to monitor cell numbers, Annexin-V/propidium iodide (PI) staining, RT-PCR and Western blot were used to examine cell apoptosis, caspases activation. Bcl-2 and Bax expressions and mitochondrial cytochrome c release. Our result showed that PGE-induced apoptosis was associated with activation of caspase-3, -8 and -9, down-regulation of Bcl-2, up-regulation of Bax and release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to cytosol. The data indicate that PGE may have anti-tumor effect mainly via caspase-3 and caspase-9 dependent apoptotic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Hu
- The Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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20
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Mediterranean jellyfish venoms: a review on scyphomedusae. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1122-52. [PMID: 20479971 DOI: 10.3390/md8041122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The production of natural toxins is an interesting aspect, which characterizes the physiology and the ecology of a number of marine species that use them for defence/offence purposes. Cnidarians are of particular concern from this point of view; their venoms are contained in specialized structures--the nematocysts--which, after mechanical or chemical stimulation, inject the venom in the prey or in the attacker. Cnidarian stinging is a serious health problem for humans in the zones where extremely venomous jellyfish or anemones are common, such as in temperate and tropical oceanic waters and particularly along several Pacific coasts, and severe cases of envenomation, including also lethal cases mainly induced by cubomedusae, were reported. On the contrary, in the Mediterranean region the problem of jellyfish stings is quite modest, even though they can have anyhow an impact on public health and be of importance from the ecological and economic point of view owing to the implications on ecosystems and on some human activities such as tourism, bathing and fishing. This paper reviews the knowledge about the various aspects related to the occurrence and the stinging of the Mediterranean scyphozoan jellyfish as well as the activity of their venoms.
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21
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Zheng B, West LM. Estimating the Lipophilicity of Natural Products using a Polymeric Reversed Phase HPLC Method. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2009; 33:118-132. [PMID: 22851883 PMCID: PMC3407816 DOI: 10.1080/10826070903430464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The integration of physicochemical profiling screens such as Log P into natural products drug discovery programs is emerging as an approach to front-load drug-like properties of natural product libraries for high-throughput screening. In this study a fast-gradient HPLC method using a polystyrene-divinylbenzene PRP-1 column was developed to estimate the lipophilicity of marine natural products. An excellent correlation was found between the results of the experimental determined and the literature log P values for a diverse set of commercially available drugs using the PRP-1 column. The log P of a series of 24 marine natural products were evaluated using the new method and a good correlation was observed between the experimentally determined and software calculated log P values. Some discrepancies were observed between the measured value of log P and the software calculations of the natural products containing halogens atoms. The method is rapid, insensitive to impurities, and requires very little compound and is amenable for integration into a natural products drug discovery research program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zheng
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, The University of Georgia, Athens GA 30602-2352, USA
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22
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Mwale F, Marguier G, Ouellet JA, Petit A, Epure LM, Antoniou J, Chalifour LE. Effect of dexrazoxane and amifostine on the vertebral bone quality of Doxorubicin treated male rats. Open Orthop J 2008; 2:115-20. [PMID: 19478935 PMCID: PMC2687116 DOI: 10.2174/1874325000802010115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2008] [Revised: 06/02/2008] [Accepted: 06/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used in combination cocktails for treatment of childhood hematological cancers and solid tumors. A major factor limiting DOX usage is DOX-induced cardiotoxicity. However, it is not known whether protectants like dexrazoxane (DXR) and amifostine (AMF) can prevent DOX-mediated bone damage. The present study investigated whether administration of AMF alone or in combination with DXR would prevent any DOX-mediated bone damage. Male rat pups were treated with DOX, DXR, AMF, and their combinations. On neonate day 38, the bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC) and the micro-architecture of the lumbar vertebrae were analyzed. We have shown that when male rats are treated with DOX, DXR, DOX+DXR, AMF, DOX+AMF or DOX+DXR+AMF, there is a decrease in lumbar vertebral BMD (p<0.05). Furthermore, the relative bone volume (BV/TV) was decreased by DXR, DOX+DXR, and DOX+AMF treatments. Interestingly, DOX+AMF significantly increased BV/TV when compared to DXR treatment (p<0.04). The trabecular number (Tb.N) decreased with DXR and DOX+DXR and increased with DOX+AMF treatments. This information will be useful in designing better cancer combination therapies that do not lead to vertebrae deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mwale
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, SMBD - Jewish General Hospital
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23
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Itokawa H, Morris-Natschke SL, Akiyama T, Lee KH. Plant-derived natural product research aimed at new drug discovery. J Nat Med 2008; 62:263-80. [PMID: 18425692 DOI: 10.1007/s11418-008-0246-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2008] [Accepted: 03/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many important bioactive compounds have been discovered from natural sources using bioactivity-directed fractionation and isolation (BDFl) [Balunas MJ, Kinghorn AD (2005) Drug discovery from medicinal plants. Life Sci 78:431-441]. Continuing discovery has also been facilitated by the recent development of new bioassay methods. These bioactive compounds are mostly plant secondary metabolites, and many naturally occurring pure compounds have become medicines, dietary supplements, and other useful commercial products. Active lead compounds can also be further modified to enhance the biological profiles and developed as clinical trial candidates. In this review, the authors will summarize research on many different useful compounds isolated or developed from plants with emphasis placed on those recently discovered by the authors' laboratories as antitumor and anti-HIV clinical trial candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideji Itokawa
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7360, USA
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24
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Ramírez-Erosa I, Huang Y, Hickie RA, Sutherland RG, Barl B. Xanthatin and xanthinosin from the burs of Xanthium strumarium L. as potential anticancer agents. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 85:1160-72. [PMID: 18066118 DOI: 10.1139/y07-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Xanthatin and xanthinosin, 2 sesquiterpene lactones isolated from the burs of Xanthiun strumarium L. (cocklebur), showed moderate to high in vitro cytotoxic activity in the human cancer cell lines WiDr ATCC (colon), MDA-MB-231 ATCC (breast), and NCI-417 (lung). Xanthatin and xanthinosin were purified as the result of a multi-screening bioassay-guided study of wild plant species of the family Asteraceae, collected from various sites in Saskatchewan, Canada. Seventy-five extracts at a single concentration of 100 microg/mL were evaluated for in vitro cytotoxicity to the human cancer cell lines used. The chloroform extract of Carduus nutans L. (nodding thistle) aerial parts (IC50, 9.3 microg/mL) and the hexane extract of Echinacea angustifolia DC. (narrow-leaved purple coneflower) root (IC50, 4.0 microg/mL) were moderately to highly cytotoxic to the lung cancer cell line. The chloroform extracts of X. strumarium L. burs and Tanacetum vulgare L. (tansy) aerial parts exhibited the highest cytotoxicity for all cell lines tested; their IC50 values, obtained from multidose testing, ranged from 0.1 to 6.2 microg/mL (X. strumarium) and from 2.4 to 9.1 microg/mL (T. vulgare). Further purification of the chloroform fraction of X. strumarium yielded xanthatin and xanthinosin in high yields. This is the first time that these compounds have been reported in the burs of X. strumarium. Their IC50 values are also reported herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irving Ramírez-Erosa
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada
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25
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Brucea javanica fruit induces cytotoxicity and apoptosis in pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines. Phytother Res 2008; 22:477-86. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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26
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Ito T, Ito M, Arimoto H, Takamura H, Uemura D. Studies toward the total synthesis of nakiterpiosin: construction of the CDE ring system by a transannular Diels–Alder strategy. Tetrahedron Lett 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2007.05.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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27
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Barbini L, Lopez P, Ruffa J, Martino V, Ferraro G, Campos R, Cavallaro L. Induction of apoptosis on human hepatocarcinoma cell lines by an alkyl resorcinol isolated from Lithraea molleoides. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:5959-63. [PMID: 17009393 PMCID: PMC4124402 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i37.5959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To study the mechanism of cytotoxicity of a new active 5-alkyl resorcinol [1, 3-dihydroxy-5- (tridec-4’, 7’-dienyl) benzene] isolated from Lithraea molleoides leaves on liver tumor cells.
METHODS: Human hepatocarcinoma cell lines (HepG2 and Hep3B) in culture were treated with inhibitory concentrations, 50% of the compound, for 24 h. The induction of apoptosis was detected in treated cells by analysis of DNA fragmentation, DNA content, and acridine orange and propidium iodide staining.
RESULTS: After 24 h of 5-alkyl resorcinol treatment, both cell lines showed: (1) the typical morphological alterations of apoptosis; (2) DNA fragmentation, detected by laddering and appearance of a subG0 population by flow cytometry; and (3) condensed and fragmented nuclei by acridine orange-propidium iodide staining.
CONCLUSION: Based on the results, this compound exerts its cytotoxic effect in both hepatocellular cell lines through apoptotic cell death. For Hep3B, cells with mutated p53 and Fas, apoptosis would proceed by p53- or Fas-independent pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Barbini
- Catedra de Virologia, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquimica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
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28
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Lin J, Yan XJ, Chen HM. Fascaplysin, a selective CDK4 inhibitor, exhibit anti-angiogenic activity in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2006; 59:439-45. [PMID: 16816972 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-006-0282-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 05/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study was to evaluate the correlation of two important strategies, namely, cell cycle proliferation arrest and anti-angiogenesis. We chose fascaplysin, a marine natural product with selective CDK4 selective inhibition activity, to study its potential anti-angiogenesis effects in vivo and in vitro. METHODS Chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay was initially used as an in vivo approach to evaluate anti-angiogenic activity of fascaplysin. In addition, human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) line was used to further confirm the anti-angiogenic activity of fascaplysin in vitro. To explore the mechanism of anti-angiogenesis, we examined the effect of fascaplysin on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and secretion by hepatocarcinoma cells BeL-7402. RESULTS The results of CAM assay suggested fascaplysin inhibited capillary plexus formation in a dose-dependent manner and suppressed VEGF in cross section. Moreover, the in vitro assay also confirmed that fascaplysin provided selective inhibition of endothelial cells proliferation towards tumor cells in low concentration. The immunocytochemical staining and ELISA verified fascaplysin could inhibit VEGF expression and secretion by BeL-7402. CONCLUSIONS These findings strongly suggest that fascaplysin is a natural angiogenesis inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Lin
- Marine Biotechnology Laboratory, Ningbo University, Post Box 71, Ningbo , 315211, People's Republic of China
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29
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Lin J, Yan XJ, Zheng L, Ma HH, Chen HM. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction of some selected marine bacteria metabolites. J Appl Microbiol 2005; 99:1373-82. [PMID: 16313410 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02741.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the potential apoptosis effects of cytotoxic marine bacterial metabolites on human HeLa cell line. METHODS AND RESULTS After HeLa cells were routinely cultured, tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay for cytotoxicity was performed to screen the marine bacteria extracts showing 12 strains active. To find the potential active strain with apoptosis mechanism, a battery of apoptosis assays, including AO/EB staining, TUNEL assay (terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated nick end labelling), gel electrophoresis and flow cytometry, were used to determine whether apoptosis was involved in HeLa cell cytotoxicity of marine bacterial extracts. The results indicated that four strains could induce cell shrinkage, cell membrane blebbing, formation of apoptotic body and DNA fragmentation. CONCLUSIONS Crude extracts of 12 of 153 strains of marine bacteria showed cytotoxic effects with ID50 ranged from 77.20 to 199.84 microg ml(-1), in which eight strains of bacteria were associated bacteria. The metabolites in the strains of QD1-2, NJ6-3-1, NJ1-1-1 and SS6-4 were able to induce HeLa cells apoptosis. Furthermore, the assessment by flow cytometry indicated that the hypodiploid apoptotic cells increased in a time-dependent manner, suggesting that induced apoptosis occurred from 24 h to 48 h after the extracts treatment. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Our results suggested that the compounds from fermentation in these four marine bacterial strains could be candidates for developing apoptosis specific anti-tumour agents with lower toxicity. This study indicated that associated marine bacteria could be good source to find cytotoxic metabolites, and some cytotoxic marine bacterial metabolites could have apoptosis mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lin
- Marine Biotechnology Laboratory, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
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30
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Yi W, Fischer J, Akoh CC. Study of anticancer activities of muscadine grape phenolics in vitro. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2005; 53:8804-12. [PMID: 16248588 DOI: 10.1021/jf0515328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Muscadine grapes have unique aroma and flavor characteristics. Although a few studies reported high polyphenols content of muscadine grapes, little research has been conducted to evaluate the phenolic compounds bioactivities in any muscadine grape cultivar. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of phenolic compounds in muscadine grapes on cancer cell viability and apoptosis. Four cultivars of muscadine (Carlos, Ison, Noble, and Supreme) were assessed in this study. Phenolic compounds were extracted from muscadine skins and further separated into phenolic acids, tannins, flavonols, and anthocyanins using HLB cartridge and LH20 column. Some individual phenolic acids and flavonoids were identified by HPLC. Anthocyanin fractions were more than 90% pure. The effect of different fractions on the viability and apoptosis of two colon cancer cell lines (HT-29 and Caco-2) was evaluated. A 50% inhibition of cancer cell population growth for the two cell lines was observed at concentrations of 1-7 mg/mL for crude extracts. The phenolic acid fractions showed a 50% inhibition at the level of 0.5-3 mg/mL. The greatest inhibitory activity was found in the anthocyanin fraction, with a 50% inhibition at concentrations of approximately 200 microg/mL in HT-29 and 100-300 microg/mL in Caco-2. Anthocyanin fractions also resulted in 2-4 times increase in DNA fragmentation, indicating the induction of apoptosis. These findings suggest that polyphenols from muscadine grapes may have anticancer properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiguang Yi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7610, USA
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31
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Loizzo MR, Tundis R, Statti GA, Menichini F, Houghton PJ. In-vitro antiproliferative effects on human tumour cell lines of extracts and jacaranone from Senecio leucanthemifolius Poiret. J Pharm Pharmacol 2005; 57:897-901. [PMID: 15969950 DOI: 10.1211/0022357056398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
We have studied the cytotoxic activity of extracts and jacaranone from Senecio leucanthemifolius Poiret. Extracts from S. leucanthemifolius were able to inhibit the in-vitro proliferation of a series of human tumour cell lines. The dichloromethane extract demonstrated effective cytotoxic activity with an IC50 of 20.1 microg mL(-1) on the large cell carcinoma cell line COR-L23. The ethyl acetate extract showed an IC50 value of 5.0 microg mL(-1) and the butanol extract an IC50 value of 6.4 microg mL(-1) on the same cell line. A major active constituent of the dichloromethane extract was shown to be jacaranone, which was demonstrated to have a very strong activity against all of the tumour cell lines with IC50 values between 2.86 and 3.85 microg mL(-1), although it did not account for all the activity observed. Constituents of S. leucanthemifolius extracts were identified by GC/MS analysis and NMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Loizzo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Calabria, I-87036 Arcavata di Rende, CS, Italy.
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32
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Mwale F, Ciobanu I, Demers CN, Antoniou J, Héon S, Servant N, Chalifour LE. Amifostine and dexrazoxane enhance the rapid loss of bone mass and further deterioration of vertebrae architecture in female rats. Calcif Tissue Int 2005; 77:175-9. [PMID: 16151678 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-004-0231-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2004] [Accepted: 04/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used in combination cocktails for treatment of childhood hematologic cancers and solid tumors. A major factor limiting DOX usage is DOX-induced cardiotoxicity. Dexrazoxane (DXR) is an iron-binding compound and the only approved cardioprotectant for use with DOX. Amifostine (AMF) is a free radical scavenger and approved as a broad-spectrum cytoprotectant. We have shown that when female rats are treated with AMF, AMF + DOX, or AMF + DXR + DOX there is a significant decrease in the right femoral and lumbar vertebral bone mineral density (BMD) (P < 0.05) but not in the left femoral BMD. Furthermore, the relative bone volume (BV/TV) was significantly smaller in the lumbar vertebral bodies of rats treated with AMF (21.1%), AMF + DOX (34.4%), and AMF + DXR + DOX (38.4%), as was the trabecular number (Tb.N) with AMF (15.5%), AMF + DOX (29.9%), and AMF + DXR + DOX (32.3%). AMF + DOX- and AMF + DXR + DOX-treated vertebrae also exhibited deterioration in the microarchitecture of the trabecular bone and spinous processes as ascertained by microcomputerized tomography (micro CT). This information will be useful in designing better cancer combination therapies that do not lead to bone deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mwale
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Chemin de la Cote St. Catherine, Montréal, QC H3T 1E2, Canada.
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Cheng HM, Tsai MC. Regression of hepatocellular carcinoma spontaneous or herbal medicine related? THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2005; 32:579-85. [PMID: 15481647 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x04002211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common causes of death from cancer in Taiwan. Treatments for this disease include surgical resection, transcatheter arterial embolization, chemoembolization and systemic chemotherapy. Without treatment, the prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma is poor, and mortality continues to be significant even in patients with small tumors detected during follow-up. For patients in Taiwan with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma, traditional herbal medicine is frequently used. However, neither the overall prevalence of this therapy nor its efficacy has been studied systematically. Spontaneous regression of cancer, although rare, may occur, but the mechanism leading to regression is still far from understood. Here, we report a case of hepatocellular carcinoma with complete regression after taking herbal medicine. We cannot be certain how significant the herbal preparation was in the regression of the hepatocellular carcinoma, but the regression of the tumor provides us a reason and hope for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon Mei Cheng
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chi Mei Medical Center Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan.
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34
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Butler MS. Natural products to drugs: natural product derived compounds in clinical trials. Nat Prod Rep 2005; 22:162-95. [PMID: 15806196 DOI: 10.1039/b402985m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Natural product and natural product-derived compounds that are being evaluated in clinical trials or in registration (current 31 December 2004) have been reviewed. Natural product derived drugs launched in the United States of America, Europe and Japan since 1998 and new natural product templates discovered since 1990 are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Butler
- MerLion Pharmaceuticals, 1 Science Park Road, The Capricorn #05-01, Singapore Science Park II, Singapore 117528.
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35
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Shoemaker M, Hamilton B, Dairkee SH, Cohen I, Campbell MJ. In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res 2005; 19:649-51. [PMID: 16161030 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Aqueous extracts of 12 Chinese medicinal herbs, Anemarrhena asphodeloides, Artemisia argyi, Commiphora myrrha, Duchesnea indica, Gleditsia sinensis, Ligustrum lucidum, Rheum palmatum, Rubia cordifolia, Salvia chinensis, Scutellaria barbata, Uncaria rhychophylla and Vaccaria segetalis were evaluated for their antiproliferative activity on eight cancer cell lines as well as on normal human mammary epithelial cells. Five human and three murine cancer cell lines representing different tissues (breast, lung, pancreas and prostate) were used. All the crude aqueous extracts demonstrated growth inhibitory activity on some or all of the cancer cell lines, but only two showed activity against the normal mammary epithelial cells. Overall, the murine cell lines tended to be more sensitive to most of the extracts compared with the human cell lines. Among the human cell lines, cell type specificity was observed for two extracts. These results indicate the potential use of traditional Chinese medicinal herbs as antineoplastic agents and suggest that further studies evaluating their mechanism(s) of action and the isolation of active antitumor compounds are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Shoemaker
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA
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Nakiterpiosin and nakiterpiosinone, novel cytotoxic C-nor-D-homosteroids from the Okinawan sponge Terpios hoshinota. Tetrahedron 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2003.08.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Suenaga K. Bioorganic Studies on Marine Natural Products with Bioactivity, Such as Antitumor Activity and Feeding Attractance. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2004. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.77.443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Schwartsmann G, Da Rocha AB, Mattei J, Lopes R. Marine-derived anticancer agents in clinical trials. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2003; 12:1367-83. [PMID: 12882622 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.12.8.1367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Anticancer agents may be derived either from the isolation of an active lead compound occurring spontaneously in nature or by novel chemical synthesis in the laboratory. There are examples of successful drugs being derived from both sources, which have had a profound impact on the natural history of various types of cancer. The treatment of lymphomas and acute leukaemias with the use of combination chemotherapy, including anthracyclines and vinca alkaloids, are examples of the contribution of nature. In contrast, agents such as 5-fluorouracil, methotrexate and more recently, the humanised anti-CD20 antibody rituximab and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib are examples of synthetic compounds, which were designed with a clear rationale, that are routinely used in patients with solid tumours and haematological malignancies. Until recently, the tradition in natural product-derived anticancer drug development was to rely almost exclusively on the screening of terrestrial sources (plant extracts and fermentation products) for their cytotoxic properties. Although C-nucleosides obtained from Caribbean sponge were the initial inspiration for the synthesis of antiviral substituted nucleosides and the successful anticancer agent citarabine, active against leukaemias and lymphomas, the contribution of marine compounds as a source of anticancer agents was modest. In recent years, the improvements in the technology of deep-sea collection and aquaculture added to the growing recognition of the tremendous biodiversity present in the marine world, and has contributed to the growing interest of exploring the oceans as a potential source of new anticancer candidates. This is reflected in the number of marine-derived compounds undergoing preclinical and early clinical development. In this paper, the authors discuss the available literature on anticancer agents that have reached clinical trials, such as didemnin B, aplidine, dolastatin-10, bryostatin-1 and ecteinascidin-743 (ET-743, trabectedin), as well as other promising compounds still undergoing tests in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto Schwartsmann
- Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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Liu RH, Sun J. Antiproliferative activity of apples is not due to phenolic-induced hydrogen peroxide formation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2003; 51:1718-1723. [PMID: 12617611 DOI: 10.1021/jf026162r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Anticancer compound screening of natural products using tumor cell lines has been commonly used to identify anticancer drugs. Two highly significant anticancer drugs, paclitaxel (Taxol) and camptothecin, were discovered using tumor cell lines by the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) screening program of plants. It has been recently reported that the inhibition of cancer cell proliferation by fruit extracts was indirectly caused by phenolic-induced H(2)O(2) production in the cell culture media, suggesting that many previously reported effects of flavonoids and phenolic compounds on cultured cells might be from an artifact of H(2)O(2)-induced oxidative stress. The objective of the present study was to determine if apple extracts induced H(2)O(2) formation in common cell culture media and to investigate if the antiproliferative activity of apple extracts was due to phenolic-induced H(2)O(2) formation. It is reported here that apple extracts did not induce H(2)O(2) formation in WME, DMEM, or DMEM/Ham F12 media with the cell culture conditions tested. These same extracts inhibited proliferation of HepG(2) and Caco-2 cells. Therefore, antiproliferative activity of apple extracts was not due to the phenolic-induced H(2)O(2) production in cell culture media. In addition, H(2)O(2) added to the culture medium at 100 microM did not cause inhibition of cell proliferation in either HepG(2) liver cancer cells or Caco-2 colon cancer cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Hai Liu
- Department of Food Science and Institute of Comparative and Environmental Toxicology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-7201, USA.
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Vickers A. Botanical medicines for the treatment of cancer: rationale, overview of current data, and methodological considerations for phase I and II trials. Cancer Invest 2002; 20:1069-79. [PMID: 12449740 DOI: 10.1081/cnv-120005926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
There appears to be exceptional and growing public enthusiasm for botanical, or "herbal", medicines, especially amongst cancer patients. This has recently begun to be matched by increasing scientific attention. Whilst it is known that plant extracts are active against cancer, the standard approach has been to isolate, synthesize and administer the single chemical compound thought responsible for this effect. However, different components in a botanical may have synergistic activities. There is also some evidence that the presence of multiple compounds in a botanical extract can buffer the toxic effects of a single constituent. Though many of the botanicals popular among patients are probably not of benefit (e.g. Mistletoe, Pau D'arco), several botanicals have shown promise in Phase III (Sho-saiko-to, PSK) or Phase II (PC-SPES) trial. Quality control of botanicals poses significant challenges: small differences in genetics, soil, temperature, moisture and time of harvesting can lead to significant differences in the concentration of important constituents. Phase I and II methodology is also problematic: botanicals have low toxicity and are unlikely to cause rapid tumor regression. There is currently minimal regulation of botanical medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Vickers
- Integrative Medicine Service, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Giridharan P, Somasundaram ST, Perumal K, Vishwakarma RA, Karthikeyan NP, Velmurugan R, Balakrishnan A. Novel substituted methylenedioxy lignan suppresses proliferation of cancer cells by inhibiting telomerase and activation of c-myc and caspases leading to apoptosis. Br J Cancer 2002; 87:98-105. [PMID: 12085264 PMCID: PMC2364294 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2001] [Revised: 04/04/2002] [Accepted: 05/25/2002] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional solvent fractionation and bioactivity based target assays were used to identify a new anti-cancer molecule from Phyllanthus urinaria, a herbal medicinal plant used in South India. At each step of the purification process the different fractions that were isolated were tested for specific anti-proliferative activity by assays measuring the inhibition of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation, and trypan blue drug exclusion. The ethyl acetate fraction that contained the bioactivity was further purified and resolved by HPLC on a preparative column. The purity of each of the fractions and their bioactivity were checked. Fraction 3 demonstrated a single spot on TLC and showed maximum anti-proliferative activity. This fraction was further purified and the structure was defined as 7'-hydroxy-3',4',5,9,9'-pentamethoxy-3,4-methylene dioxy lignan using NMR and mass spectrometry analysis. The pure compound and the crude ethyl acetate fraction which showed anti-proliferative activities were examined for ability to target specific markers of apoptosis like bcl2, c-myc and caspases and for effects on telomerase. Four specific cancer cell lines HEp2, EL-1 monocytes, HeLa and MCP7 were used in this study. The results indicate that 7'-hydroxy-3',4',5,9,9'-pentamethoxy-3,4-methylene dioxy lignan was capable of inhibiting telomerase activity and also could inhibit bcl2 and activate caspase 3 and caspase 8 whose significance in the induction of apoptosis is well known. We believe that this compound could serve as a valuable chemotherapeutic drug after further evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Giridharan
- Centre for Biotechnology, Anna University, Chennai 600 025, India
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Teruya T, Nakagawa S, Koyama T, Suenaga K, Uemura D. Terpiodiene: A Novel Tricyclic Alcohol from the Okinawan SpongeTerpios hoshinota. CHEM LETT 2002. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.2002.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Schwartsmann G. Anticancer drugs from nature. MEDICAL AND PEDIATRIC ONCOLOGY 2001; 37:79-80. [PMID: 11466734 DOI: 10.1002/mpo.1173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Schwartsmann G, Brondani da Rocha A, Berlinck RG, Jimeno J. Marine organisms as a source of new anticancer agents. Lancet Oncol 2001; 2:221-5. [PMID: 11905767 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(00)00292-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Various active anticancer agents are derived from plants and terrestrial microorganisms. The isolation of C-nucleosides from the Caribbean sponge, Cryptotheca crypta, four decades ago, provided the basis for the synthesis of cytarabine, the first marine-derived anticancer agent to be developed for clinical use. Cytarabine is currently used in the routine treatment of patients with leukaemia and lymphoma. Gemcitabine, one of its fluorinated derivatives, has also been approved for use in patients with pancreatic, breast, bladder, and non-small-cell lung cancer. Over the past decade, several new experimental anticancer agents derived from marine sources have entered preclinical and clinical trials. This field has expanded significantly as a result of improvements in the technology of deep-sea collection, extraction, and large-scale production through aquaculture and synthesis. In this paper, examples of marine-derived experimental agents that are currently undergoing preclinical and early clinical evaluation are briefly discussed. A summary of the available information on the results of phase I and II trials of agents such as aplidine, ecteinascidin-734 (ET-734), dolastatin 10 and bryostatin 1 is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schwartsmann
- South-American Office for Anticancer Drug Development, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Lutheran University, Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schwartsmann
- South-American Office for Anticancer Drug Development (SOAD), Comprehensive Cancer Centre (CINCAN), Lutheran University (ULBRA), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Pettit GR, Grealish MP, Herald DL, Boyd MR, Hamel E, Pettit RK. Antineoplastic agents. 443. Synthesis of the cancer cell growth inhibitor hydroxyphenstatin and its sodium diphosphate prodrug. J Med Chem 2000; 43:2731-7. [PMID: 10893310 DOI: 10.1021/jm000045a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A structure-activity relationship (SAR) study of the South African willow tree (Combretum caffrum) antineoplastic constituent combretastatin A-4 (3b) led to the discovery of a potent cancer cell growth inhibitor designated phenstatin (5a). This benzophenone derivative of combretastatin A-4 showed remarkable antineoplastic activity, and the benzophenone derivative of combretastatin A-1 was therefore synthesized. The benzophenone, designated hydroxyphenstatin (6a), was synthesized by coupling of a protected bromobenzene and a benzaldehyde to give the benzhydrol with subsequent oxidation to the ketone. Hydroxyphenstatin was converted to the sodium phosphate prodrug (6e) by a dibenzyl phosphite phosphorylation and subsequent benzyl cleavage (6a --> 6d --> 6e). While hydroxyphenstatin (6a) was a potent inhibitor of tubulin polymerization with activity comparable to that of combretastatin A-1 (3a), the phosphorylated derivative (6e) was inactive.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Pettit
- Cancer Research Institute and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 872404, Tempe, Arizona 85287-2404, USA
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