Chemical, computational and functional insights into the chemical stability of the Hedgehog pathway inhibitor GANT61

Mechanisms and therapeutic potential of the hedgehog signaling pathway in cancer

A sort of major malignant disease, cancer can compromise human health wherever. Some mechanisms of the occurrence and evolution of cancer still seem elusive even now. Consequently, the therapeutic strategies for cancer must continually evolve. The hedgehog signaling pathway, a critical mediator in the normal development of numerous organs and the pathogenesis of cancer, is typically quiescent but is aberrantly activated in several malignancies. Extensive research has delineated that the aberrant activity of the hedgehog signaling pathway, whether autocrine or paracrine, is implicated in the initiation and progression of various neoplasms, including medulloblastoma (MB), basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and so on. Thus, notably Smo inhibitors, the opening of inhibitors of the hedgehog signaling pathway has become a topic of research attention. This review aims to summarize four aberrant activation pathways and the influence of hedgehog signaling pathway associated chemicals on tumor formation and development. Additionally, it will explore the therapeutic potential of targeted interventions in the hedgehog signaling pathway for cancer treatment.

Computational investigation of naturally occurring anticancer agents in regulating Hedgehog pathway proteins

Embryonic development in humans is controlled by the Hedgehog pathway, which becomes inactive in mature tissues. Except for tissue maintenance and healing, activation of this pathway results in tumorigenesis with only a few exceptions. The drugs currently in use have shown no effectiveness in blocking the key proteins responsible for tumorigenesis. Therefore, it is crucial to find new inhibitors that can stop the abnormal activation of the pathway. A preliminary Insilco screening of naturally occurring compounds was carried out to identify potential inhibitors of the pathway. Docking of seventeen naturally occurring antitumorigenic compounds against the four key proteins of the regulatory proteins of the Hedgehog pathway using AutoDock v4.2.6 software was carried out. Liriodenine exhibited the strongest binding affinity towards three out of the four regulatory proteins (-7.61 kcal/mol with Smoothened, -8.14 kcal/mol with Patched-I, and -6.15 kcal/mol with Gli-II) of the Hedgehog pathway, whereas 2',4-dihydroxy-3-methoxychalcone displayed the highest binding affinity of -7.04 kcal/mol with the Sonic Hedgehog protein. Additional molecular dynamic simulation was conducted using Gromacs with Liriodenine and 2',4-dihydroxy-3-methoxy chalcone. Every protein-ligand complex underwent simulation using v5.1.4 software for a duration of 100 nanoseconds. The findings from the simulation indicate that Liriodenine and 2',4-dihydroxy-3-methoxy chalcone form a strong bond with their corresponding protein. Our findings show that the two aforementioned molecules have potential as new inhibitors of the pathway and should be further investigated in both invitro and in vivo experiments.

Research progress of paclitaxel nanodrug delivery system in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer, characterized by the loss or low expression of estrogen receptor (ER), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and progesterone receptor (PR). Due to the lack of clear therapeutic targets, paclitaxel (PTX) is often used as a first-line standard chemotherapy drug for the treatment of high-risk and locally advanced TNBC. PTX is a diterpenoid alkaloid extracted and purified from Taxus plants, functioning as an anticancer agent by inducing and promoting tubulin polymerization, inhibiting spindle formation in cancer cells, and preventing mitosis. However, its clinical application is limited by low solubility and high toxicity. Nanodrug delivery system (NDDS) is one of the feasible methods to improve the water solubility of PTX and reduce side effects. In this review, we summarize the latest advancements in PTX-targeted NDDS, as well as its combination with other codelivery therapies for TNBC treatment. NDDS includes passive targeting, active targeting, stimuli-responsive, codelivery, and multimode strategies. These systems have good prospects in improving the bioavailability of PTX, enhancing tumor targeting, reducing toxicity, controlling drug release, and reverse tumor multidrug resistance (MDR). This review provides valuable insights into the clinical development and application of PTX-targeted NDDS in the treatment of TNBC.

Hedgehog Signaling Pathway in Fibrosis and Targeted Therapies

Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is a well-established developmental pathway; it is crucial for early embryogenesis, cell differentiation, and damage-driven regeneration. It is being increasingly recognized that dysregulated Hh signaling is also involved in fibrotic diseases, which are characterized by excessive extracellular matrix deposition that compromises tissue architecture and function. As in-depth insights into the mechanisms of Hh signaling are obtained, its complex involvement in fibrosis is gradually being illuminated. Notably, some Hh-targeted inhibitors are currently under exploration in preclinical and clinical trials as a means to prevent fibrosis progression. In this review, we provide a concise overview of the biological mechanisms involved in Hh signaling. We summarize the latest advances in our understanding of the roles of Hh signaling in fibrogenesis across the liver, kidneys, airways, and lungs, as well as other tissues and organs, with an emphasis on both the shared features and, more critically, the distinct functional variations observed across these tissues and organs. We thus highlight the context dependence of Hh signaling, as well as discuss the current status and the challenges of Hh-targeted therapies for fibrosis.

The Proteasome and Cul3-Dependent Protein Ubiquitination Is Required for Gli Protein-Mediated Activation of Gene Expression in the Hedgehog Pathway

Many cellular processes are regulated by proteasome-mediated protein degradation, including regulation of signaling pathways and gene expression. Among the pathways regulated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system is the Hedgehog pathway and its downstream effectors, the Gli transcription factors. Here we provide evidence that proteasomal activity is necessary for maintaining the activation of the Hedgehog pathway, and this crucial event takes place at the level of Gli proteins. We undertook extensive work to demonstrate the specificity of the observed phenomenon by ruling out the involvement of primary cilium, impaired nuclear import, failed dissociation from Sufu, microtubule stabilization, and stabilization of Gli repressor forms. Moreover, we showed that proteasomal-inhibition-mediated Hedgehog pathway downregulation is not restricted to the NIH-3T3 cell line. We demonstrated, using CRISPR/Ca9 mutagenesis, that neither Gli1, Gli2, nor Gli3 are solely responsible for the Hedgehog pathway downregulation upon proteasome inhibitor treatment, and that Cul3 KO renders the same phenotype. Finally, we report two novel E3 ubiquitin ligases, Btbd9 and Kctd3, known Cul3 interactors, as positive Hedgehog pathway regulators. Our data pave the way for a better understanding of the regulation of gene expression and the Hedgehog signaling pathway.

Conditioned Medium From Reactive Astrocytes Inhibits Proliferation, Resistance, and Migration of p53-Mutant Glioblastoma Spheroid Through GLI-1 Downregulation

Glioblastoma (GBM) aggressiveness is partly driven by the reactivation of signaling pathways such as Sonic hedgehog (SHH) and the interaction with its microenvironment. SHH pathway activation is one of the phenomena behind the glial transformation in response to tumor growth. The reactivation of the SHH signaling cascade during GBM-astrocyte interaction is highly relevant to understanding the mechanisms used by the tumor to modulate the adjacent stroma. The role of reactive astrocytes considering SHH signaling during GBM progression is investigated using a 3D in vitro model. T98G GBM spheroids displayed significant downregulation of SHH (61.4 ± 9.3%), GLI-1 (6.5 ± 3.7%), Ki-67 (33.7 ± 8.1%), and mutant MTp53 (21.3 ± 10.6%) compared to the CONTROL group when incubated with conditioned medium of reactive astrocytes (CM-AST). The SHH pathway inhibitor, GANT-61, significantly reduced previous markers (SHH = 43.0 ± 12.1%; GLI-1 = 9.5 ± 3.4%; Ki-67 = 31.9 ± 4.6%; MTp53 = 6.5 ± 7.5%) compared to the CONTROL, and a synergistic effect could be observed between GANT-61 and CM-AST. The volume (2.0 ± 0.2 × 107 µm³), cell viability (80.4 ± 3.2%), and migration (41 ± 10%) of GBM spheroids were significantly reduced in the presence of GANT-61 and CM-AST when compared to CM-AST after 72 h (volume = 2.3 ± 0.4 × 107 µm³; viability = 92.2 ± 6.5%; migration = 102.5 ± 14.6%). Results demonstrated that factors released by reactive astrocytes promoted a neuroprotective effect preventing GBM progression using a 3D in vitro model potentiated by SHH pathway inhibition.

Identification of Novel GANT61 Analogs with Activity in Hedgehog Functional Assays and GLI1-Dependent Cancer Cells

Aberrant activation of hedgehog (Hh) signaling has been implicated in various cancers. Current FDA-approved inhibitors target the seven-transmembrane receptor Smoothened, but resistance to these drugs has been observed. It has been proposed that a more promising strategy to target this pathway is at the GLI1 transcription factor level. GANT61 was the first small molecule identified to directly suppress GLI-mediated activity; however, its development as a potential anti-cancer agent has been hindered by its modest activity and aqueous chemical instability. Our study aimed to identify novel GLI1 inhibitors. JChem searches identified fifty-two compounds similar to GANT61 and its active metabolite, GANT61-D. We combined high-throughput cell-based assays and molecular docking to evaluate these analogs. Five of the fifty-two GANT61 analogs inhibited activity in Hh-responsive C3H10T1/2 and Gli-reporter NIH3T3 cellular assays without cytotoxicity. Two of the GANT61 analogs, BAS 07019774 and Z27610715, reduced Gli1 mRNA expression in C3H10T1/2 cells. Treatment with BAS 07019774 significantly reduced cell viability in Hh-dependent glioblastoma and lung cancer cell lines. Molecular docking indicated that BAS 07019774 is predicted to bind to the ZF4 region of GLI1, potentially interfering with its ability to bind DNA. Our findings show promise in developing more effective and potent GLI inhibitors.

Unravelling the Mysteries of the Sonic Hedgehog Pathway in Cancer Stem Cells: Activity, Crosstalk and Regulation

The Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signalling pathway plays a critical role in normal development and tissue homeostasis, guiding cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival. Aberrant activation of this pathway, however, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various cancers, largely due to its role in regulating cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSCs are a subpopulation of cancer cells with the ability to self-renew, differentiate, and initiate tumour growth, contributing significantly to tumorigenesis, recurrence, and resistance to therapy. This review focuses on the intricate activity of the Shh pathway within the context of CSCs, detailing the molecular mechanisms through which Shh signalling influences CSC properties, including self-renewal, differentiation, and survival. It further explores the regulatory crosstalk between the Shh pathway and other signalling pathways in CSCs, highlighting the complexity of this regulatory network. Here, we delve into the upstream regulators and downstream effectors that modulate Shh pathway activity in CSCs. This review aims to cast a specific focus on the role of the Shh pathway in CSCs, provide a detailed exploration of molecular mechanisms and regulatory crosstalk, and discuss current and developing inhibitors. By summarising key findings and insights gained, we wish to emphasise the importance of further elucidating the interplay between the Shh pathway and CSCs to develop more effective cancer therapies.

Targeting GLI1 and GLI2 with small molecule inhibitors to suppress GLI-dependent transcription and tumor growth

Aberrant activation of Hedgehog (HH) signaling in cancer is the result of genetic alterations of upstream pathway components (canonical) or other oncogenic mechanisms (noncanonical), that ultimately concur to activate the zinc-finger transcription factors GLI1 and GLI2. Therefore, inhibition of GLI activity is a good therapeutic option to suppress both canonical and noncanonical activation of the HH pathway. However, only a few GLI inhibitors are available, and none of them have the profile required for clinical development due to poor metabolic stability and aqueous solubility, and high hydrophobicity. Two promising quinoline inhibitors of GLI were selected by virtual screening and subjected to hit-to-lead optimization, thus leading to the identification of the 4-methoxy-8-hydroxyquinoline derivative JC19. This molecule impaired GLI1 and GLI2 activities in several cellular models interfering with the binding of GLI1 and GLI2 to DNA. JC19 suppressed cancer cell proliferation by enhancing apoptosis, inducing a strong anti-tumor response in several cancer cell lines in vitro. Specificity towards GLI1 and GLI2 was demonstrated by lower activity of JC19 in GLI1- or GLI2-depleted cancer cells. JC19 showed excellent metabolic stability and high passive permeability. Notably, JC19 inhibited GLI1-dependent melanoma xenograft growth in vivo, with no evidence of toxic effects in mice. These results highlight the potential of JC19 as a novel anti-cancer agent targeting GLI1 and GLI2.

Targeting the Hedgehog pathway with novel Gli1 hydrophobic tagging degraders

The Hedgehog/Glioma-associated oncogene (Hh/Gli) signaling pathway plays an essential role in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Aberrant regulation of this pathway has been linked to various human malignancies. Gli1, the downstream transcription factor of the Hh pathway, is the ultimate effector of the canonical Hh pathway and has been identified as a common regulator of several tumorigenic pathways prevalent in Hh-independent cancers. Thus Gli1 represents a unique and promising drug target for a wide range of cancers. However, the identification and development of small molecules that directly target Gli1 protein have progressed slowly, due to an insufficient efficacy and selectivity. Herein, we developed novel small-molecule Gli1 degraders based on the hydrophobic tagging (HyT) strategy. The Gli1 HyT degrader 8e potently inhibited the proliferation of Gli1-overexpressed HT29 colorectal cancer cells, induced Gli1 degradation with a DC50 value of 5.4 μM in HT29 and achieved 70% degradation at 7.5 μM in MEFPTCH1-/- and MEFSUFU-/-cell lines, via proteasome pathway. Compared to the canonical Hh antagonist Vismodegib, 8e exhibited much stronger potency in suppressing the mRNA expression of Hh target genes in Hh-overactivated MEFPTCH1-/- and Vismodegib resistant MEFSUFU-/- cells. Our study provides small molecule Gli1 degraders effectively interfering with both canonical and noncanonical Hh signaling and overcoming current Smoothened (SMO) antagonists resistance, which might pave a new avenue for developing therapeutic modalities targeting Hh/Gli1 signaling pathway.

Hedgehog signaling in tissue homeostasis, cancers, and targeted therapies

The past decade has seen significant advances in our understanding of Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway in various biological events. HH signaling pathway exerts its biological effects through a complex signaling cascade involved with primary cilium. HH signaling pathway has important functions in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. It plays a central role in the regulation of the proliferation and differentiation of adult stem cells. Importantly, it has become increasingly clear that HH signaling pathway is associated with increased cancer prevalence, malignant progression, poor prognosis and even increased mortality. Understanding the integrative nature of HH signaling pathway has opened up the potential for new therapeutic targets for cancer. A variety of drugs have been developed, including small molecule inhibitors, natural compounds, and long non-coding RNA (LncRNA), some of which are approved for clinical use. This review outlines recent discoveries of HH signaling in tissue homeostasis and cancer and discusses how these advances are paving the way for the development of new biologically based therapies for cancer. Furthermore, we address status quo and limitations of targeted therapies of HH signaling pathway. Insights from this review will help readers understand the function of HH signaling in homeostasis and cancer, as well as opportunities and challenges of therapeutic targets for cancer.

GANT-61 induces cell cycle resting and autophagy by down-regulating RNAP III signal pathway and tRNA-Gly-CCC synthesis to combate chondrosarcoma

Chondrosarcoma is ineffective for conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy with a poor prognosis. Hedgehog (Hh) signal pathway plays a crucial role in tumor growth and progression, which is constitutive activated in chondrosarcoma. GLI transcription factors as targets for new drugs or interference technology for the treatment of chondrosarcoma are of great significance. In this study, we indicated that the Hedgehog-GLI1 signal pathway is activated in chondrosarcoma, which further enhances the RNAP III signal pathway to mediate endogenous tRNA fragments synthesis. Downstream oncology functions of endogenous tRNA fragments, such as "cell cycle" and "death receptor binding", are involved in malignant chondrosarcoma. The GANT-61, as an inhibitor of GLI1, could inhibit chondrosarcoma tumor growth effectively by inhibiting the RNAP III signal pathway and tRNA-Gly-CCC synthesis in vivo. Induced G2/M cell cycle resting, apoptosis, and autophagy were the main mechanisms for the inhibitory effect of GANT-61 on chondrosarcoma, which correspond with the above-described downstream oncology functions of endogenous tRNA fragments. We also identified the molecular mechanism by which GANT-61-induced autophagy is involved in ULK1 expression and MAPK signaling pathway. Thus, GANT-61 will be an ideal and promising strategy for combating chondrosarcoma.

A trans-Pt(II) hedgehog pathway inhibitor complex with cytotoxicity towards breast cancer stem cells and triple negative breast cancer cells

The first example of a Pt complex of GANT61, a hedgehog (Hh) pathway inhibitor is reported. Reaction of cis-[Pt(II)Cl₂(dmso)₂] with one equivalent of 4-pyridine carboxaldehyde (4-PCA, control ligand) or one equivalent of GANT61 (Hh pathway inhibitor) in acetone at rt for 30 minutes afforded trans-[Pt(II)Cl₂(dmso)(4-PCA)] (1) and trans-[Pt(II)Cl₂(dmso)(GANT61)] (2) respectively, where 4-PCA and GANT61 are N-donor ligands. The structures of 1 and 2 were fully characterised by elemental analysis, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and IR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. 1 and 2 undergo isomerisation from trans- to cis-in solution and therefore the biological activity of 2 is also associated with the cis-configuration. The in vitro cytotoxicity data show that 2 is a potent inhibitor of the growth of breast CSC-depleted HMLER and breast CSC-enriched HMLER-shEcad cells. Furthermore 2 markedly reduced the size and viability and significantly reduced the number of CSC-enriched HMLER-shEcad mammospheres formed. 2 also induced apoptosis with low micromolar IC₅₀ values against two triple negative breast cancer lines, MDA-MB-231 (MDA231) and BT549. 2, which possesses the Hh pathway inhibitor GANT61 as an N donor ligand exhibits far superior anti-CSC activity including in the CSC-enriched mammosphere model and activity against TNBC cells as compared to its control analogue, the trans-Pt(II) 4-PCA complex 1. The trans-Pt GANT61 complex 2 has also been shown to cause DNA damage and inhibit the Hh pathway at the level of GLI.

Multiprotein GLI Transcriptional Complexes as Therapeutic Targets in Cancer

The Hedgehog signaling pathway functions in both embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis. Importantly, its aberrant activation is also implicated in the progression of multiple types of cancer, including basal cell carcinoma and medulloblastoma. GLI transcription factors function as the ultimate effectors of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. Their activity is regulated by this signaling cascade via their mRNA expression, protein stability, subcellular localization, and ultimately their transcriptional activity. Further, GLI proteins are also regulated by a variety of non-canonical mechanisms in addition to the canonical Hedgehog pathway. Recently, with an increased understanding of epigenetic gene regulation, novel transcriptional regulators have been identified that interact with GLI proteins in multi-protein complexes to regulate GLI transcriptional activity. Such complexes have added another layer of complexity to the regulation of GLI proteins. Here, we summarize recent work on the regulation of GLI transcriptional activity by these novel protein complexes and describe their relevance to cancer, as such GLI regulators represent alternative and innovative druggable targets in GLI-dependent cancers.

GANT61 exerts anticancer cell and anticancer stem cell capacity in colorectal cancer by blocking the Wnt/β‑catenin and Notch signalling pathways

The present study aimed to assess the anticancer cell and anticancer stem cell (CSC) effects of GANT61, and its regulatory influence on the Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signalling pathways in colorectal cancer (CRC). HT-29 and HCT-116 cells were treated with 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 or 40 µM GANT61, after which relative cell viability and the expression of Gli1, β-catenin and Notch1, as well as the percentage of CD133⁺ cells, were detected. Subsequently, HT-29/HCT-116 cells and CSCs were treated with 20 µM GANT61, 10 mM of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway agonist HLY78, and 30 mM of the Notch pathway agonist JAG1 (alone or in combination), which was followed by the assessment of cell viability and apoptosis. In both cell lines, GANT61 reduced relative cell viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner, inhibited Gli1, β-catenin and Notch1 expression, and decreased the percentage of CD133⁺ cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, HLY78 and JAG1 were both found to improve the relative viability, while downregulating the apoptosis of untreated and GANT61-treated HT-29 and HCT-116 cells. Moreover, Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signalling pathway activity were upregulated in CSCs isolated from HT-29 and HCT-116 cells, compared with the associated control groups. GANT61 also reduced the viability of HT-29 and HCT-116 cells and increased apoptosis, whereas HLY78 and JAG1 treatment resulted in the opposite effect. Moreover, both HLY78 and JAG1 attenuated the effects of GANT61 on cellular viability and apoptosis. In conclusion, GANT61 was found to effectively eliminate cancer cells and CSCs by blocking the Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signalling pathways in CRC.

Modulation of Hedgehog Signaling for the Treatment of Basal Cell Carcinoma and the Development of Preclinical Models

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. While the survivability of BCC is high, many patients are excluded from clinically available treatments due to health risks or personal choice. Further, patients with advanced or metastatic disease have severely limited treatment options. The dysregulation of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling cascade drives onset and progression of BCC. As such, the modulation of this pathway has driven advancements in BCC research. In this review, we focus firstly on inhibitors that target the Hh pathway as chemotherapeutics against BCC. Two therapies targeting Hh signaling have been made clinically available for BCC patients, but these treatments suffer from limited initial efficacy and a high rate of chemoresistant tumor recurrence. Herein, we describe more recent developments of chemical scaffolds that have been designed to hopefully improve upon the available therapeutics. We secondly discuss the history and recent efforts involving modulation of the Hh genome as a method of producing in vivo models of BCC for preclinical research. While there are many advancements left to be made towards improving patient outcomes with BCC, it is clear that targeting the Hh pathway will remain at the forefront of research efforts in designing more effective chemotherapeutics as well as relevant preclinical models.

Effects of an inhibitor of the SHH signaling pathway on endometrial cells of patients with endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis is one of the most common gynecological diseases, and seriously reduces the quality of life of patients. However, the pathogenesis of this disease is unclear. Therefore, more studies are needed to elucidate its pathogenesis. Our previous publication found that the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway was activated in endometriosis. This study tested whether SHH signaling in endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) was critical for the pathogenesis of endometriosis.

METHODS

To examine the effect of inhibiting the SHH signaling pathway on endometriosis, we first isolated ESCs from eutopic endometrial tissues of patients with or without endometriosis and identified the extracted cells by morphological observation and immunofluorescence. Then, we treated ESCs with the GLI inhibitor GANT61 and used CCK-8, wound healing and invasion assays to detect cell activities, such as proliferation, invasion and metastasis. Furthermore, we detected the expression of key proteins and proliferation markers of the SHH signaling pathway in the lesions of nude mice using immunochemistry.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that higher concentrations of GANT61 decreased the proliferation rate and migration distance of ESCs. We observed that GANT61 inhibited the invasion of ESCs. In addition, blockage of the SHH signaling pathway significantly reduced cell proliferation in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that inhibition of the SHH pathway is involved in cell proliferation and invasive growth in the pathogenesis of endometriosis.

Targeting hedgehog signaling in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains a leading cause of cancer related death. The urgent need for effective therapies is highlighted by the lack of adequate targeting. In PDAC, hedgehog (Hh) signaling is known to be aberrantly activated, which prompted the pathway as a possible target for effective treatment for PDAC patients. Unfortunately, specific targeting of upstream molecules within the Hh signaling pathway failed to bring clinical benefit. This led to the ongoing debate on Hh targeting as a therapeutic treatment for PDAC patients. Additionally, concurrent non-canonical activation routes also result in translocation of Gli transcription factors into the nucleus. Therefore, different downstream targets of the Hh signaling pathway were identified and evaluated in preclinical and clinical research. In this review we summarize the variety of Hh signaling antagonists in different preclinical models of PDAC. Furthermore, we discuss published and ongoing clinical trials that evaluated Hh antagonists and point out the current hurdles and future perspectives in the light of redesigning Hh-targeting therapies for the treatment of PDAC patients.

Functional Disruption of Gli1-DNA Recognition via a Cobalt(III) Complex

The aberrant activation of the Gli family of zinc finger transcription factors (ZFTFs) is associated with several types of human cancer, including medulloblastoma and basal cell carcinoma. We have reported the use of cobalt(III) Schiff-base complexes (Co(III)-sb) as potent inhibitors of ZFTFs in vivo. These complexes inhibit transcription by displacing the zinc finger domain's structural Zn(II) ion, destabilizing the alpha helix necessary for DNA recognition. Here, we describe the use of Co(III)-sb complexes for the selective inhibition of Gli1. Spectroscopic and computational studies of the Gli1 DNA binding domain found that Co(III)-sb displaced Zn(II) through direct coordination with the His residues of the Cys2 His2 Zn(II) binding site. As a result, there is a dose-dependent degradation of the alpha-helix content in the DNA binding domain of Gli1 and corresponding inhibition of consensus sequence recognition. We conclude that this strategy is well suited for the development of new and potent inhibitors of Gli1.

Delivery of Targeted Co(III)-DNA Inhibitors of Gli Proteins to Disrupt Hedgehog Signaling

The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is integral for embryonic development and normal cell maintenance. However, aberrant expression of the Hh pathway is recognized as the oncogenic driving force for basal cell carcinoma (BCC). Current chemotherapeutic treatments that inhibit Hh signaling allow treatment of only locally advanced and metastatic BCCs via inhibition of the transmembrane protein, smoothened. It is further recognized that downstream mutations often lead to chemoresistant tumor recurrence. The Gli proteins are the ultimate regulators of Hh signaling and belong to a family of Cys2His2 zinc finger transcription factors (ZnFTFs) that we have shown can be irreversibly inhibited by a series of cobalt(III) Schiff base-DNA (CoSB-DNA) conjugates. However, a significant challenge is the delivery of CoSB-DNA complexes in mammalian tissues. Herein, we report a polyethyleneimine-functionalized graphene oxide nanoconjugate (GOPEI) that delivers CoGli, a CoSB-DNA complex that targets Gli specifically. We describe the characterization of the surface functionalization of GOPEI and accumulation in ASZ murine BCC cells via confocal microscopy and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Lysosomal escape of CoGli is further confirmed by confocal microscopy. We report the successful targeting of Gli by CoGli and a 17-fold improvement in potency over small-molecule Gli inhibitor GANT-61 in inhibiting Hh-driven migration of ASZ murine BCC cells. This study provides a promising starting point for further investigating CoGli inhibitors of Hh signaling in developed mammalian tissues.

Advances in glioma-associated oncogene (GLI) inhibitors for cancer therapy

The Hedgehog/Glioma-associated oncogene homolog (HH/GLI) signaling pathway regulates self-renewal of rare and highly malignant cancer stem cells, which have been shown to account for the initiation and maintenance of tumor growth as well as for drug resistance, metastatic spread and relapse. As an important component of the Hh signaling pathway, glioma-associated oncogene (GLI) acts as a key signal transmission hub for various signaling pathways in many tumors. Here, we review direct and indirect inhibitors of GLI; summarize the abundant active structurally diverse natural GLI inhibitors; and discuss how to better develop and utilize GLI inhibitors to solve the problem of drug resistance in tumors of interest. In summary, GLI inhibitors will be promising candidates for various cancer treatments.

A review on the treatment of multiple myeloma with small molecular agents in the past five years

Multiple myeloma is currently incurable, and the incidence rate is increasing year by year worldwide. Although in recent years the combined treatment plan based on proteasome inhibitors and immunomodulatory drugs has greatly improved the treatment effect of multiple myeloma, most patients still relapse and become resistant to current treatments. To solve this problem, scientists are committed to developing drugs with higher specificity, such as iberdomide, which is highly specific to ikaros and aiolos. This review aims to focus on the small molecular agents that are being researched/clinically used for the treatment of multiple myeloma, including the target mechanism, structure-activity relationship and application prospects of small molecular agents.

The association of Greig syndrome and mastocytosis reveals the involvement of the hedgehog pathway in advanced mastocytosis

Mastocytosis is a heterogeneous disease characterized by an abnormal accumulation of mast cells (MCs) in 1 or several organs. Although a somatic KIT D816V mutation is detected in ∼85% of patients, attempts to demonstrate its oncogenic effect alone have repeatedly failed, suggesting that additional pathways are involved in MC transformation. From 3 children presenting with both Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome (GCPS, Mendelian Inheritance in Man [175700]) and congenital mastocytosis, we demonstrated the involvement of the hedgehog (Hh) pathway in mastocytosis. GCPS is an extremely rare syndrome resulting from haploinsufficiency of GLI3, the major repressor of Hh family members. From these familial cases of mastocytosis, we demonstrate that the Hh pathway is barely active in normal primary MCs and is overactive in neoplastic MCs. GLI3 and KIT mutations had a synergistic, tumorigenic effect on the onset of mastocytosis in a GCPS mouse model. Finally, Hh inhibitors suppressed neoplastic MC proliferation in vitro and extend the survival time of mice with aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM). This work revealed, for the first time, the involvement of Hh signaling in the pathophysiology of mastocytosis and demonstrated the cooperative effects of the KIT and Hh oncogenic pathways in mice with ASM, leading to the identification of new promising therapeutic targets.

The Role of Smoothened-Dependent and -Independent Hedgehog Signaling Pathway in Tumorigenesis

The Hedgehog (Hh)-glioma-associated oncogene homolog (GLI) signaling pathway is highly conserved among mammals, with crucial roles in regulating embryonic development as well as in cancer initiation and progression. The GLI transcription factors (GLI1, GLI2, and GLI3) are effectors of the Hh pathway and are regulated via Smoothened (SMO)-dependent and SMO-independent mechanisms. The SMO-dependent route involves the common Hh-PTCH-SMO axis, and mutations or transcriptional and epigenetic dysregulation at these levels lead to the constitutive activation of GLI transcription factors. Conversely, the SMO-independent route involves the SMO bypass regulation of GLI transcription factors by external signaling pathways and their interacting proteins or by epigenetic and transcriptional regulation of GLI transcription factors expression. Both routes of GLI activation, when dysregulated, have been heavily implicated in tumorigenesis of many known cancers, making them important targets for cancer treatment. Hence, this review describes the various SMO-dependent and SMO-independent routes of GLI regulation in the tumorigenesis of multiple cancers in order to provide a holistic view of the paradigms of hedgehog signaling networks involving GLI regulation. An in-depth understanding of the complex interplay between GLI and various signaling elements could help inspire new therapeutic breakthroughs for the treatment of Hh-GLI-dependent cancers in the future. Lastly, we have presented an up-to-date summary of the latest findings concerning the use of Hh inhibitors in clinical developmental studies and discussed the challenges, perspectives, and possible directions regarding the use of SMO/GLI inhibitors in clinical settings.

Peptide-Targeted High-Density Lipoprotein Nanoparticles for Combinatorial Treatment against Metastatic Breast Cancer

The sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway exhibits aberrant activation in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), wherein it regulates several malignant phenotypes related to tumor metastasis. GANT61, an inhibitor of the SHH signaling pathway, may offer promise when administered in combination with conventional chemotherapy to treat metastatic TNBC. However, poor bioavailability and substantial off-target toxicity limit its clinical application. To address these limitations, we designed a peptide-functionalized dual-targeting delivery system encapsulating paclitaxel and GANT61 in tLyP-1 peptide-modified reconstituted high-density lipoprotein nanoparticle (tLyP-1-rHDL-PTX/GANT61 NP) for metastatic TNBC treatment. The apolipoprotein A-1 and tLyP-1 peptide modified on the surface of nanoparticles enable the delivery system to target tumor cells by binding to the overexpressed scavenger receptor B type I and neuropilin-1 receptor. Moreover, the tLyP-1 peptide also enables the deep tumor penetration of nanoparticles further facilitating paclitaxel and GANT61 delivery. Increased cellular uptake of the nanoparticles was observed in both MDA-MB-231, BT-549 tumor cells, and their 3D tumor spheroids. A series of in vitro experiments reveal that GANT61 was able to suppress key metastasis-related tumor cell activities including angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and stemness. Owing to more effective drug administration, the metastasis suppression efficiency of GANT61 was significantly enhanced by the dual-targeting tLyP-1-rHDL delivery system. Meanwhile, the codelivery of paclitaxel and GANT61 by dual-targeting tLyP-1-rHDL nanoparticles demonstrated superior efficiency of disrupting proliferation and inducing apoptosis in tumor cells compared with drug solutions. In a spontaneous metastasis breast cancer NCG mice model, the tLyP-1-rHDL-PTX/GANT61 nanoparticles exhibited highly tumor-specific distribution and result in significant inhibition of the primary tumor growth and dramatic reduction of lung metastasis without obvious side effects. The present work suggests that a combination of the SHH signaling pathway suppression and chemotherapy assisted by peptide-functionalized targeting tLyP-1-rHDL nanoparticles may provide a promising strategy for metastatic TNBC treatment.

Design and Synthesis of New Withaferin A Inspired Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitors

Withanolides constitute a well-known family of plant-based alkaloids characterised by widespread biological properties, including the ability of interfering with Hedgehog (Hh) signalling pathway. Following our interest in natural products and in anticancer compounds, we report here the synthesis of a new class of Hh signalling pathway inhibitors, inspired by withaferin A, the first isolated member of withanolides. The decoration of our scaffolds was rationally supported by in silico studies, while functional evaluation revealed promising candidates, confirming once again the importance of natural products as inspiration source for the discovery of novel bioactive compounds. A stereoselective approach, based on Brown chemistry, allowed the obtainment and the functional evaluation of the enantiopure hit compounds.

GLI1: A Therapeutic Target for Cancer

GLI1 is a transcriptional effector at the terminal end of the Hedgehog signaling (Hh) pathway and is tightly regulated during embryonic development and tissue patterning/differentiation. GLI1 has low-level expression in differentiated tissues, however, in certain cancers, aberrant activation of GLI1 has been linked to the promotion of numerous hallmarks of cancer, such as proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis, metabolic rewiring, and chemotherapeutic resistance. All of these are driven, in part, by GLI1’s role in regulating cell cycle, DNA replication and DNA damage repair processes. The consequences of GLI1 oncogenic activity, specifically the activity surrounding DNA damage repair proteins, such as NBS1, and cell cycle proteins, such as CDK1, can be linked to tumorigenesis and chemoresistance. Therefore, understanding the underlying mechanisms driving GLI1 dysregulation can provide prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers to identify a patient population that would derive therapeutic benefit from either direct inhibition of GLI1 or targeted therapy towards proteins downstream of GLI1 regulation.

Structure-based virtual screening identifies an 8-hydroxyquinoline as a small molecule GLI1 inhibitor

The glioma-associated family of transcription factors (GLI) have emerged as a promising therapeutic target for a variety of human cancers. In particular, GLI1 plays a central role as a transcriptional regulator for multiple oncogenic signaling pathways, including the hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway. We undertook a computational screening approach to identify small molecules that directly bind GLI1 for potential development as inhibitors of GLI-mediated transcription. Through these studies, we identified compound 1, which is an 8-hydroxyquinoline, as a high-affinity binder of GLI1. Compound 1 inhibits GLI1-mediated transcriptional activity in several Hh-dependent cellular models, including a primary model of murine medulloblastoma. We also performed a series of computational analyses to define more clearly the mechanism(s) through which 1 inhibits GLI1 function after binding. Our results strongly suggest that binding of 1 to GLI1 does not prevent GLI1/DNA binding nor disrupt the GLI1/DNA complex, but rather, it induces specific conformational changes in the overall complex that prevent proper GLI function. These results highlight the potential of this compound for further development as an anti-cancer agent that targets GLI1.

Shh-Yap signaling controls hepatic ductular reactions in CCl4 -induced liver injury

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄ ) exposure can induce hepatic ductular reactions. To date, however, the related mechanism remains largely unknown. Sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Yes-associated protein (Yap) signaling are correlated with liver injury and regeneration. Herein, we investigated the role of Shh and Yap signaling in the fate of ductular reaction cells in CCl₄ -treated livers and the possible mechanisms. Wild-type and Shh-EGFP-Cre male mice were exposed to CCl₄ (2 mL/kg), and then treated with or without the Shh signaling inhibitor Gant61. The level of liver injury, proliferation of ductular reaction cells, and expression levels of mRNA and protein related to the Shh and Yap signaling components were assessed. Results showed that CCl₄ treatment induced liver injury and promoted activation and proliferation of ductular reaction cells. In addition, CCl₄ induced the expression of Shh ligands in hepatocytes, accompanied by activation of Shh and Yap1 signaling in the liver. Furthermore, administration of Gant61 ameliorated liver regeneration, inhibited hepatic ductular reactions, and decreased Shh and Yap1 signaling activity. Thus, Shh-Yap1 signaling appears to play an integral role in the proliferation of ductular reaction cells in CCl₄ -induced liver injury. This study should improve our understanding of the mechanism of CCl₄ -induced liver injury and ductular reactions and provide support for future investigations on liver disease therapy.

A unique high-diversity natural product collection as a reservoir of new therapeutic leads

We review the successful application of computer-aided methods to screen a unique and high-diversity in house collection library composed of around 1000 individual natural products.

Targeting the GLI family of transcription factors for the development of anti-cancer drugs

INTRODUCTION

GLI1 is a transcription factor that has been identified as a downstream effector for multiple tumorigenic signaling pathways. These include the Hedgehog, RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK, and PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathways, which have all been separately validated as individual anti-cancer drug targets. The identification of GLI1 as a key transcriptional regulator for each of these pathways highlights its promise as a therapeutic target. Small molecule GLI1 inhibitors are potentially efficacious against human malignancies arising from multiple oncogenic mechanisms.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides an overview of the key oncogenic cellular pathways that regulate GLI1 transcriptional activity. It also provides a detailed account of small molecule GLI1 inhibitors that are currently under development as potential anti-cancer chemotherapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

Interest in developing inhibitors of GLI1-mediated transcription has significantly increased as its role in multiple oncogenic signaling pathways has been elucidated. To date, it has proven difficult to directly target GLI1 with small molecules, and the majority of compounds that inhibit GLI1 activity function through indirect mechanisms. To date, no direct-acting GLI1 inhibitor has entered clinical trials. The identification and development of new scaffolds that can bind and directly inhibit GLI1 are essential to further advance this class of chemotherapeutics.

The SHH/GLI signaling pathway: a therapeutic target for medulloblastoma

INTRODUCTION

Medulloblastoma (MB) is a heterogeneous tumor of the cerebellum that is divided into four main subgroups with distinct molecular and clinical features. Sonic Hedgehog MB (SHH-MB) is the most genetically understood and occurs predominantly in childhood. Current therapies consist of aggressive and non-targeted multimodal approaches that are often ineffective and cause long-term complications. These problems intensify the need to develop molecularly targeted therapies to improve outcome and reduce treatment-related morbidities. In this scenario, Hedgehog (HH) signaling, a developmental pathway whose deregulation is involved in the pathogenesis of several malignancies, has emerged as an attractive druggable pathway for SHH-MB therapy.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides an overview of the advancements in the HH antagonist research field. We place an emphasis on Smoothened (SMO) and glioma-associated oncogene homolog (GLI) inhibitors and immunotherapy approaches that are validated in preclinical SHH-MB models and that have therapeutic potential for MB patients. Literature from Pubmed and data reported on ClinicalTrial.gov up to August 2020 were considered.

EXPERT OPINION

Extensive-omics analysis has enhanced our knowledge and has transformed the way that MB is studied and managed. The clinical use of SMO antagonists has yet to be determined, however, future GLI inhibitors and multitargeting approaches are promising.

Upregulation of miRNA-9-5p Promotes Angiogenesis after Traumatic Brain Injury by Inhibiting Ptch-1

MicroRNA-9-5p (miRNA-9-5p) is an important regulator of angiogenesis in many pathological states. However, the effect of miRNA-9-5p on angiogenesis after traumatic brain injury (TBI) has not been elucidated. In this study, a controlled cortical impact (CCI) model was used to induce TBI in Sprague-Dawley rats, and an oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) model was used to mimic the pathological state in vitro. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were extracted from immature rats. The results showed that the level of miRNA-9-5p was significantly increased in the traumatic foci after TBI, and the upregulation of miRNA9-5p promoted the recovery of neurological function. Moreover, the upregulation of miRNA-9-5p with miRNA agomir significantly increased the density of the microvascular and neurons around the traumatic foci in rats after TBI. The results of the in vitro experiments confirmed that the upregulation of miRNA-9-5p with a miRNA mimic improved cellular viability and alleviated cellular apoptosis. Dual luciferase reporter assay validated that miRNA-9-5p was a posttranscriptional modulator of Ptch-1. Activation of the Hedgehog pathway by increasing the level of miRNA-9-5p promoted the migration and tube formation of BMECs in vitro. In addition, we found that the upregulation of miRNA-9-5p activated the Hedgehog pathway and increased the phosphorylation of AKT, which promoted the expression of cyclin D1, MMP-9 and VEGF in BMECs. All these results indicate that the upregulation of miRNA-9-5p promotes angiogenesis and improves neurological functional recovery after TBI, mainly by activating the Hedgehog pathway. MiRNA-9-5p may be a potential new therapeutic target for TBI.

Pharmacophore-Based Virtual Screening for Identification of Negative Modulators of GLI1 as Potential Anticancer Agents

Starting from known GLI1 inhibitors, a pharmacophore-based virtual screening approach was applied to databases of commercially available compounds with the aim of identifying new GLI1 modulators. As a result, three different chemical scaffolds emerged that were characterized by a significant ability to reduce the transcriptional activity of the endogenous Hedgehog-GLI pathway and GLI1 protein level in murine NIH3T3 cells. They also showed a micromolar antiproliferative activity in human melanoma (A375) and medulloblastoma (DAOY) cell lines, without cytotoxicity in non-neoplastic mammary epithelial cells.

GANT61 and curcumin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles for GLI1 and PI3K/Akt-mediated inhibition in breast adenocarcinoma

Current conventional mono and combination therapeutic strategies often fail to target breast cancer tissue effectively due to tumor heterogeneity comprising cancer stem cells (CSCs) and bulk tumor cells. This is further associated with drug toxicity and resistivity in the long run. A nanomedicine platform incorporating combination anti-cancer treatment might overcome these challenges and generate synergistic anti-cancer effects and also reduce drug toxicity. GANT61 and curcumin were co-delivered via polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) for the first time to elicit enhanced anti-tumor activity against heterogeneous breast cancer cell line MCF-7. We adopted the single-emulsion-solvent evaporation method for the preparation of the therapeutic NPs. The GANT61-curcumin PLGA NPs were characterized for their size, shape and chemical properties, and anti-cancer cell studies were undertaken for the plausible explanation of our hypothesis. The synthesized GANT61-curcumin PLGA NPs had a spherical, smooth surface morphology, and an average size of 347.4 d. nm. The NPs induced cytotoxic effects in breast cancer cells at a mid-minimal dosage followed by cell death via autophagy and apoptosis, reduction in their target protein expression along with compromising the self-renewal property of CSCs as revealed by their in vitro cell studies. The dual-drug NPs thus provide a novel perspective on aiding existing anti-cancer nanomedicine therapies to target a heterogeneous tumor mass effectively.

GLI1 Inhibitor SRI-38832 Attenuates Chemotherapeutic Resistance by Downregulating NBS1 Transcription in BRAFV600E Colorectal Cancer

Resistance to radiation and chemotherapy in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients contribute significantly to refractory disease and disease progression. Herein, we provide mechanistic rationale for acquired or inherent chemotherapeutic resistance to the anti-tumor effects of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) that is linked to oncogenic GLI1 transcription activity and NBS1 overexpression. Patients with high levels of GLI1 also expressed high levels of NBS1. Non-canonical activation of GLI1 is driven through oncogenic pathways in CRC, like the BRAFV600E mutation. GLI1 was identified as a novel regulator of NBS1 and discovered that by knocking down GLI1 levels in vitro, diminished NBS1 expression, increased DNA damage/apoptosis, and re-sensitization of 5-FU resistant cancer to treatment was observed. Furthermore, a novel GLI1 inhibitor, SRI-38832, which exhibited pharmacokinetic properties suitable for in vivo testing, was identified. GLI1 inhibition in a murine BRAFV600E variant xenograft model of CRC resulted in the same down-regulation of NBS1 observed in vitro as well as significant reduction of tumor growth/burden. GLI1 inhibition could therefore be a therapeutic option for 5-FU resistant and BRAFV600E variant CRC patients.

Hedgehog signaling pathway inhibitors: an updated patent review (2015-present)

Introduction: Hedgehog (Hh) signaling plays a pivotal role in tissue development and stemness, and its deregulation is found in many different tumors. Several efforts have been devoted to discovery of Hh inhibitors, including three drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), targeting the upstream receptor smoothened (SMO). However, SMO mutations or SMO-independent Hh pathway activation raise the need for novel Hh inhibitors.Areas covered: This review describes Hh inhibitors with anticancer potential patented in the period 2015-present.Expert opinion: Despite the initial enthusiasm in SMO antagonists, drug-resistant mutations, and SMO-independent Hh activation limited their clinical application. A growing number of therapeutic strategies are currently focusing on downstream Hh effectors (i.e. glioma-associate oncogenes (GLI) proteins) or other signaling pathways related to Hh, in addition to drug repositioning. Given the heterogenic nature of cancers, a terrific clinical impact is expected by multi-targeting approaches able to modulate simultaneously SMO and GLI, and/or additional targets that act as regulators of Hh signaling. It is expected that these alternative strategies might be investigated in clinical trials in the next years against a wide variety of tumor types, and that they provide improved outcomes compared to current SMO antagonists or other single-agent anticancer drugs.

Self-Renewal Signalling Pathway Inhibitors: Perspectives on Therapeutic Approaches for Cancer Stem Cells

The poor survival and prognosis of individuals with cancer are often attributed to tumour relapse and metastasis, which may be due to the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSCs have the characteristics of self-renewal, differentiation potential, high carcinogenicity, and drug resistance. In addition, CSCs exhibit many characteristics similar to those of embryonic or tissue stem cells while displaying persistent abnormal activation of self-renewal pathways associated with development and tissue homeostasis, including the Wnt, Notch, Hedgehog (Hh), TGF-β, JAK/STAT3, and NF-κB pathways. Therefore, we can eliminate CSCs by targeting these self-renewal pathways to constrain stem cell replication, survival and differentiation. At the same time, we cannot neglect the ping-pong effect of the tumour microenvironment, which releases cytokines and promotes self-renewal pathways in CSCs. Recently, meaningful progress has been made in the study of inhibitors of self-renewal pathways in tumours. This review primarily summarizes several representative and novel agents targeting these self-renewal signalling pathways and the tumour microenvironment and that represent a promising strategy for treating refractory and recurrent cancer.

Gant61 ameliorates CCl4-induced liver fibrosis by inhibition of Hedgehog signaling activity

As an intercellular signaling molecule, Hedgehog (Hh) plays a critical role in liver fibrosis/regeneration. Transcription effectors Gli1 and Gli2 are key components of the Hh signaling pathway. However, whether inhibition of Gli1/2 activity can affect liver fibrogenesis is largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effect of Gant61 (a Gli1/2 transcription factor inhibitor) on liver fibrosis and its possible mechanism. Wild-type and Shh-EGFP-Cre male mice were exposed to CCl₄, and then treated with or without Gant61 for four weeks. The level of liver injury/fibrosis and expression levels of mRNA and protein related to the Hh ligand/pathway were assessed. In our study, CCl₄ treatment induced liver injury/fibrosis and promoted activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). In addition, CCl₄ induced the expression of Shh ligands in and around the fibrotic lesion, accompanied by induction of mRNA and protein expression of Hh components (Smo, Gli1 and Gli2). However, administration of Gant61 decreased liver fibrosis by reduction in HSC number, down-regulation of mRNA and protein expression of Hh components (Smo, Gli1 and Gli2), and cell-cycle arrest of HSCs. Our data highlight the importance of the Shh pathway for the development of liver fibrosis, and also suggest Glis as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Ni(II), Pd(II), and Pt(II) Complexes of the Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitor GANT61-D

GANT61-D is an important hedgehog pathway inhibitor and an interesting ligand candidate for metal coordination. The first examples of metal complexes of the potent hedgehog pathway inhibitor GANT61-D are described. The reaction of Ni(II), Pd(II), and Pt(II) precursors with the hedgehog pathway inhibitor GANT61-D gave [Ni^II(GANT61-D)(OH₂)₃(μ²-SO₄)(μ³-SO₄)] (1), [Pd^II(Cl)(GANT61-D)]Cl (2), [Pt^II(Cl)(GANT61-D)]Cl, and [Pt^II(CBDCA_-2H)(GANT61-D)]. X-ray crystal structure analysis revealed that GANT61-D is a versatile N-donor ligand that can act as a bidentate ligand via the diaminopropane (DAP) N atoms or a tridentate ligand via the DAP N atoms and one dimethylaniline N atom. Protonation constants of the GANT61-D ligand in water and in a 60:40 (w/w) dimethyl sulfoxide-water solvent mixture were determined. Potentiometric and spectroscopic data on the Ni^II(GANT61-D) system indicate the formation of octahedral 1:1 species with medium stability in solution. 1 and 2 exhibited noteworthy in vitro cytotoxicity against medulloblastoma cancer cells.

A Smo/Gli Multitarget Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitor Impairs Tumor Growth

Pharmacological Hedgehog (Hh) pathway inhibition has emerged as a valuable anticancer strategy. A number of small molecules able to block the pathway at the upstream receptor Smoothened (Smo) or the downstream effector glioma-associated oncogene 1 (Gli1) has been designed and developed. In a recent study, we exploited the high versatility of the natural isoflavone scaffold for targeting the Hh signaling pathway at multiple levels showing that the simultaneous targeting of Smo and Gli1 provided synergistic Hh pathway inhibition stronger than single administration. This approach seems to effectively overcome the drug resistance, particularly at the level of Smo. Here, we combined the pharmacophores targeting Smo and Gli1 into a single and individual isoflavone, compound 22, which inhibits the Hh pathway at both upstream and downstream level. We demonstrate that this multitarget agent suppresses medulloblastoma growth in vitro and in vivo through antagonism of Smo and Gli1, which is a novel mechanism of action in Hh inhibition.

Role of Hedgehog Signaling in Breast Cancer: Pathogenesis and Therapeutics

Breast cancer (BC) is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in women, only followed by lung cancer. Given the importance of BC in public health, it is essential to identify biomarkers to predict prognosis, predetermine drug resistance and provide treatment guidelines that include personalized targeted therapies. The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway plays an essential role in embryonic development, tissue regeneration, and stem cell renewal. Several lines of evidence endorse the important role of canonical and non-canonical Hh signaling in BC. In this comprehensive review we discuss the role of Hh signaling in breast development and homeostasis and its contribution to tumorigenesis and progression of different subtypes of BC. We also examine the efficacy of agents targeting different components of the Hh pathway both in preclinical models and in clinical trials. The contribution of the Hh pathway in BC tumorigenesis and progression, its prognostic role, and its value as a therapeutic target vary according to the molecular, clinical, and histopathological characteristics of the BC patients. The evidence presented here highlights the relevance of the Hh signaling in BC, and suggest that this pathway is key for BC progression and metastasis.

Reproducibility of academic preclinical translational research: lessons from the development of Hedgehog pathway inhibitors to treat cancer

Academic translational research is growing at a great pace at a time in which questions have been raised about the reproducibility of preclinical findings. The development of Hedgehog (HH) pathway inhibitors for the treatment of cancer over the past two decades offers a case study for understanding the root causes of failure to predict clinical outcomes arising from academic preclinical translational research. Although such inhibitors were once hoped to be efficacious in up to 25% of human cancer, clinical studies showed responses only in basal cell carcinoma and the HH subtype of medulloblastoma. Close examination of the published studies reveals limitations in the models used, lack of quantitative standards, utilization of high drug concentrations associated with non-specific toxicities and improper use of cell line and mouse models. In part, these issues arise from scientific complexity, for example, the failure of tumour cell lines to maintain HH pathway activity in vitro, but a greater contributing factor appears to be the influence of unconscious bias. There was a strong expectation that HH pathway inhibitors would make a profound impact on human cancer and experiments were designed with this assumption in mind.

Arsenic Trioxide and (-)-Gossypol Synergistically Target Glioma Stem-Like Cells via Inhibition of Hedgehog and Notch Signaling

Glioblastoma is one of the deadliest malignancies and is virtually incurable. Accumulating evidence indicates that a small population of cells with a stem-like phenotype is the major culprit of tumor recurrence. Enhanced DNA repair capacity and expression of stemness marker genes are the main characteristics of these cells. Elimination of this population might delay or prevent tumor recurrence following radiochemotherapy. The aim of this study was to analyze whether interference with the Hedgehog signaling (Hh) pathway or combined Hh/Notch blockade using small-molecule inhibitors can efficiently target these cancer stem cells and sensitize them to therapy. Using tumor sphere lines and primary patient-derived glioma cultures we demonstrate that the Hh pathway inhibitor GANT61 (GANT) and the arsenic trioxide (ATO)-mediated Hh/Notch inhibition are capable to synergistically induce cell death in combination with the natural anticancer agent (−)-Gossypol (Gos). Only ATO in combination with Gos also strongly decreased stemness marker expression and prevented sphere formation and recovery. These synergistic effects were associated with distinct proteomic changes indicating diminished DNA repair and markedly reduced stemness. Finally, using an organotypic brain slice transplantation model, we show that combined ATO/Gos treatment elicits strong growth inhibition or even complete elimination of tumors. Collectively, our data show for the first time that ATO and Gos, two drugs that can be used in the clinic, represent a promising targeted therapy approach for the synergistic elimination of glioma stem-like cells.