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Pyke GH, Ren ZX. Floral nectar production: what cost to a plant? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2078-2090. [PMID: 37461187 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Floral nectar production is central to plant pollination, and hence to human wellbeing. As floral nectar is essentially a solution in water of various sugars, it is likely a valuable plant resource, especially in terms of energy, with plants experiencing costs/trade-offs associated with its production or absorption and adopting mechanisms to regulate nectar in flowers. Possible costs of nectar production may also influence the evolution of nectar volume, concentration and composition, of pollination syndromes involving floral nectar, and the production of some crops. There has been frequent agreement that costs of floral nectar production are significant, but relevant evidence is scant and difficult to interpret. Convincing direct evidence comes from experimental studies that relate either enhanced nectar sugar production (through repeated nectar removal) to reduced ability to produce seeds, or increased sugar availability (through absorption of additional artificial nectar) to increased seed production. Proportions of available photosynthate allocated by plants to nectar production may also indicate nectar cost. However, such studies are rare, some do not include treatments of all (or almost all) flowers per plant, and all lack quantitative cost-benefit comparisons for nectar production. Additional circumstantial evidence of nectar cost is difficult to interpret and largely equivocal. Future research should repeat direct experimental approaches that relate reduced or enhanced nectar sugar availability for a plant with consequent ability to produce seeds. To avoid confounding effects of inter-flower resource transfer, each plant should experience a single treatment, with treatment of all or almost all flowers per plant. Resource allocation by plants, pathways used for resource transfer, and the locations of resource sources and sinks should also be investigated. Future research should also consider extension of nectar cost into other areas of biology. For example, evolutionary models of nectar production are rare but should be possible if plant fitness gains and costs associated with nectar production are expressed in the same currency, such as energy. It should then be possible to understand observed nectar production for different plant species and pollination syndromes involving floral nectar. In addition, potential economic benefits should be possible to assess if relationships between nectar production and crop value are evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham H Pyke
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 132 Lanhei Road, Kunming, 650201, China
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Balaclava Rd, North Ryde, 2113, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Zong-Xin Ren
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 132 Lanhei Road, Kunming, 650201, China
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2
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Zhang HP, Wen SJ, Wang H, Ren ZX. Floral nectar reabsorption and a sugar concentration gradient in two long-spurred Habenaria species (Orchidaceae). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 23:331. [PMID: 37349723 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-023-04344-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Floral nectar is the most common reward flowers offered to pollinators. The quality and quantity of nectar produced by a plant species provide a key to understanding its interactions with pollinators and predicting rates of reproductive success. However, nectar secretion is a dynamic process with a production period accompanied or followed by reabsorption and reabsorption remains an understudied topic. In this study, we compared nectar volume and sugar concentration in the flowers of two long-spurred orchid species, Habenaria limprichtii and H. davidii (Orchidaceae). We also compared sugar concentration gradients within their spurs and rates of reabsorption of water and sugars. RESULTS Both species produced diluted nectar with sugar concentrations from 17 to 24%. Analyses of nectar production dynamics showed that as flowers of both species wilted almost all sugar was reabsorbed while the original water was retained in their spurs. We established a nectar sugar concentration gradient for both species, with differences in sugar concentrations at their spur's terminus and at their spur's entrance (sinus). Sugar concentration gradient levels were 1.1% in H. limprichtii and 2.8% in H. davidii, both decreasing as flowers aged. CONCLUSION We provided evidence for the reabsorption of sugars but not water occurred in wilted flowers of both Habenaria species. Their sugar concentration gradients vanished as flowers aged suggesting a slow process of sugar diffusion from the nectary at the spur's terminus where the nectar gland is located. The processes of nectar secretion/reabsorption in conjunction with the dilution and hydration of sugar rewards for moth pollinators warrant further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Ping Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Jia Wen
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China
- College of Forestry, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Biodiversity, Jingdezhen University, Jingdezhen, 334000, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Yunnan Lijiang Forest Biodiversity Observation and Research Station, Lijiang, 674100, China.
| | - Zong-Xin Ren
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Yunnan Lijiang Forest Biodiversity Observation and Research Station, Lijiang, 674100, China.
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3
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Wang X, Chen Y, Yi Y. Features of floral odor and nectar in the distylous Luculia pinceana (Rubiaceae) promote compatible pollination by hawkmoths. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9920. [PMID: 36969924 PMCID: PMC10030271 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
It is hypothesized that in heterostylous plant species, standardization of signals of floral attraction between different morphs is advantageous, encouraging flower visitors to switch between morphs. It remains unclear whether signals of floral attraction (floral odor and properties of nectar) are similar between morphs in distylous species pollinated by hawkmoths, and how these relate to hawkmoth behavior. We observed the behavior of visitors to distylous Luculia pinceana (Rubiaceae), collected and analyzed floral odor, and examined properties of nectar (volume, sugar concentration, and composition) of long‐styled and short‐styled morphs during the day and night. Pollinator responses to the floral scent were tested with a Y‐tube olfactometer. We conducted diurnal and nocturnal pollination treatments and six other pollination treatments to test the importance of nocturnal pollinators and to examine the self‐incompatibility system. A species of hawkmoth, Cechenena lineosa, was the effective pollinator. The floral odor was rich in methyl benzoate, and sucrose was dominant in the nectar. There were no significant differences between the two morphs in the methyl benzoate content or the properties of nectar. Flowers released more methyl benzoate and secreted larger volumes of nectar with lower sugar concentration at night than during the day. The hawkmoth had a significant preference for methyl benzoate. Luculia pinceana was partially self‐incompatible and relied on nocturnal pollinators for reproductive success. This study verifies that floral attraction signals are consistent between different morphs in this distylous species, promoting compatible pollination, and the features and the diel pattern of these signals between day and night are adapted to hawkmoth behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyue Wang
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Biodiversity Conservation in Karst Mountainous Areas of Southwestern ChinaGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
- School of Life SciencesGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - Yan Chen
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Biodiversity Conservation in Karst Mountainous Areas of Southwestern ChinaGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
- School of Life SciencesGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - Yin Yi
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Biodiversity Conservation in Karst Mountainous Areas of Southwestern ChinaGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
- School of Life SciencesGuizhou Normal UniversityGuiyangChina
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4
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Perkins J, Hayashi T, Peakall R, Flematti GR, Bohman B. The volatile chemistry of orchid pollination. Nat Prod Rep 2023; 40:819-839. [PMID: 36691832 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00060a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to September 2022Orchids are renowned not only for their diversity of floral forms, but also for their many and often highly specialised pollination strategies. Volatile semiochemicals play a crucial role in the attraction of a wide variety of insect pollinators of orchids. The compounds produced by orchid flowers are as diverse as the pollinators they attract, and here we summarise some of the chemical diversity found across orchid taxa and pollination strategies. We focus on compounds that have been experimentally demonstrated to underpin pollinator attraction. We also highlight the structural elucidation and synthesis of a select subset of important orchid pollinator attractants, and discuss the ecological significance of the discoveries, the gaps in our current knowledge of orchid pollination chemistry, and some opportunities for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Perkins
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Australia
| | - Tobias Hayashi
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Australia
| | - Rod Peakall
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Australia.,School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Australia
| | - Gavin R Flematti
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Australia
| | - Björn Bohman
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Australia.,School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Australia.,Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden.
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5
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Abbas F, O'Neill Rothenberg D, Zhou Y, Ke Y, Wang HC. Volatile organic compounds as mediators of plant communication and adaptation to climate change. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2022; 174:e13840. [PMID: 36512339 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant volatile organic compounds are the most abundant and structurally diverse plant secondary metabolites. They play a key role in plant lifespan via direct and indirect plant defenses, attracting pollinators, and mediating various interactions between plants and their environment. The ecological diversity and context-dependence of plant-plant communication driven by volatiles are crucial elements that influence plant performance in different habitats. Plant volatiles are also valued for their multiple applications in food, flavor, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. In the current review, we summarize recent advances that have elucidated the functions of plant volatile organic compounds as mediators of plant interaction at community and individual levels, highlighting the complexities of plant receiver feedback to various signals and cues. This review emphasizes volatile terpenoids, the most abundant class of plant volatile organic compounds, highlighting their role in plant adaptability to global climate change and stress-response pathways that are integral to plant growth and survival. Finally, we identify research gaps and suggest future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhat Abbas
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops-South China/Guangdong Litchi Engineering Research Center, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dylan O'Neill Rothenberg
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops-South China/Guangdong Litchi Engineering Research Center, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yiwei Zhou
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plant Germplasm Innovation and Utilization, Environmental Horticulture Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanguo Ke
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Yunnan Urban Agricultural Engineering & Technological Research Center, Kunming University, Kunming, China
- College of Economics and Management, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Hui-Cong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops-South China/Guangdong Litchi Engineering Research Center, College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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6
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van der Niet T, Cozien RJ, Castañeda‐Zárate M, Johnson SD. Long‐term camera trapping needed to identify sunbird species that pollinate the endangered South African orchid
Satyrium rhodanthum. Afr J Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.13058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timotheüs van der Niet
- Centre for Functional Biodiversity School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
| | - Ruth J. Cozien
- Centre for Functional Biodiversity School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
| | - Miguel Castañeda‐Zárate
- Centre for Functional Biodiversity School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
| | - Steven D. Johnson
- Centre for Functional Biodiversity School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu‐Natal Pietermaritzburg South Africa
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7
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DePasquale A, Hogan JD, Guadamuz Araya C, Dominy NJ, Melin AD. Aeroscapes and the Sensory Ecology of Olfaction in a Tropical Dry Forest. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.849281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aeroscapes—dynamic patterns of air speed and direction—form a critical component of landscape ecology by shaping numerous animal behaviors, including movement, foraging, and social and/or reproductive interactions. Aeroecology is particularly critical for sensory ecology: air is the medium through which many sensory signals and cues propagate, inherently linking sensory perception to variables such as air speed and turbulence. Yet, aeroscapes are seldom explicitly considered in studies of sensory ecology and evolution. A key first step towards this goal is to describe the aeroscapes of habitats. Here, we quantify the variation in air movement in two successional stages (early and late) of a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica. We recorded air speeds every 10 seconds at five different heights simultaneously. Average air speeds and turbulence increased with height above the ground, generally peaked midday, and were higher overall at the early successional forest site. These patterns of lower air speed and turbulence at ground level and overnight have important implications for olfactory foraging niches, as chemotaxis is most reliable when air movement is low and steady. We discuss our results in the context of possible selective pressures and observed variation in the foraging ecology, behaviors, and associated morphologies of resident vertebrates, with a focus on mammals. However, these data also have relevance to researchers studying socioecology, invertebrate biology, plant evolution, community ecology and more. Further investigation into how animals use different forest types, canopy heights and partition activities across different times of day will further inform our understanding of how landscape and sensory ecology are interrelated. Finally, we emphasize the timeliness of monitoring aeroecology as global wind patterns shift with climate change and human disturbance alters forest structure, which may have important downstream consequences for biological conservation.
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8
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Bonelli M, Eustacchio E, Avesani D, Michelsen V, Falaschi M, Caccianiga M, Gobbi M, Casartelli M. The Early Season Community of Flower-Visiting Arthropods in a High-Altitude Alpine Environment. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13040393. [PMID: 35447835 PMCID: PMC9032982 DOI: 10.3390/insects13040393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In mountain ecosystems, climate change can cause spatiotemporal shifts, impacting the composition of communities and altering fundamental biotic interactions, such as those involving flower-visiting arthropods. On of the main problems in assessing the effects of climate change on arthropods in these environments is the lack of baseline data. In particular, the arthropod communities on early flowering high-altitude plants are poorly investigated, although the early season is a critical moment for possible mismatches. In this study, we characterised the flower-visiting arthropod community on the early flowering high-altitude Alpine plant, Androsace brevis (Primulaceae). In addition, we tested the effect of abiotic factors (temperature and wind speed) and other variables (time, i.e., hour of the day, and number of flowers per plant) on the occurrence, abundance, and diversity of this community. A. brevis is a vulnerable endemic species growing in the Central Alps above 2000 m asl and flowering for a very short period immediately after snowmelt, thus representing a possible focal plant for arthropods in this particular moment of the season. Diptera and Hymenoptera were the main flower visitors, and three major features of the community emerged: an evident predominance of anthomyiid flies among Diptera, a rare presence of bees, and a relevant share of parasitoid wasps. Temperature and time (hour of the day), but not wind speed and number of flowers per plant, affected the flower visitors' activity. Our study contributes to (1) defining the composition of high-altitude Alpine flower-visiting arthropod communities in the early season, (2) establishing how these communities are affected by environmental variables, and (3) setting the stage for future evaluation of climate change effects on flower-visiting arthropods in high-altitude environments in the early season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Bonelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.E.); (M.C.); (M.C.)
- Research and Museum Collections Office, Climate and Ecology Unit, MUSE—Science Museum, 38122 Trento, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Elena Eustacchio
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.E.); (M.C.); (M.C.)
- Research and Museum Collections Office, Climate and Ecology Unit, MUSE—Science Museum, 38122 Trento, Italy;
| | - Daniele Avesani
- Zoology Section, Civic Museum of Natural History of Verona, 37129 Verona, Italy;
| | - Verner Michelsen
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Mattia Falaschi
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy;
| | - Marco Caccianiga
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.E.); (M.C.); (M.C.)
- Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Naples Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Mauro Gobbi
- Research and Museum Collections Office, Climate and Ecology Unit, MUSE—Science Museum, 38122 Trento, Italy;
| | - Morena Casartelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.E.); (M.C.); (M.C.)
- Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Naples Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy
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9
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Joffard N, Olofsson C, Friberg M, Sletvold N. Extensive pollinator sharing does not promote character displacement in two orchid congeners. Evolution 2022; 76:749-764. [PMID: 35188979 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Pollinator sharing between close relatives can be costly and can promote pollination niche partitioning and floral divergence. This should be reflected by a higher species divergence in sympatry than in allopatry. We tested this hypothesis in two orchid congeners with overlapping distributions and flowering times. We characterized floral traits and pollination niches and quantified pollen limitation in 15 pure and mixed populations, and we measured phenotypic selection on floral traits and performed controlled crosses in one mixed site. Most floral traits differed between species, yet pollinator sharing was extensive. Only the timing of scent emission diverged more in mixed sites than in pure sites, and this was not mirrored by the timing of pollinator visitation. We did not detect divergent selection on floral traits. Seed production was pollen limited in most populations but not more severely in mixed sites than in pure sites. Interspecific crosses produced the same or a higher proportion of viable seeds than intraspecific crosses. The two orchid species attract the same pollinator species despite showing divergent floral traits. However, this does not promote character displacement, implying a low cost of pollinator sharing. Our results highlight the importance of characterizing both traits and ecological niches in character displacement studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Joffard
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, Uppsala, 752 36, Sweden.,University of Lille, UMR 8198 - Evo-Eco-Paleo, Villeneuve d'Ascq, F-59655, France
| | - Caroliné Olofsson
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, Uppsala, 752 36, Sweden
| | - Magne Friberg
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, SE-223 62, Sweden
| | - Nina Sletvold
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, Uppsala, 752 36, Sweden
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10
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Brzosko E, Mirski P. Floral Nectar Chemistry in Orchids: A Short Review and Meta-Analysis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:2315. [PMID: 34834677 PMCID: PMC8620889 DOI: 10.3390/plants10112315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Nectar is one of the most important flower traits, shaping plant-pollinator interactions and reproductive success. Despite Orchidaceae including numerous nectariferous species, nectar chemistry in this family has been infrequently studied. Therefore, the aim of this study is to compile data about nectar attributes in different orchid species. The scarcity of data restricted analyses to sugar concentration and composition. Our results suggest that the most important factor shaping nectar traits in orchids is the pollinator type, although we also found differentiation of nectar traits according to geographical regions. In spurred orchids, the length of the spur impacted nectar traits. We recommend the development of studies on nectar chemistry in orchids, including a wider range of species (both in taxonomic and geographical contexts), as well as extending the analyses to other nectar components (such as amino acids and secondary metabolites). The nectar biome would be also worth investigating, since it could affect the chemical composition of nectar. This will enrich the understanding of the mechanisms of plants-pollinators interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Brzosko
- Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Ciołkowskiego 1J, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Paweł Mirski
- Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Ciołkowskiego 1J, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland
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11
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van der Kooi CJ, Vallejo-Marín M, Leonhardt SD. Mutualisms and (A)symmetry in Plant-Pollinator Interactions. Curr Biol 2021; 31:R91-R99. [PMID: 33497641 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The majority of flowering plants relies on animal pollinators for sexual reproduction and many animal pollinators rely on floral resources. However, interests of plants and pollinators are often not the same, resulting in an asymmetric relationship that ranges from mutualistic to parasitic interactions. Our understanding of the processes that underlie this asymmetry remains fragmentary. In this Review, we bring together evidence from evolutionary biology, plant chemistry, biomechanics, sensory ecology and behaviour to illustrate that the degree of symmetry often depends on the perspective taken. We also highlight variation in (a)symmetry within and between plant and pollinator species as well as between geographic locations. Through taking different perspectives from the plant and pollinator sides we provide new ground for studies on the maintenance and evolution of animal pollination and on the (a)symmetry in plant-pollinator interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper J van der Kooi
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | | | - Sara D Leonhardt
- Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
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