Salmonella Infection in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: Incidence and Risk Factors from the 45 and Up Study

An Innovative Food Processing Technology: Microwave Electrodeless Ultraviolet, Luminescence Mechanism, Microbial Inactivation, and Food Application

Microwave electrodeless ultraviolet (MWUV) technology, as an emerging food processing technique, has garnered growing attention in the realm of food science in recent years. Based on different application requirements, MWUV equipment types are categorized as microwave oven reactor, continuous-flow UV-microwave reactor, coaxially driven MWUV reactor, and complete ultraviolet reactor. The luminescence properties of MWUV equipment depend on their filler gas; mercury is commonly used as a filler gas to produce a wavelength at 253.7 nm for food non-thermal sterilization. The microbial sterilization effect of MWUV is primarily attributed to the synergistic action of microwave and ultraviolet (UV): MWUV enhances reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, disrupts the cell membrane structures of bacteria, leads to bacterial endosome leakage, and induces nucleic acid damage. MWUV extends food shelf-life by eliminating microorganisms without significantly altering food quality compared with traditional thermal sterilization methods. Additionally, MWUV, combined with digestion reagents such as HNO3 and H2O2, can effectively enhance the digestion of food samples to detect essential and toxic elements. Studies on MWUV technology hold broad potential in the food industry, with promising implications for food safety and consumer demand for high-quality food. Future research may focus on optimizing the equipment parameters and integrating with other food processing technologies to facilitate further development and application of MWUV.

Phage-based magnetic capture method as an aid for real-time recombinase polymerase amplification detection of Salmonella spp. in milk

Salmonella is a major cause of foodborne diseases worldwide. Conventional rapid assays for detecting Salmonella in real samples often encounter severe matrix interference or detect a limited number of species of a genus, resulting in inaccurate detection. In this study, we developed a method that combined phage-based magnetic capture with real-time recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) for the rapid, highly sensitive, and specific detection of Salmonella in milk with an ultra-low detection limit. The Felix O-1 phage-conjugated magnetic beads (O-1 pMBs) synthesized in this method showed excellent capture ability for Salmonella spp. and ideal specificity for non-Salmonella strains. After O-1 pMBs-based magnetic separation, the limit of detection of the real-time RPA assay was 50 cfu/mL in milk samples, which was significantly increased by a magnitude of 3 to 4 orders. The method exhibited a high sensitivity (compatibility) of 100% (14/14) for all tested Salmonella serotype strains and an ideal specificity (exclusivity) of 100% (7/7) for the tested non-Salmonella strains. The entire detection process, including Salmonella capture, DNA extraction, and real-time RPA detection, was completed within 1.5 h. Furthermore, milk samples spiked with 10 cfu/25 mL of Salmonella were detected positive after being cultured in buffered peptone water for only 3 h. Therefore, the proposed method could be an alternative for the rapid and accurate detection of Salmonella.

Deletion of an immune evasion gene, steD, from a live Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vaccine improves vaccine responses in aged mice

Introduction

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) generally causes self-limiting gastroenteritis. However, older adults (≥65 years) can experience more severe outcomes from NTS infection. We have previously shown that a live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccine, CVD 1926 (I77 ΔguaBA ΔclpP ΔpipA ΔhtrA), was immunogenic in adult but not aged mice. Here we describe modification of CVD 1926 through deletion of steD, a Salmonella effector responsible for host immune escape, which we hypothesized would increase immunogenicity in aged mice.

Methods

Mel Juso and/or mutuDC cells were infected with S. Typhimurium I77, CVD 1926, and their respective steD mutants, and the MHC-II levels were evaluated. Aged (18-month-old) C57BL/6 mice received two doses of PBS, CVD 1926, or CVD 1926 ΔsteD perorally (109 CFU) and the number of FliC-specific CD4+ T cells were determined. Lastly, aged C57BL/6 mice received three doses of PBS, CVD 1926, or CVD 1926 ΔsteD perorally (109 CFU) and then were challenged perorally with wild-type S. Typhimurium SL1344 (108 CFU). These animals were also evaluated for antibody responses.

Results

MHC-II induction was higher in cells treated with steD mutants, compared to their respective parental strains. Compared to PBS-vaccinated mice, CVD 1926 ΔsteD elicited significantly more FliC-specific CD4+ T cells in the Peyer's Patches. There were no significant differences in FliC-specific CD4+ T cells in the Peyer's patches or spleen of CVD 1926- versus PBS-immunized mice. CVD 1926 and CVD 1926 ΔsteD induced similar serum and fecal anti-core and O polysaccharide antibody titers after three doses. After two immunizations, the proportion of seroconverters for CVD 1926 ΔsteD was 83% (10/12) compared to 42% (5/12) for CVD 1926. Compared to PBS-immunized mice, mice immunized with CVD 1926 ΔsteD had significantly lower S. Typhimurium counts in the spleen, cecum, and small intestine upon challenge. In contrast, there were no differences in bacterial loads in the tissues of PBS-vaccinated and CVD 1926-immunized animals.

Conclusion

These data suggest that the steD deletion enhanced the immunogenicity of our live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccine. Deletion of immune evasion genes could be a potential strategy to improve the immunogenicity of live attenuated vaccines in older adults.

Quantitative risk assessments of Salmonella spp. in domestic pork in China

Pork is one of the most commonly consumed meats, and its safety has always been a concern. Recently, safety incidents caused by chemical or biological contamination such as drug residues, heavy metals, and pathogenic microorganisms in pork have been reported, and the safety of pork is a cause for concern. Salmonella spp. is one of the important foodborne pathogens that threaten human health. Pork is a high-risk vector food for Salmonella spp. infection. The assessment of the safety risk of Salmonella spp. in pork is conducive to the prevention of related foodborne diseases. In this paper, risk assessment models for Salmonella spp. in meat were developed. The quantitative risk assessment model for Salmonella spp. based on the pork supply chain showed that the annual number of cases of salmonellosis due to pork consumption in China is approximately 27 per 10,000 males and 24 per 10,000 females. Sensitivity analysis showed that the main factors affecting the risk of Salmonella spp. in pork were the display temperature, display time, and Salmonella spp. contamination concentration in pork at the sale.

Reduced immunogenicity of a live Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vaccine in aged mice

Introduction

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) is responsible for a high burden of foodborne infections and deaths worldwide. In the United States, NTS infections are the leading cause of hospitalizations and deaths due to foodborne illnesses, and older adults (≥65 years) are disproportionately affected by Salmonella infections. Due to this public health concern, we have developed a live attenuated vaccine, CVD 1926 (I77 ΔguaBA ΔclpP ΔpipA ΔhtrA), against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, a common serovar of NTS. Little is known about the effect of age on oral vaccine responses, and due to the decline in immune function with age, it is critical to evaluate vaccine candidates in older age groups during early product development.

Methods

In this study, adult (six-to-eight-week-old) and aged (18-month-old) C57BL/6 mice received two doses of CVD 1926 (109 CFU/dose) or PBS perorally, and animals were evaluated for antibody and cell-mediated immune responses. A separate set of mice were immunized and then pre-treated with streptomycin and challenged orally with 108 CFU of wild-type S. Typhimurium SL1344 at 4 weeks postimmunization.

Results

Compared to PBS-immunized mice, adult mice immunized with CVD 1926 had significantly lower S. Typhimurium counts in the spleen, liver, and small intestine upon challenge. In contrast, there were no differences in bacterial loads in the tissues of vaccinated versus PBS aged mice. Aged mice exhibited reduced Salmonella-specific antibody titers in the serum and feces following immunization with CVD 1926 compared to adult mice. In terms of T cell responses (T-CMI), immunized adult mice showed an increase in the frequency of IFN-γ- and IL-2-producing splenic CD4 T cells, IFN-γ- and TNF-α-producing Peyer's Patch (PP)-derived CD4 T cells, and IFN-γ- and TNF-α-producing splenic CD8 T cells compared to adult mice administered PBS. In contrast, in aged mice, T-CMI responses were similar in vaccinated versus PBS mice. CVD 1926 elicited significantly more PP-derived multifunctional T cells in adult compared to aged mice.

Conclusion

These data suggest that our candidate live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccine, CVD 1926, may not be sufficiently protective or immunogenic in older humans and that mucosal responses to live-attenuated vaccines decrease with increasing age.

Cytotoxicity and Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella enterica Subspecies Isolated from Raised Reptiles in Beijing, China

BACKGROUND

Reptiles are asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella spp. Reptile-associated Salmonella infections have been noticed as a significant contributor to overall human salmonellosis. However, it remains unclear regarding the prevalence of reptile-associated Salmonella in China.

METHODS

Fecal and gastrointestinal mucosal samples were taken from 104 snakes, 21 lizards, and 52 chelonians and cultured on selective medium. The positive clones were validated and annotated by biochemical screening and multiplex PCR verification. In addition, the antibiotic resistance of identified Salmonella isolates was detected and followed by cytotoxic activity detection on human colon cells via co-culturation.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of Salmonella in reptiles was 25.99%, with rates of 30.77%, 47.62%, and 7.69% in snakes, lizards, and chelonians, respectively. Further, all isolates showed variable drug-resistant activity to 18 antibiotics, of which 14 strains (30.43%) were resistant to more than eight kinds of antibiotics. More than half of isolated Salmonella strains were more toxic to host cells than the standard strain, SL1344. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) results showed that all lizard-associated strains belong to 4 serovar types, and 7 of them fall into the highly pathogenic serovars "Carmel" and "Pomona."

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight the potential threat of zoonotic salmonellosis from captive reptiles in the Beijing area of China.

Public Health Response to Multistate Salmonella Typhimurium Outbreak Associated with Prepackaged Chicken Salad, United States, 2018

Quantifying the effect of public health actions on population health is essential when justifying sustained public health investment. Using modeling, we conservatively estimated that rapid response to a multistate foodborne outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium in the United States in 2018 potentially averted 94 reported cases and $633,181 in medical costs and productivity losses.

Risk factors for hospitalization among adults aged ≥65 years with non-typhoidal Salmonella infection linked to backyard poultry contact

OBJECTIVE

We describe the epidemiology of live poultry-associated salmonellosis (LPAS) and investigate potential risk factors associated with hospitalization among adults aged ≥65 years in the United States during 2008-2017. LPAS is a public health concern in the United States, especially among people with increased risk for hospitalization, such as older adults.

SAMPLE

We analysed data from people aged ≥65 years with non-typhoidal salmonellosis who reported live poultry contact within seven days prior to illness onset.

PROCEDURE

We used logistic regression to estimate the odds of hospitalization associated with several risk factors including types of live poultry contact exposures.

RESULTS

LPAS among older adults in this analysis resulted in high hospitalization rates. Salmonella Hadar infection was associated with increased hospitalization. Among older adults with LPAS, 109 individuals of 127 (86%) reported contact with live poultry at their or someone else's residence, and 85 of 105 with available information (81%) reported owning poultry.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Additional infection prevention information and education targeted at poultry-owning older adults are needed to prevent illness and hospitalization.

Control of Persistent Salmonella Infection Relies on Constant Thymic Output Despite Increased Peripheral Antigen-Specific T Cell Immunity

Recent thymic emigrants are the youngest subset of peripheral T cells and their involvement in combating persistent bacterial infections has not been explored. Here, we hypothesized that CD4⁺ recent thymic emigrants are essential immune mediators during persistent Salmonella infection. To test this, we thymectomized adult mice either prior to, or during, persistent Salmonella infection. We found that thymic output is crucial in the formation of protective immune responses during the early formation of a Salmonella infection but is dispensable once persistent Salmonella infection is established. Further, we show that thymectomized mice demonstrate increased infection-associated mortality and bacterial burdens. Unexpectedly, numbers of Salmonella-specific CD4⁺ T cells were significantly increased in thymectomized mice compared to sham control mice. Lastly, we found that T cells from thymectomized mice may be impaired in producing the effector cytokine IL-17 at early time points of infection, compared to thymically intact mice. Together, these results imply a unique role for thymic output in the formation of immune responses against a persistent, enteric pathogen.

Cooking chicken at home: Common or recommended approaches to judge doneness may not assure sufficient inactivation of pathogens

About one third of foodborne illness outbreaks in Europe are acquired in the home and eating undercooked poultry is among consumption practices associated with illness. The aim of this study was to investigate whether actual and recommended practices for monitoring chicken doneness are safe. Seventy-five European households from five European countries were interviewed and videoed while cooking chicken in their private kitchens, including young single men, families with infants/in pregnancy and elderly over seventy years. A cross-national web-survey collected cooking practices for chicken from 3969 households. In a laboratory kitchen, chicken breast fillets were injected with cocktails of Salmonella and Campylobacter and cooked to core temperatures between 55 and 70°C. Microbial survival in the core and surface of the meat were determined. In a parallel experiment, core colour, colour of juice and texture were recorded. Finally, a range of cooking thermometers from the consumer market were evaluated. The field study identified nine practical approaches for deciding if the chicken was properly cooked. Among these, checking the colour of the meat was commonly used and perceived as a way of mitigating risks among the consumers. Meanwhile, chicken was perceived as hedonically vulnerable to long cooking time. The quantitative survey revealed that households prevalently check cooking status from the inside colour (49.6%) and/or inside texture (39.2%) of the meat. Young men rely more often on the outside colour of the meat (34.7%) and less often on the juices (16.5%) than the elderly (>65 years old; 25.8% and 24.6%, respectively). The lab study showed that colour change of chicken meat happened below 60°C, corresponding to less than 3 log reduction of Salmonella and Campylobacter. At a core temperature of 70°C, pathogens survived on the fillet surface not in contact with the frying pan. No correlation between meat texture and microbial inactivation was found. A minority of respondents used a food thermometer, and a challenge with cooking thermometers for home use was long response time. In conclusion, the recommendations from the authorities on monitoring doneness of chicken and current consumer practices do not ensure reduction of pathogens to safe levels. For the domestic cook, determining doneness is both a question of avoiding potential harm and achieving a pleasurable meal. It is discussed how lack of an easy "rule-of-thumb" or tools to check safe cooking at consumer level, as well as national differences in contamination levels, food culture and economy make it difficult to develop international recommendations that are both safe and easily implemented.

Salmonella and the changing environment: systematic review using New York State as a model

Salmonella is a public health concern, for which a complex interplay between host, agent, and environment exists. An improved understanding of causal processes can be used to better gauge the causes and trajectory of Salmonella in a changing environment. This would be useful in determining the impact of climate change on the New York State (NYS) environment, the effect of climate change on Salmonella in NYS, factors contributing to Salmonella vulnerability in humans, and aspects of climate change and Salmonella which necessitate further research. A systematic review was conducted to study associations between Salmonella and the environment. Using the search criteria, a total of 91 relevant articles were identified from four electronic databases. Key information was abstracted, organized, and synthesized to identify causal processes and linkages between climate change, the environment of NYS, and Salmonella-related outcomes, as well as risk factors to characterize Salmonella vulnerabilities. Three inter-related domains were identified for consideration and application to epidemiological research to confirm and extrapolate disease patterns using climate change scenarios: improved quantification of causal relationships, inclusion of factors linked to sectors not immediately associated with the exposure and outcome, and increased capacity to validate models in diverse settings.

The Risk of Community-Acquired Enteric Infection in Proton Pump Inhibitor Therapy: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous meta-analyses suggest that users of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have a higher risk of developing enteric infections compared with nonusers. These previous meta-analyses have considerable heterogeneity, and it is not clear whether the effect of PPIs is different for different types of microorganisms.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to update previous meta-analyses, concentrating on enteric infection in community settings and exploring potential sources of heterogeneity.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted on electronic databases (all available years until November 2017). PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, and Web of Science were searched using specific keywords related to PPI therapy and community-acquired enteric infection. Eligible studies were selected based on prespecified criteria.

RESULTS

A total of 9 observational studies evaluating community-acquired enteric infection were eligible, including 12 separate analyses. The meta-analysis showed that PPI users have an increased risk of developing community-acquired enteric infection (pooled odds ratio [OR] = 4.28; 95% CI = 3.01-6.08). There was significant heterogeneity between the studies ( I² = 85%; P < 0.001), which was partly explained by type of microorganism. The strength of the association was similar for Salmonella (pooled OR = 4.84; 95% CI = 2.75-8.54; I² = 58.7%; P = 0.064) and Campylobacter (pooled OR = 5.09; 95% CI = 3-8.64; I² = 81%; P < 0.001) but lower for studies that combined all bacteria (pooled OR = 2.42; 95% CI = 0.96-6.14; I² = 94.3%; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

PPI users have an increased risk of developing community-acquired enteric infections compared with nonusers. The heterogeneity was partially explained by type of microorganism; the association is stronger for Salmonella and Campylobacter than for all bacteria combined.

An Attenuated Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Strain and Galacto-Oligosaccharides Accelerate Clearance of Salmonella Infections in Poultry through Modifications to the Gut Microbiome

Salmonella is estimated to cause one million foodborne illnesses in the United States every year. Salmonella-contaminated poultry products are one of the major sources of salmonellosis. Given the critical role of the gut microbiota in Salmonella transmission, a manipulation of the chicken intestinal microenvironment could prevent animal colonization by the pathogen. In Salmonella, the global regulator gene fnr (fumarate nitrate reduction) regulates anaerobic metabolism and is essential for adapting to the gut environment. This study tested the hypothesis that an attenuated Fnr mutant of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (attST) or prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) could improve resistance to wild-type Salmonella via modifications to the structure of the chicken gut microbiome. Intestinal samples from a total of 273 animals were collected weekly for 9 weeks to evaluate the impact of attST or prebiotic supplementation on microbial species of the cecum, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. We next analyzed changes to the gut microbiome induced by challenging the animals with a wild-type Salmonella serovar 4,[5],12:r:- (Nal^r) strain and determined the clearance rate of the virulent strain in the treated and control groups. Both GOS and the attenuated Salmonella strain modified the gut microbiome but elicited alterations of different taxonomic groups. The attST produced significant increases of Alistipes and undefined Lactobacillus, while GOS increased Christensenellaceae and Lactobacillus reuteri The microbiome structural changes induced by both treatments resulted in a faster clearance after a Salmonella challenge.IMPORTANCE With an average annual incidence of 13.1 cases/100,000 individuals, salmonellosis has been deemed a nationally notifiable condition in the United States by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Earlier studies demonstrated that Salmonella is transmitted by a subset of animals (supershedders). The supershedder phenotype can be induced by antibiotics, ascertaining an essential role for the gut microbiota in Salmonella transmission. Consequently, modulation of the gut microbiota and modification of the intestinal microenvironment could assist in preventing animal colonization by the pathogen. Our study demonstrated that a manipulation of the chicken gut microbiota by the administration of an attenuated Salmonella strain or prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) can promote resistance to Salmonella colonization via increases of beneficial microorganisms that translate into a less hospitable gut microenvironment.

Use of Proton Pump Inhibitors and the Risk of Hospitalization for Infectious Gastroenteritis

Introduction

To quantify the association between PPI use, type and dose and infectious gastroenteritis hospitalization in a population-based cohort of middle-aged and older adults.

Methods

Prospective study of 38,019 concession card holders followed up over 6 years in the Sax Institute’s 45 and Up Study. Data from the baseline questionnaire were linked to prescription medication, hospitalization, notifiable disease, cancer registry and death datasets from 2006–2012. Associations between PPI use and gastroenteritis hospitalization were examined using Cox regressions with age as the underlying time variable.

Results

Among 38,019 participants, the median age was 69.7 years, and 57.3% were women. Compared to non-users, current PPI users were more likely to be older, and have a higher BMI. During follow-up there were 1,982 incident gastroenteritis hospitalizations (crude rate: 12.9 per 1000 person-years, 95% CI: 12.3–13.5). PPI use was significantly associated with infectious gastroenteritis hospitalization (aHR 1.4, 95% CI: 1.2–1.5). Among current users, a dose-response relationship was observed between the average daily dose (DDD) dispensed per day and infectious gastroenteritis hospitalization (P_trend<0.001). We also observed higher rates of infectious gastroenteritis hospitalization and greater PPI use among participants with a history of chronic bowel problems (aHR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.9–2.5). There was no difference in risk by type of PPI. Recent use of H₂ receptors was not associated with gastroenteritis hospitalization.

Conclusion

PPI use is associated with an increased risk of infectious gastroenteritis hospitalization. Clinicians should be aware of this risk when considering PPI therapy.