Conserved actin machinery drives microtubule-independent motility and phagocytosis in Naegleria

Eating the brain - A multidisciplinary study provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying the cytopathogenicity of Naegleria fowleri

Naegleria fowleri, the causative agent of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), requires increased research attention due to its high lethality and the potential for increased incidence as a result of global warming. The aim of this study was to investigate the interactions between N. fowleri and host cells in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of this amoeba. A co-culture system comprising human fibrosarcoma cells was established to study both contact-dependent and contact-independent cytopathogenicity. Proteomic analyses of the amoebas exposed to human cell cultures or passaged through mouse brain were used to identify novel virulence factors. Our results indicate that actin dynamics, regulated by Arp2/3 and Src kinase, play a considerable role in ingestion of host cells by amoebae. We have identified three promising candidate virulence factors, namely lysozyme, cystatin and hemerythrin, which may be critical in facilitating N. fowleri evasion of host defenses, migration to the brain and induction of a lethal infection. Long-term co-culture secretome analysis revealed an increase in protease secretion, which enhances N. fowleri cytopathogenicity. Raman microspectroscopy revealed significant metabolic differences between axenic and brain-isolated amoebae, particularly in lipid storage and utilization. Taken together, our findings provide important new insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of N. fowleri and highlight potential targets for therapeutic intervention against PAM.

Transcriptomic profiling of "brain-eating amoeba" Naegleria fowleri infection in mice: the host and the protozoa perspectives

The free-living amoeba Naegleria fowleri (NF) causes a rare but lethal parasitic meningoencephalitis (PAM) in humans. Currently, this disease lacks effective treatments and the specific molecular mechanisms that govern NF pathogenesis and host brain response remain unknown. To address some of these issues, we sought to explore naturally existing virulence diversity within environmental NF isolates. Herein, we purified two new NF environmental isolates (NF45 and NF1) and tested their in vivo virulence using experimental infection in mice. We found that NF45 was highly virulent (NF45_HV) compared with NF1 (low virulence, NF1_LV), based on in vivo amoeba growth kinetics and mouse survival. To identify underlying differences, we conducted RNA-seq and bioinformatics analyses from the infected mouse brains. Our results showed that NF1_LV and NF45_HV modulated the expression of their genes during mouse brain infection. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in NF1_LV were mostly involved in Translational protein, Protein-binding activity modulator, Protein modifying enzyme, while DEGs in NF45_HV were related to DNA metabolism, Cytoskeletal protein, Protein-binding activity modulator. Proteases (namely the virulence factor Cathepsin B) were upregulated in NF1_LV, while downregulated in NF45_HV. When analyzing the host response against infection by these two NF strains, enrichment analyses uncovered genes and mechanisms related to the host immune responses and nervous systems. We detected more DEGs in NF1_LV infected mice compared to NF45_HV, related to blood brain barrier leakage, immune cell recruitment, cytokine production (including IL-6, IFN-Ɣ and TNFα), inflammation of astrocytes and microglia, and oligodendrocyte and neurons degeneration. Increased expression of neuromotor-related genes such as Adam22, Cacnb4 and Zic1 (activated by NF1_LV infection) and ChAt (activated by NF45_LV infection) could explain PAM symptoms such as muscle weakness and seizures. Globally, our results showed that NF isolated from the environment can have different levels of virulence and differentially modulate their gene expression during brain infection. We also provided, for the first time, a comprehensive information for the molecular mechanisms of neuro-immune and host-pathogen interactions during PAM disease. As the host and the protozoa are strongly implicated in PAM lethality, new therapies targeting both the parasite, and the host should be considered to treat PAM infection.

From Molecules to Amoeboid Movement: A New Way for Understanding the Morphology Through Actin-Binding Proteins

Amoebozoa is a group of single-celled organisms that change their shape during locomotion. However, there is a taxon-specific complex of morphological characters inherent in the moving amoebae, known as locomotive forms. Actin is one of the proteins most important for amoeboid movement that, together with actin-binding proteins, construct the architecture of the cytoskeleton in the amoeboid cells. One of the actin-binding proteins is the Arp2/3 complex that provides a connection between actin filaments at an angle of 70°. In this paper, we predicted 3D models of bonded subunits Arp2 and Arp3 for 30 species from different taxa of Amoebozoa based on the publicly available transcriptomic data. Moreover, we predicted the binding free energy (ΔG) of bonded subunits Arp2 and Arp3 for 30 species and tried to link it to the morphology of the locomotive forms of amoebae. The ΔG values are the lowest in amoebae with the broad hyaline area, like Vannella spp. Amoebae that produce thin hyaline projections, like Vexillifera abyssalis, are characterized by intermediate ΔG values. Finally, the highest ΔG values are typical for the group of amoebae that have no conspicuous hyaline areas of the cytoplasm, like Pelomyxa shiedti, or have small hyaline caps, like Arcella intermedia. The presented analysis provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms of shape formation in amoeboid cells.

Origin and evolution of microvilli

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Microvilli are finger-like, straight, and stable cellular protrusions that are filled with F-actin and present a stereotypical length. They are present in a broad range of cell types across the animal tree of life and mediate several fundamental functions, including nutrient absorption, photosensation, and mechanosensation. Therefore, understanding the origin and evolution of microvilli is key to reconstructing the evolution of animal cellular form and function. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on microvilli evolution and perform a bioinformatic survey of the conservation of genes encoding microvillar proteins in animals and their unicellular relatives.

RESULTS

We first present a detailed description of mammalian microvilli based on two well-studied examples, the brush border microvilli of enterocytes and the stereocilia of hair cells. We also survey the broader diversity of microvilli and discuss similarities and differences between microvilli and filopodia. Based on our bioinformatic survey coupled with carefully reconstructed molecular phylogenies, we reconstitute the order of evolutionary appearance of microvillar proteins. We document the stepwise evolutionary assembly of the "molecular microvillar toolkit" with notable bursts of innovation at two key nodes: the last common filozoan ancestor (correlated with the evolution of microvilli distinct from filopodia) and the last common choanozoan ancestor (correlated with the emergence of inter-microvillar adhesions).

CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE

We conclude with a scenario for the evolution of microvilli from filopodia-like ancestral structures in unicellular precursors of animals.

Actin network evolution as a key driver of eukaryotic diversification

Eukaryotic cells have been evolving for billions of years, giving rise to wildly diverse cell forms and functions. Despite their variability, all eukaryotic cells share key hallmarks, including membrane-bound organelles, heavily regulated cytoskeletal networks and complex signaling cascades. Because the actin cytoskeleton interfaces with each of these features, understanding how it evolved and diversified across eukaryotic phyla is essential to understanding the evolution and diversification of eukaryotic cells themselves. Here, we discuss what we know about the origin and diversity of actin networks in terms of their compositions, structures and regulation, and how actin evolution contributes to the diversity of eukaryotic form and function.

Reduced PaxillinB localization to cell-substrate adhesions promotes cell migration in Dictyostelium

Many cells adhere to extracellular matrix for efficient cell migration. This adhesion is mediated by focal adhesions, a protein complex linking the extracellular matrix to the intracellular cytoskeleton. Focal adhesions have been studied extensively in mesenchymal cells, but recent research in physiological contexts and amoeboid cells suggest focal adhesion regulation differs from the mesenchymal focal adhesion paradigm. We used Dictyostelium discoideum to uncover new mechanisms of focal adhesion regulation, as Dictyostelium are amoeboid cells that form focal adhesion-like structures for migration. We show that PaxillinB, the Dictyostelium homologue of Paxillin, localizes to dynamic focal adhesion-like structures during Dictyostelium migration. Unexpectedly, reduced PaxillinB recruitment to these structures increases Dictyostelium cell migration. Quantitative analysis of focal adhesion size and dynamics show that lack of PaxillinB recruitment to focal adhesions does not alter focal adhesion size, but rather increases focal adhesion turnover. These findings are in direct contrast to Paxillin function at focal adhesions during mesenchymal migration, challenging the established focal adhesion model.

Archaeal actins and the origin of a multi-functional cytoskeleton

Actin and actin-like proteins form filamentous polymers that carry out important cellular functions in all domains of life. In this review, we sketch a map of the function and regulation of actin-like proteins across bacteria, archaea, and eukarya, marking some of the terra incognita that remain in this landscape. We focus particular attention on archaea because mapping the structure and function of cytoskeletal systems across this domain promises to help us understand the evolutionary relationship between the (mostly) mono-functional actin-like filaments found in bacteria and the multi-functional actin cytoskeletons that characterize eukaryotic cells.

Cooperative actin filament nucleation by the Arp2/3 complex and formins maintains the homeostatic cortical array in Arabidopsis epidermal cells

Precise control over how and where actin filaments are created leads to the construction of unique cytoskeletal arrays within a common cytoplasm. Actin filament nucleators are key players in this activity and include the conserved actin-related protein 2/3 (Arp2/3) complex as well as a large family of formins. In some eukaryotic cells, these nucleators compete for a common pool of actin monomers and loss of one favors the activity of the other. To test whether this mechanism is conserved, we combined the ability to image single filament dynamics in the homeostatic cortical actin array of living Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) epidermal cells with genetic and/or small molecule inhibitor approaches to stably or acutely disrupt nucleator activity. We found that Arp2/3 mutants or acute CK-666 treatment markedly reduced the frequency of side-branched nucleation events as well as overall actin filament abundance. We also confirmed that plant formins contribute to side-branched filament nucleation in vivo. Surprisingly, simultaneous inhibition of both classes of nucleator increased overall actin filament abundance and enhanced the frequency of de novo nucleation events by an unknown mechanism. Collectively, our findings suggest that multiple actin nucleation mechanisms cooperate to generate and maintain the homeostatic cortical array of plant epidermal cells.

Cytoskeletal dynamics in parasites

Cytoskeletal dynamics are essential for cellular homeostasis and development for both metazoans and protozoans. The function of cytoskeletal elements in protozoans can diverge from that of metazoan cells, with microtubules being more stable and actin filaments being more dynamic. This is particularly striking in protozoan parasites that evolved to enter metazoan cells. Here, we review recent progress towards understanding cytoskeletal dynamics in protozoan parasites, with a focus on divergent properties compared to classic model organisms.

Evolutionary cell biology: New roles for Arp2/3 complex evolution in eukaryotic diversification

The actin cytoskeleton is a protein polymer system that underlies a wide variety of eukaryotic phenotypes. A new study reports that diversity in a key actin regulator, the Arp2/3 complex, drives species-specific sperm development within the Drosophila lineage.

Random walk and cell morphology dynamics in Naegleria gruberi

Amoeboid cell movement and migration are wide-spread across various cell types and species. Microscopy-based analysis of the model systems Dictyostelium and neutrophils over the years have uncovered generality in their overall cell movement pattern. Under no directional cues, the centroid movement can be quantitatively characterized by their persistence to move in a straight line and the frequency of re-orientation. Mathematically, the cells essentially behave as a persistent random walker with memory of two characteristic time-scale. Such quantitative characterization is important from a cellular-level ethology point of view as it has direct connotation to their exploratory and foraging strategies. Interestingly, outside the amoebozoa and metazoa, there are largely uncharacterized species in the excavate taxon Heterolobosea including amoeboflagellate Naegleria. While classical works have shown that these cells indeed show typical amoeboid locomotion on an attached surface, their quantitative features are so far unexplored. Here, we analyzed the cell movement of Naegleria gruberi by employing long-time phase contrast imaging that automatically tracks individual cells. We show that the cells move as a persistent random walker with two time-scales that are close to those known in Dictyostelium and neutrophils. Similarities were also found in the shape dynamics which are characterized by the appearance, splitting and annihilation of the curvature waves along the cell edge. Our analysis based on the Fourier descriptor and a neural network classifier point to importance of morphology features unique to Naegleria including complex protrusions and the transient bipolar dumbbell morphologies.

The evolution and diversity of actin-dependent cell migration

Many eukaryotic cells, including animal cells and unicellular amoebae, use dynamic-actin networks to crawl across solid surfaces. Recent discoveries of actin-dependent crawling in additional lineages have sparked interest in understanding how and when this type of motility evolved. Tracing the evolution of cell crawling requires understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying motility. Here we outline what is known about the diversity and evolution of the molecular mechanisms that drive cell motility, with a focus on actin-dependent crawling. Classic studies and recent work have revealed a surprising number of distinct mechanical modes of actin-dependent crawling used by different cell types and species to navigate different environments. The overlap in actin network regulators driving multiple types of actin-dependent crawling, along with cortical-actin networks that support the plasma membrane in these cells, suggest that actin motility and cortical actin networks might have a common evolutionary origin. The rapid development of additional evolutionarily diverse model systems, advanced imaging technologies, and CRISPR-based genetic tools, is opening the door to testing these and other new ideas about the evolution of actin-dependent cell crawling.

Cell contractility in early animal evolution

Tissue deformation mediated by collective cell contractility is a signature characteristic of animals. In most animals, fast and reversible contractions of muscle cells mediate behavior, while slow and irreversible contractions of epithelial or mesenchymal cells play a key role in morphogenesis. Animal tissue contractility relies on the activity of the actin/myosin II complex (together referred to as 'actomyosin'), an ancient and versatile molecular machinery that performs a broad range of functions in development and physiology. This review synthesizes emerging insights from morphological and molecular studies into the evolutionary history of animal contractile tissue. The most ancient functions of actomyosin are cell crawling and cytokinesis, which are found in a wide variety of unicellular eukaryotes and in individual metazoan cells. Another contractile functional module, apical constriction, is universal in metazoans and shared with choanoflagellates, their closest known living relatives. The evolution of animal contractile tissue involved two key innovations: firstly, the ability to coordinate and integrate actomyosin assembly across multiple cells, notably to generate supracellular cables, which ensure tissue integrity but also allow coordinated morphogenesis and movements at the organism scale; and secondly, the evolution of dedicated contractile cell types for adult movement, belonging to two broad categories respectively defined by the expression of the fast (striated-type) and slow (smooth/non-muscle-type) myosin II paralogs. Both contractile cell types ancestrally resembled generic contractile epithelial or mesenchymal cells and might have played a versatile role in both behavior and morphogenesis. Modern animal contractile cells span a continuum between unspecialized contractile epithelia (which underlie behavior in modern placozoans), epithelia with supracellular actomyosin cables (found in modern sponges), epitheliomuscular tissues (with a concentration of actomyosin cables in basal processes, for example in sea anemones), and specialized muscle tissue that has lost most or all epithelial properties (as in ctenophores, jellyfish and bilaterians). Recent studies in a broad range of metazoans have begun to reveal the molecular basis of these transitions, powered by the elaboration of the contractile apparatus and the evolution of 'core regulatory complexes' of transcription factors specifying contractile cell identity.

A conserved pressure-driven mechanism for regulating cytosolic osmolarity

Controlling intracellular osmolarity is essential to all cellular life. Cells that live in hypo-osmotic environments, such as freshwater, must constantly battle water influx to avoid swelling until they burst. Many eukaryotic cells use contractile vacuoles to collect excess water from the cytosol and pump it out of the cell. Although contractile vacuoles are essential to many species, including important pathogens, the mechanisms that control their dynamics remain unclear. To identify the basic principles governing contractile vacuole function, we investigate here the molecular mechanisms of two species with distinct vacuolar morphologies from different eukaryotic lineages: the discoban Naegleria gruberi and the amoebozoan slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. Using quantitative cell biology, we find that although these species respond differently to osmotic challenges, they both use vacuolar-type proton pumps for filling contractile vacuoles and actin for osmoregulation, but not to power water expulsion. We also use analytical modeling to show that cytoplasmic pressure is sufficient to drive water out of contractile vacuoles in these species, similar to findings from the alveolate Paramecium multimicronucleatum. These analyses show that cytoplasmic pressure is sufficient to drive contractile vacuole emptying for a wide range of cellular pressures and vacuolar geometries. Because vacuolar-type proton-pump-dependent contractile vacuole filling and pressure-dependent emptying have now been validated in three eukaryotic lineages that diverged well over a billion years ago, we propose that this represents an ancient eukaryotic mechanism of osmoregulation.

An Atypical F-Actin Capping Protein Modulates Cytoskeleton Behaviors Crucial for Trichomonas vaginalis Colonization

Cytoadherence and migration are crucial for pathogens to establish colonization in the host. In contrast to a nonadherent isolate of Trichomonas vaginalis, an adherent one expresses more actin-related machinery proteins with more active flagellate-amoeboid morphogenesis, amoeba migration, and cytoadherence, activities that were abrogated by an actin assembly blocker. By immunoprecipitation coupled with label-free quantitative proteomics, an F-actin capping protein (T. vaginalis F-actin capping protein subunit α [TvFACPα]) was identified from the actin-centric interactome. His-TvFACPα was detected at the barbed end of a growing F-actin filament, which inhibited elongation and possessed atypical activity in binding G-actin in in vitro assays. TvFACPα partially colocalized with F-actin at the parasite pseudopod protrusion and formed a protein complex with α-actin through its C-terminal domain. Meanwhile, TvFACPα overexpression suppressed F-actin polymerization, amoeboid morphogenesis, and cytoadherence in this parasite. Ser2 phosphorylation of TvFACPα enriched in the amoeboid stage of adhered trophozoites was reduced by a casein kinase II (CKII) inhibitor. Site-directed mutagenesis and CKII inhibitor treatment revealed that Ser2 phosphorylation acts as a switching signal to alter TvFACPα actin-binding activity and the consequent actin cytoskeleton behaviors. Through CKII signaling, TvFACPα also controls the conversion of adherent trophozoites from amoeboid migration to the flagellate form with axonemal motility. Together, CKII-dependent Ser2 phosphorylation regulates TvFACPα binding to actin to fine-tune cytoskeleton dynamics and drive crucial behaviors underlying host colonization by T. vaginalis. IMPORTANCE Trichomoniasis is one of the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted diseases. T. vaginalis cytoadherence to urogenital epithelium cells is the first step in the colonization of the host. However, studies on the mechanisms of cytoadherence have focused mainly on the role of adhesion molecules, and their effects are limited when analyzed by loss- or gain-of-function assays. This study proposes an extra pathway in which the actin cytoskeleton mediated by a capping protein α-subunit may play roles in parasite morphogenesis, cytoadherence, and motility, which are crucial for colonization. Once the origin of the cytoskeleton dynamics could be manipulated, the consequent activities would be controlled as well. This mechanism may provide new potential therapeutic targets to impair this parasite infection and relieve the increasing impact of drug resistance on clinical and public health.

Endocytosis in cancer and cancer therapy

Endocytosis is a complex process whereby cell surface proteins, lipids and fluid from the extracellular environment are packaged, sorted and internalized into cells. Endocytosis is also a mechanism of drug internalization into cells. There are multiple routes of endocytosis that determine the fate of molecules, from degradation in the lysosomes to recycling back to the plasma membrane. The overall rates of endocytosis and temporal regulation of molecules transiting through endocytic pathways are also intricately linked with signalling outcomes. This process relies on an array of factors, such as intrinsic amino acid motifs and post-translational modifications. Endocytosis is frequently disrupted in cancer. These disruptions lead to inappropriate retention of receptor tyrosine kinases on the tumour cell membrane, changes in the recycling of oncogenic molecules, defective signalling feedback loops and loss of cell polarity. In the past decade, endocytosis has emerged as a pivotal regulator of nutrient scavenging, response to and regulation of immune surveillance and tumour immune evasion, tumour metastasis and therapeutic drug delivery. This Review summarizes and integrates these advances into the understanding of endocytosis in cancer. The potential to regulate these pathways in the clinic to improve cancer therapy is also discussed.

Coelomocytes of the Oligochaeta earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) as evolutionary key of defense: a morphological study

Metazoans have several mechanisms of internal defense for their survival. The internal defense system evolved alongside the organisms. Annelidae have circulating coelomocytes that perform functions comparable to the phagocytic immune cells of vertebrates. Several studies have shown that these cells are involved in phagocytosis, opsonization, and pathogen recognition processes. Like vertebrate macrophages, these circulating cells that permeate organs from the coelomic cavity capture or encapsulate pathogens, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO). Furthermore, they produce a range of bioactive proteins involved in immune response and perform detoxification functions through their lysosomal system. Coelomocytes can also participate in lithic reactions against target cells and the release of antimicrobial peptides. Our study immunohistochemically identify coelomocytes of Lumbricus terrestris scattered in the epidermal and the connective layer below, both in the longitudinal and in the smooth muscle layer, immunoreactive for TLR2, CD14 and α-Tubulin for the first time. TLR2 and CD14 are not fully colocalized with each other, suggesting that these coelomocytes may belong to two distinct families. The expression of these immune molecules on Annelidae coelomocytes confirms their crucial role in the internal defense system of these Oligochaeta protostomes, suggesting a phylogenetic conservation of these receptors. These data could provide further insights into the understanding of the internal defense system of the Annelida and of the complex mechanisms of the immune system in vertebrates.

A conserved pressure-driven mechanism for regulating cytosolic osmolarity

Controlling intracellular osmolarity is essential to all cellular life. Cells that live in hypo-osmotic environments like freshwater must constantly battle water influx to avoid swelling until they burst. Many eukaryotic cells use contractile vacuoles to collect excess water from the cytosol and pump it out of the cell. Although contractile vacuoles are essential to many species, including important pathogens, the mechanisms that control their dynamics remain unclear. To identify basic principles governing contractile vacuole function, we here investigate the molecular mechanisms of two species with distinct vacuolar morphologies from different eukaryotic lineagesâ€"the discoban Naegleria gruberi , and the amoebozoan slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum . Using quantitative cell biology we find that, although these species respond differently to osmotic challenges, they both use actin for osmoregulation, as well as vacuolar-type proton pumps for filling contractile vacuoles. We also use analytical modeling to show that cytoplasmic pressure is sufficient to drive water out of contractile vacuoles in these species, similar to findings from the alveolate Paramecium multimicronucleatum . Because these three lineages diverged well over a billion years ago, we propose that this represents an ancient eukaryotic mechanism of osmoregulation.

Naegleria genus pangenome reveals new structural and functional insights into the versatility of these free-living amoebae

Introduction

Free-living amoebae of the Naegleria genus belong to the major protist clade Heterolobosea and are ubiquitously distributed in soil and freshwater habitats. Of the 47 Naegleria species described, N. fowleri is the only one being pathogenic to humans, causing a rare but fulminant primary amoebic meningoencephalitis. Some Naegleria genome sequences are publicly available, but the genetic basis for Naegleria diversity and ability to thrive in diverse environments (including human brain) remains unclear.

Methods

Herein, we constructed a high-quality Naegleria genus pangenome to obtain a comprehensive catalog of genes encoded by these amoebae. For this, we first sequenced, assembled, and annotated six new Naegleria genomes.

Results and Discussion

Genome architecture analyses revealed that Naegleria may use genome plasticity features such as ploidy/aneuploidy to modulate their behavior in different environments. When comparing 14 near-to-complete genome sequences, our results estimated the theoretical Naegleria pangenome as a closed genome, with 13,943 genes, including 3,563 core and 10,380 accessory genes. The functional annotations revealed that a large fraction of Naegleria genes show significant sequence similarity with those already described in other kingdoms, namely Animalia and Plantae. Comparative analyses highlighted a remarkable genomic heterogeneity, even for closely related strains and demonstrate that Naegleria harbors extensive genome variability, reflected in different metabolic repertoires. If Naegleria core genome was enriched in conserved genes essential for metabolic, regulatory and survival processes, the accessory genome revealed the presence of genes involved in stress response, macromolecule modifications, cell signaling and immune response. Commonly reported N. fowleri virulence-associated genes were present in both core and accessory genomes, suggesting that N. fowleri's ability to infect human brain could be related to its unique species-specific genes (mostly of unknown function) and/or to differential gene expression. The construction of Naegleria first pangenome allowed us to move away from a single reference genome (that does not necessarily represent each species as a whole) and to identify essential and dispensable genes in Naegleria evolution, diversity and biology, paving the way for further genomic and post-genomic studies.

Macropinocytosis and Cell Migration: Don't Drink and Drive…

Macropinocytosis is a nonspecific mechanism by which cells compulsively "drink" the surrounding extracellular fluids in order to feed themselves or sample the molecules therein, hence gaining information about their environment. This process is cell-intrinsically incompatible with the migration of many cells, implying that the two functions are antagonistic. The migrating cell uses a molecular switch to stop and explore its surrounding fluid by macropinocytosis, after which it employs the same molecular machinery to start migrating again to examine another location. This cycle of migration/macropinocytosis allows cells to explore tissues, and it is key to a range of physiological processes. Evidence of this evolutionarily conserved antagonism between the two processes can be found in several cell types-immune cells, for example, being particularly adept-and ancient organisms (e.g., the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum). How macropinocytosis and migration are negatively coupled is the subject of this chapter.

Naegleria's mitotic spindles are built from unique tubulins and highlight core spindle features

Naegleria gruberi is a unicellular eukaryote whose evolutionary distance from animals and fungi has made it useful for developing hypotheses about the last common eukaryotic ancestor. Naegleria amoebae lack a cytoplasmic microtubule cytoskeleton and assemble microtubules only during mitosis and thus represent a unique system for studying the evolution and functional specificity of mitotic tubulins and the spindles they assemble. Previous studies show that Naegleria amoebae express a divergent α-tubulin during mitosis, and we now show that Naegleria amoebae express a second mitotic α- and two mitotic β-tubulins. The mitotic tubulins are evolutionarily divergent relative to typical α- and β-tubulins and contain residues that suggest distinct microtubule properties. These distinct residues are conserved in mitotic tubulin homologs of the "brain-eating amoeba" Naegleria fowleri, making them potential drug targets. Using quantitative light microscopy, we find that Naegleria's mitotic spindle is a distinctive barrel-like structure built from a ring of microtubule bundles. Similar to those of other species, Naegleria's spindle is twisted, and its length increases during mitosis, suggesting that these aspects of mitosis are ancestral features. Because bundle numbers change during metaphase, we hypothesize that the initial bundles represent kinetochore fibers and secondary bundles function as bridging fibers.

A OneStep Solution to Fix and Stain Cells for Correlative Live and Fixed Microscopy

Correlating the location of subcellular structures with dynamic cellular behaviors is difficult when working with organisms that lack the molecular genetic tools needed for expressing fluorescent protein fusions. Here, we describe a protocol for fixing, permeabilizing, and staining cells in a single step while imaging on a microscope. In contrast to traditional, multi-step fixing and staining protocols that take hours, the protocol outlined here achieves satisfactory staining within minutes. This approach takes advantage of well-characterized small molecules that stain specific subcellular structures, including nuclei, mitochondria, and actin networks. Direct visualization of the entire process allows for rapid optimization of cell fixation and staining, as well as straightforward identification of fixation artifacts. Moreover, live imaging prior to fixation reveals the dynamic history of cellular features, making it particularly useful for model systems without the capacity for expressing fluorescent protein fusions. © 2021 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol: Fixing, permeabilizing, and staining mammalian cells in one step on the microscope.

Regulation of the Actin Cytoskeleton via Rho GTPase Signalling in Dictyostelium and Mammalian Cells: A Parallel Slalom

Both Dictyostelium amoebae and mammalian cells are endowed with an elaborate actin cytoskeleton that enables them to perform a multitude of tasks essential for survival. Although these organisms diverged more than a billion years ago, their cells share the capability of chemotactic migration, large-scale endocytosis, binary division effected by actomyosin contraction, and various types of adhesions to other cells and to the extracellular environment. The composition and dynamics of the transient actin-based structures that are engaged in these processes are also astonishingly similar in these evolutionary distant organisms. The question arises whether this remarkable resemblance in the cellular motility hardware is accompanied by a similar correspondence in matching software, the signalling networks that govern the assembly of the actin cytoskeleton. Small GTPases from the Rho family play pivotal roles in the control of the actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Indicatively, Dictyostelium matches mammals in the number of these proteins. We give an overview of the Rho signalling pathways that regulate the actin dynamics in Dictyostelium and compare them with similar signalling networks in mammals. We also provide a phylogeny of Rho GTPases in Amoebozoa, which shows a variability of the Rho inventories across different clades found also in Metazoa.

Actin-based force generation and cell adhesion in tissue morphogenesis

The generation of organismal form - morphogenesis - arises from forces produced at the cellular level. In animal cells, much of this force is produced by the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we review how mechanisms of actin-based force generation are deployed during animal morphogenesis to sculpt organs and organisms. Furthermore, we consider how cytoskeletal forces are coupled through cell adhesions to propagate across tissues, and discuss cases where cytoskeletal force or adhesion is patterned across a tissue to direct shape changes. Together, our review provides a conceptual framework that reflects our current understanding of animal morphogenesis and gives perspectives on future opportunities for study.

Evolutionary cell biology: Closest unicellular relatives of animals crawl when squeezed

Cell motility is critical for animal biology, but its evolutionary history is unclear. A new study reports blebbing motility - a form of cell crawling - in the closest living relative of animals, suggesting that the unicellular ancestors of animals could crawl.

Evolution of the centrosome, from the periphery to the center

Centrosomes are central organelles that organize microtubules (MTs) in animals, fungi and several other eukaryotic lineages. Despite an important diversity of structure, the centrosomes of different lineages share the same functions and part of their molecular components. To uncover how divergent centrosomes are related to each other, we need to trace the evolutionary history of MT organization. Careful assessment of cytoskeletal architecture in extant eukaryotic species can help us infer the ancestral state and identify the subsequent changes that took place during evolution. This led to the finding that the last common ancestor of all eukaryotes was very likely a biflagellate cell with a surprisingly complex cytoskeletal organization. Centrosomes are likely derived from the basal bodies of such flagellate, but when and how many times this happened remains unclear. Here, we discuss different hypotheses for how centrosomes evolved in a eukaryotic lineage called Amorphea, to which animals, fungi and amoebozoans belong.

Moving simply: Naegleria crawls and feeds using an ancient Arp2/3-dependent mechanism

Arp2/3-nucleated actin filaments drive crawling motility and phagocytosis in animal cells and slime molds. In this issue, Velle and Fritz-Laylin (2020. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202007158) now show that Naegleria gruberi, belonging to a lineage that diverged from opisthokonts around a billion years ago, uses similar mechanisms to crawl and phagocytose bacteria.