Quantitative analysis of the phenotypic variability of shoot architecture in two grapevine (Vitis vinifera) cultivars

Towards a Stochastic Model to Simulate Grapevine Architecture: A Case Study on Digitized Riesling Vines Considering Effects of Elevated CO2

Modeling plant growth, in particular with functional-structural plant models, can provide tools to study impacts of changing environments in silico. Simulation studies can be used as pilot studies for reducing the on-field experimental effort when predictive capabilities are given. Robust model calibration leads to less fragile predictions, while introducing uncertainties in predictions allows accounting for natural variability, resulting in stochastic plant growth models. In this study, stochastic model components that can be implemented into the functional-structural plant model Virtual Riesling are developed relying on Bayesian model calibration with the goal to enhance the model towards a fully stochastic model. In this first step, model development targeting phenology, in particular budburst variability, phytomer development rate and internode growth are presented in detail. Multi-objective optimization is applied to estimate a single set of cardinal temperatures, which is used in phenology and growth modeling based on a development days approach. Measurements from two seasons of grapevines grown in a vineyard with free-air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) are used; thus, model building and selection are coupled with an investigation as to whether including effects of elevated CO2 conditions to be expected in 2050 would improve the models. The results show how natural variability complicates the detection of possible treatment effects, but demonstrate that Bayesian calibration in combination with mixed models can realistically recover natural shoot growth variability in predictions. We expect these and further stochastic model extensions to result in more realistic virtual plant simulations to study effects, which are used to conduct in silico studies of canopy microclimate and its effects on grape health and quality.

Identifying Developmental Patterns in Structured Plant Phenotyping Data

Technological breakthroughs concerning both sensors and robotized plant phenotyping platforms have totally renewed the plant phenotyping paradigm in the last two decades. This has impacted both the nature and the throughput of data with the availability of data at high-throughput from the tissular to the whole plant scale. Sensor outputs often take the form of 2D or 3D images or time series of such images from which traits are extracted while organ shapes, shoot or root system architectures can be deduced. Despite this change of paradigm, many phenotyping studies often ignore the structure of the plant and therefore loose the information conveyed by the temporal and spatial patterns emerging from this structure. The developmental patterns of plants often take the form of succession of well-differentiated phases, stages or zones depending on the temporal, spatial or topological indexing of data. This entails the use of hierarchical statistical models for their identification.The objective here is to show potential approaches for analyzing structured plant phenotyping data using state-of-the-art methods combining probabilistic modeling, statistical inference and pattern recognition. This approach is illustrated using five different examples at various scales that combine temporal and topological index parameters, and development and growth variables obtained using prospective or retrospective measurements.

Xylem network connectivity and embolism spread in grapevine(Vitis vinifera L.)

Xylem networks are vulnerable to the formation and spread of gas embolisms that reduce water transport. Embolisms spread through interconduit pits, but the three-dimensional (3D) complexity and scale of xylem networks means that the functional implications of intervessel connections are not well understood. Here, xylem networks of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) were reconstructed from 3D high-resolution X-ray micro-computed tomography (microCT) images. Xylem network performance was then modeled to simulate loss of hydraulic conductivity under increasingly negative xylem sap pressure simulating drought stress conditions. We also considered the sensitivity of xylem network performance to changes in key network parameters. We found that the mean pit area per intervessel connection was constant across 10 networks from three, 1.5-m stem segments, but short (0.5 cm) segments fail to capture complete network connectivity. Simulations showed that network organization imparted additional resistance to embolism spread beyond the air-seeding threshold of pit membranes. Xylem network vulnerability to embolism spread was most sensitive to variation in the number and location of vessels that were initially embolized and pit membrane vulnerability. Our results show that xylem network organization can increase stem resistance to embolism spread by 40% (0.66 MPa) and challenge the notion that a single embolism can spread rapidly throughout an entire xylem network.

Flooding Responses on Grapevine: A Physiological, Transcriptional, and Metabolic Perspective

Studies on model plants have shown that temporary soil flooding exposes roots to a significant hypoxic stress resulting in metabolic re-programming, accumulation of toxic metabolites and hormonal imbalance. To date, physiological and transcriptional responses to flooding in grapevine are poorly characterized. To fill this gap, we aimed to gain insights into the transcriptional and metabolic changes induced by flooding on grapevine roots (K5BB rootstocks), on which cv Sauvignon blanc (Vitis vinifera L.) plants were grafted. A preliminary experiment under hydroponic conditions enabled the identification of transiently and steadily regulated hypoxia-responsive marker genes and drafting a model for response to oxygen deprivation in grapevine roots. Afterward, over two consecutive vegetative seasons, flooding was imposed to potted vines during the late dormancy period, to mimick the most frequent waterlogging events occurring in the field. Untargeted transcriptomic and metabolic profiling approaches were applied to investigate early responses of grapevine roots during exposure to hypoxia and subsequent recovery after stress removal. The initial hypoxic response was marked by a significant increase of the hypoxia-inducible metabolites ethanol, GABA, succinic acid and alanine which remained high also 1 week after recovery from flooding with the exception of ethanol that leveled off. Transcriptomic data supported the metabolic changes by indicating a substantial rearrangement of primary metabolic pathways through enhancement of the glycolytic and fermentative enzymes and of a subset of enzymes involved in the TCA cycle. GO and KEGG pathway analyses of differentially expressed genes showed a general down-regulation of brassinosteroid, auxin and gibberellin biosynthesis in waterlogged plants, suggesting a general inhibition of root growth and lateral expansion. During recovery, transcriptional activation of gibberellin biosynthetic genes and down-regulation of the metabolic ones may support a role for gibberellins in signaling grapevine rootstocks waterlogging metabolic and hormonal changes to the above ground plant. The significant internode elongation measured upon budbreak during recovery in plants that had experienced flooding supported this hypothesis. Overall integration of these data enabled us to draft a first comprehensive view of the molecular and metabolic pathways involved in grapevine's root responses highlighting a deep metabolic and transcriptomic reprogramming during and after exposure to waterlogging.

A transcriptome analysis of two grapevine populations segregating for tendril phyllotaxy

The shoot structure of cultivated grapevine Vitis vinifera L. typically exhibits a three-node modular repetitive pattern, two sequential leaf-opposed tendrils followed by a tendril-free node. In this study, we investigated the molecular basis of this pattern by characterizing differentially expressed genes in 10 bulk samples of young tendril tissue from two grapevine populations showing segregation of mutant or wild-type shoot/tendril phyllotaxy. One population was the selfed progeny and the other one, an outcrossed progeny of a Vitis hybrid, 'Roger's Red'. We analyzed 13 375 expressed genes and carried out in-depth analyses of 324 of them, which were differentially expressed with a minimum of 1.5-fold changes between the mutant and wild-type bulk samples in both selfed and cross populations. A significant portion of these genes were direct cis-binding targets of 14 transcription factor families that were themselves differentially expressed. Network-based dependency analysis further revealed that most of the significantly rewired connections among the 10 most connected hub genes involved at least one transcription factor. TCP3 and MYB12, which were known important for plant-form development, were among these transcription factors. More importantly, TCP3 and MYB12 were found in this study to be involved in regulating the lignin gene PRX52, which is important to plant-form development. A further support evidence for the roles of TCP3-MYB12-PRX52 in contributing to tendril phyllotaxy was the findings of two other lignin-related genes uniquely expressed in the mutant phyllotaxy background.

A Conserved Potential Development Framework Applies to Shoots of Legume Species with Contrasting Morphogenetic Strategies

A great variety of legume species are used for forage production and grown in multi-species grasslands. Despite their close phylogenetic relationship, they display a broad range of morphologies that markedly affect their competitive abilities and persistence in mixtures. Little is yet known about the component traits that control the deployment of plant architecture in most of these species. During the present study, we compared the patterns of shoot organogenesis and shoot organ growth in contrasting forage species belonging to the four morphogenetic groups previously identified in herbaceous legumes (i.e., stolon-formers, rhizome-formers, crown-formers tolerant to defoliation and crown-formers intolerant to defoliation). To achieve this, three greenhouse experiments were carried out using plant species from each group (namely alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, sainfoin, kura clover, red clover, and white clover) which were grown at low density under non-limiting water and soil nutrient availability. The potential morphogenesis of shoots characterized under these conditions showed that all the species shared a number of common morphogenetic features. All complied with a generalized classification of shoot axes into three types (main axis, primary and secondary axes). A common quantitative framework for vegetative growth and development involved: (i) the regular development of all shoot axes in thermal time and a deterministic branching pattern in the absence of stress; (ii) a temporal coordination of organ growth at the phytomer level that was highly conserved irrespective of phytomer position, and (iii) an identical allometry determining the surface area of all the leaves. The species differed in their architecture as a consequence of the values taken by component traits of morphogenesis. Assessing the relationships between the traits studied showed that these species were distinct from each other along two main PCA axes which explained 68% of total variance: the first axis captured a trade-off between maximum leaf size and the ability to produce numerous phytomers, while the second distinguished morphogenetic strategies reliant on either petiole or internode expansion to achieve space colonization. The consequences of this quantitative framework are discussed, along with its possible applications regarding plant phenotyping and modeling.

Constructing a framework for risk analyses of climate change effects on the water budget of differently sloped vineyards with a numeric simulation using the Monte Carlo method coupled to a water balance model

Grapes for wine production are a highly climate sensitive crop and vineyard water budget is a decisive factor in quality formation. In order to conduct risk assessments for climate change effects in viticulture models are needed which can be applied to complete growing regions. We first modified an existing simplified geometric vineyard model of radiation interception and resulting water use to incorporate numerical Monte Carlo simulations and the physical aspects of radiation interactions between canopy and vineyard slope and azimuth. We then used four regional climate models to assess for possible effects on the water budget of selected vineyard sites up 2100. The model was developed to describe the partitioning of short-wave radiation between grapevine canopy and soil surface, respectively, green cover, necessary to calculate vineyard evapotranspiration. Soil water storage was allocated to two sub reservoirs. The model was adopted for steep slope vineyards based on coordinate transformation and validated against measurements of grapevine sap flow and soil water content determined down to 1.6 m depth at three different sites over 2 years. The results showed good agreement of modeled and observed soil water dynamics of vineyards with large variations in site specific soil water holding capacity (SWC) and viticultural management. Simulated sap flow was in overall good agreement with measured sap flow but site-specific responses of sap flow to potential evapotranspiration were observed. The analyses of climate change impacts on vineyard water budget demonstrated the importance of site-specific assessment due to natural variations in SWC. The improved model was capable of describing seasonal and site-specific dynamics in soil water content and could be used in an amended version to estimate changes in the water budget of entire grape growing areas due to evolving climatic changes.

Plant development controls leaf area expansion in alfalfa plants competing for light

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The growth of crops in a mixture is more variable and difficult to predict than that in pure stands. Light partitioning and crop leaf area expansion play prominent roles in explaining this variability. However, in many crops commonly grown in mixtures, including the forage species alfalfa, the sensitivity and relative importance of the physiological responses involved in the light modulation of leaf area expansion are still to be established. This study was designed to assess the relative sensitivity of primary shoot development, branching and individual leaf expansion in alfalfa in response to light availability.

METHODS

Two experiments were carried out. The first studied isolated plants to assess the potential development of different shoot types and growth periods. The second consisted of manipulating the intensity of competition for light using a range of canopies in pure and mixed stands at two densities so as to evaluate the relative effects on shoot development, leaf growth, and plant and shoot demography.

KEY RESULTS

Shoot development in the absence of light competition was deterministic (constant phyllochrons of 32·5 °Cd and 48·2 °Cd for primary axes and branches, branching probability of 1, constant delay of 1·75 phyllochron before axillary bud burst) and identical irrespective of shoot type and growth/regrowth periods. During light competition experiments, changes in plant development explained most of the plant leaf area variations, with average leaf size contributing to a lesser extent. Branch development and the number of shoots per plant were the leaf area components most affected by light availability. Primary axis development and plant demography were only affected in situations of severe light competition.

CONCLUSIONS

Plant leaf area components differed with regard to their sensitivity to light competition. The potential shoot development model presented in this study could serve as a framework to integrate light responses in alfalfa crop models.

A leaf gas exchange model that accounts for intra-canopy variability by considering leaf nitrogen content and local acclimation to radiation in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)

Understanding the distribution of gas exchange within a plant is a prerequisite for scaling up from leaves to canopies. We evaluated whether leaf traits were reliable predictors of the effects of leaf ageing and leaf irradiance on leaf photosynthetic capacity (V(cmax) , J(max) ) in field-grown vines (Vitis vinifera L). Simultaneously, we measured gas exchange, leaf mass per area (LMA) and nitrogen content (N(m) ) of leaves at different positions within the canopy and at different phenological stages. Daily mean leaf irradiance cumulated over 10 d (PPFD(10) ) was obtained by 3D modelling of the canopy structure. N(m) decreased over the season in parallel to leaf ageing while LMA was mainly affected by leaf position. PPFD(10) explained 66, 28 and 73% of the variation of LMA, N(m) and nitrogen content per area (N(a) ), respectively. Nitrogen content per unit area (N(a) = LMA × N(m) ) was the best predictor of the intra-canopy variability of leaf photosynthetic capacity. Finally, we developed a classical photosynthesis-stomatal conductance submodel and by introducing N(a) as an input, the model accurately simulated the daily pattern of gas exchange for leaves at different positions in the canopy and at different phenological stages during the season.

Comparison of three approaches to model grapevine organogenesis in conditions of fluctuating temperature, solar radiation and soil water content

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

There is increasing interest in the development of plant growth models representing the complex system of interactions between the different determinants of plant development. These approaches are particularly relevant for grapevine organogenesis, which is a highly plastic process dependent on temperature, solar radiation, soil water deficit and trophic competition.

METHODS

The extent to which three plant growth models were able to deal with the observed plasticity of axis organogenesis was assessed. In the first model, axis organogenesis was dependent solely on temperature, through thermal time. In the second model, axis organogenesis was modelled through functional relationships linking meristem activity and trophic competition. In the last model, the rate of phytomer appearence on each axis was modelled as a function of both the trophic status of the plant and the direct effect of soil water content on potential meristem activity.

KEY RESULTS

The model including relationships between trophic competition and meristem behaviour involved a decrease in the root mean squared error (RMSE) for the simulations of organogenesis by a factor nine compared with the thermal time-based model. Compared with the model in which axis organogenesis was driven only by trophic competition, the implementation of relationships between water deficit and meristem behaviour improved organogenesis simulation results, resulting in a three times divided RMSE. The resulting model can be seen as a first attempt to build a comprehensive complete plant growth model simulating the development of the whole plant in fluctuating conditions of temperature, solar radiation and soil water content.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose a new hypothesis concerning the effects of the different determinants of axis organogenesis. The rate of phytomer appearance according to thermal time was strongly affected by the plant trophic status and soil water deficit. Furthermore, the decrease in meristem activity when soil water is depleted does not result from source/sink imbalances.

Warm spring temperatures induce persistent season-long changes in shoot development in grapevines

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The influence of temperature on the timing of budbreak in woody perennials is well known, but its effect on subsequent shoot growth and architecture has received little attention because it is understood that growth is determined by current temperature. Seasonal shoot development of grapevines (Vitis vinifera) was evaluated following differences in temperature near budbreak while minimizing the effects of other microclimatic variables.

METHODS

Dormant buds and emerging shoots of field-grown grapevines were heated above or cooled below the temperature of ambient buds from before budbreak until individual flowers were visible on inflorescences, at which stage the shoots had four to eight unfolded leaves. Multiple treatments were imposed randomly on individual plants and replicated across plants. Shoot growth and development were monitored during two growing seasons.

KEY RESULTS

Higher bud temperatures advanced the date of budbreak and accelerated shoot growth and leaf area development. Differences were due to higher rates of shoot elongation, leaf appearance, leaf-area expansion and axillary-bud outgrowth. Although shoots arising from heated buds grew most vigorously, apical dominance in these shoots was reduced, as their axillary buds broke earlier and gave rise to more vigorous lateral shoots. In contrast, axillary-bud outgrowth was minimal on the slow-growing shoots emerging from buds cooled below ambient. Variation in shoot development persisted or increased during the growing season, well after temperature treatments were terminated and despite an imposed soil water deficit.

CONCLUSIONS

The data indicate that bud-level differences in budbreak temperature may lead to marked differences in shoot growth, shoot architecture and leaf-area development that are maintained or amplified during the growing season. Although growth rates commonly are understood to reflect current temperatures, these results demonstrate a persistent effect of early-season temperatures, which should be considered in future growth models.

Are the common assimilate pool and trophic relationships appropriate for dealing with the observed plasticity of grapevine development?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Models based on the consideration of plant development as the result of source-sink relationships between organs suffer from an inherent lack of quantification of the effect of trophic competition on organ growth processes. The 'common assimilate pool theory' underlying many such models is highly debatable.

METHODS

Six experiments were carried out in a greenhouse and outdoors with two grapevine cultivars and with 12 management systems, resulting in different types of plant architecture. Ten variables were used to quantify the impact of variations in assimilate supply and topological distances between sources and sinks on organogenesis, morphogenesis and biomass growth.

KEY RESULTS

A hierarchy of the responses of these processes to variations in assimilate supply was identified. Organ size seemed to be independent of assimilate supply, whereas both organogenesis and biomass growth were affected by variations in assimilate supply. Lower levels of organ biomass growth in response to the depletion of assimilate supplies seemed to be the principal mechanism underlying the plasticity of plant development in different environments. Defoliation or axis ablation resulted in changes in the relationship between growth processes and assimilate supply, highlighting the influence of non-trophic determinants. The findings cast doubt on the relevance of 'the common assimilate pool theory' for modelling the development of grapevine.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest new formalisms for increasing the ability of models to take plant plasticity into account. The combination of an ecophysiological model for morphogenesis taking environmental signals into account and a biomass driven model for organogenesis and biomass allocation taking the topological distances between the sources and the sinks into account appears to be a promising approach. Moreover, in order to simulate the impact of agronomic practices, it will be necessary to take into account the non-trophic determinants of plant development such as hormonal signaletics.

Classical morphology of plants as an elementary instance of classical invariant theory

It has long been known that structural chemistry shows an intriguing correspondence with Classical Invariant Theory (CIT). Under this view, an algebraic binary form of the degree n corresponds to a chemical atom with valence n and each physical molecule or ion has an invariant-theoretic counterpart. This theory was developed using the Aronhold symbolical approach and the symbolical processes of convolution/transvection in CIT was characterized as a potential "accurate morphological method". However, CIT has not been applied to the formal morphology of living organisms. Based on the morphological interpretation of binary form, as well as the process of convolution/transvection, the First and Second Fundamental Theorems of CIT and the Nullforms of CIT, we show how CIT can be applied to the structure of plants, especially when conceptualized as a series of plant metamers (phytomers). We also show that the weight of the covariant/invariant that describes a morphological structure is a criterion of simplicity and, therefore, we argue that this allows us to formulate a parsimonious method of formal morphology. We demonstrate that the "theory of axilar bud" is the simplest treatment of the grass seedling/embryo. Our interpretations also represent Troll's bauplan of the angiosperms, the principle of variable proportions, morphological misfits, the basic types of stem segmentation, and Goethe's principle of metamorphosis in terms of CIT. Binary forms of different degrees might describe any repeated module of plant organisms. As bacteria, invertebrates, and higher vertebrates are all generally shared a metameric morphology, wider implications of the proposed symmetry between CIT and formal morphology of plants are apparent.

Using a mathematical model to evaluate the trophic and non-trophic determinants of axis development in grapevine

The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) shoot is a complex modular branching system, with one primary axis and many secondary axes organised into a repetitive structure of three successive phytomers (P0-P1-P2). P1-P2 phytomers bear one tendril or cluster, whereas P0 phytomers bear no tendrils or clusters. Axis development displays a high variability, due, partly, to trophic competition. The aim of this study was to estimate changes in trophic competition within the shoot, and to relate plasticity in axis development to changes in trophic competition. 'Grenache N.' and 'Syrah' cultivars were grown with two contrasting levels of cluster load. Organogenesis and organ mass were measured during shoot development. Changes in trophic competition were estimated, using the solver functions of the GreenLab model. Internodes and clusters were strong sinks. They affected the shoot development to the same extent, but the internodes showed an earlier effect. The cessation of development of the secondary axis was affected by trophic competition, but the primary axis continued to develop, regardless of trophic competition. Secondary axes differed in sensitivity to trophic competition as a function of two criteria: their type and their size. The most highly developed axes were less affected than the smaller axes, and secondary axes arising from a P0 phytomer were also less affected than secondary axes arising from a P1 or P2 phytomer.

Preformation and distribution of staminate and pistillate flowers in growth units of Nothofagus alpina and N. obliqua (Nothofagaceae)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The distribution and differentiation times of flowers in monoecious wind-pollinated plants are fundamental for the understanding of their mating patterns and evolution. Two closely related South American Nothofagus species were compared with regard to the differentiation times and positions of staminate and pistillate flowers along their parent growth units (GUs) by quantitative means.

METHODS

Two samples of GUs that had extended in the 2004-2005 growing season were taken in 2005 and 2006 from trees in the Lanín National Park, Patagonia, Argentina. For the first sample, axillary buds of the parent GUs were dissected and the leaf, bud and flower primordia of these buds were identified. The second sample included all branches derived from the parent GUs in the 2005-2006 growing season.

KEY RESULTS

Both species developed flowering GUs with staminate and/or pistillate flowers; GUs with both flower types were the most common. The position of staminate flowers along GUs was similar between species and close to the proximal end of the GUs. Pistillate flowers were developed more distally along the GUs in N. alpina than in N. obliqua. In N. alpina, the nodes bearing staminate and pistillate flowers were separated by one to several nodes with axillary buds, something not observed in N. obliqua. Markovian models supported this between-species difference. Flowering GUs, including all of their leaves and flowers were entirely preformed in the winter buds.

CONCLUSIONS

Staminate and pistillate flowers of N. alpina and N. obliqua are differentiated at precise locations on GUs in the growing season preceding that of their antheses. The differences between N. alpina and N. obliqua (and other South American Nothofagus species) regarding flower distribution might relate to the time of anthesis of each flower type and, in turn, to the probabilities of self-pollination at the GU level.

Estimation of light interception in research environments: a joint approach using directional light sensors and 3D virtual plants applied to sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and Arabidopsis thaliana in natural and artificial conditions

Light interception is a major factor influencing plant development and biomass production. Several methods have been proposed to determine this variable, but its calculation remains difficult in artificial environments with heterogeneous light. We propose a method that uses 3D virtual plant modelling and directional light characterisation to estimate light interception in highly heterogeneous light environments such as growth chambers and glasshouses. Intercepted light was estimated by coupling an architectural model and a light model for different genotypes of the rosette species Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh and a sunflower crop. The model was applied to plants of contrasting architectures, cultivated in isolation or in canopy, in natural or artificial environments, and under contrasting light conditions. The model gave satisfactory results when compared with observed data and enabled calculation of light interception in situations where direct measurements or classical methods were inefficient, such as young crops, isolated plants or artificial conditions. Furthermore, the model revealed that A. thaliana increased its light interception efficiency when shaded. To conclude, the method can be used to calculate intercepted light at organ, plant and plot levels, in natural and artificial environments, and should be useful in the investigation of genotype-environment interactions for plant architecture and light interception efficiency.

Influence of intra-shoot trophic competition on shoot development in two grapevine cultivars (Vitis vinifera)

The effect of trophic competition between vegetative sources and reproductive sinks on grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) shoot development was analyzed. Two international cultivars (Grenache N and Syrah) grown in pots, which were well watered, were studied. A large range of trophic competition levels was obtained by modifying the cluster loads per plant. An analytical breakdown of the branching system was used to analyze the effects of trophic competition. Phytomer production on the primary axis and the probability and timing of axillary budburst were not affected by trophic competition. However, the duration of development and leaf production rate for secondary axes were both significantly affected. The impact of trophic competition differed within the P0-P1-P2 architectural module, locally within the shoot and between cultivars. Trophic competition reduced the organogenesis of secondary axes most strongly close to clusters, on P1-P2 phytomers and in Grenache N. Based on these results, a modeling approach simulating sink strength variation and the local effects of sink proximity would be more relevant than a model considering only development as a function of thermal time or the global distribution of available biomass.

A three-dimensional statistical reconstruction model of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) simulating canopy structure variability within and between cultivar/training system pairs

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In grapevine, canopy-structure-related variations in light interception and distribution affect productivity, yield and the quality of the harvested product. A simple statistical model for reconstructing three-dimensional (3D) canopy structures for various cultivar-training system (C x T) pairs has been implemented with special attention paid to balance the time required for model parameterization and accuracy of the representations from organ to stand scales. Such an approach particularly aims at overcoming the weak integration of interplant variability using the usual direct 3D measurement methods.

MODEL

This model is original in combining a turbid-medium-like envelope enclosing the volume occupied by vine shoots with the use of discrete geometric polygons representing leaves randomly located within this volume to represent plant structure. Reconstruction rules were adapted to capture the main determinants of grapevine shoot architecture and their variability. Using a simplified set of parameters, it was possible to describe (1) the 3D path of the main shoot, (2) the volume occupied by the foliage around this path and (3) the orientation of individual leaf surfaces. Model parameterization (estimation of the probability distribution for each parameter) was carried out for eight contrasting C x T pairs.

KEY RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The parameter values obtained in each situation were consistent with our knowledge of grapevine architecture. Quantitative assessments for the generated virtual scenes were carried out at the canopy and plant scales. Light interception efficiency and local variations of light transmittance within and between experimental plots were correctly simulated for all canopies studied. The approach predicted these key ecophysiological variables significantly more accurately than the classical complete digitization method with a limited number of plants. In addition, this model accurately reproduced the characteristics of a wide range of individual digitized plants. Simulated leaf area density and the distribution of light interception among leaves were consistent with measurements. However, at the level of individual organs, the model tended to underestimate light interception.

Using a 3-D virtual sunflower to simulate light capture at organ, plant and plot levels: contribution of organ interception, impact of heliotropism and analysis of genotypic differences

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Light interception is a critical factor in the production of biomass. The study presented here describes a method used to take account of architectural changes over time in sunflower and to estimate absorbed light at the organ level.

METHODS

The amount of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by a plant is estimated on a daily or hourly basis through precise characterization of the light environment and three-dimensional virtual plants built using AMAP software. Several treatments are performed over four experiments and on two genotypes to test the model, quantify the contribution of different organs to light interception and evaluate the impact of heliotropism.

KEY RESULTS

This approach is used to simulate the amount of light absorbed at organ and plant scales from crop emergence to maturity. Blades and capitula were the major contributors to light interception, whereas that by petioles and stem was negligible. Light regimen simulations showed that heliotropism decreased the cumulated light intercepted at the plant scale by close to 2.2% over one day.

CONCLUSIONS

The approach is useful in characterizing the light environment of organs and the whole plant, especially for studies on heterogeneous canopies or for quantifying genotypic or environmental impacts on plant architecture, where conventional approaches are ineffective. This model paves the way to analyses of genotype-environment interactions and could help establish new selection criteria based on architectural improvement, enhancing plant light interception.

Does the structure-function model GREENLAB deal with crop phenotypic plasticity induced by plant spacing? A case study on tomato

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Plant growth models able to simulate phenotypic plasticity are increasingly required because (1) they should enable better predictions of the observed variations in crop production, yield and quality, and (2) their parameters are expected to have a more robust genetic basis, with possible implications for selection of quantitative traits such as growth- and allocation-related processes. The structure-function plant model, GREENLAB, simulates resource-dependent plasticity of plant architecture. Evidence for its generality has been previously reported, but always for plants grown in a limited range of environments. This paper aims to test the model concept to its limits by using plant spacing as a means to generate a gradient of competition for light, and by using a new crop species, tomato, known to exhibit a strong photomorphogenetic response.

METHODS

A greenhouse experiment was carried out with three homogeneous planting densities (plant spacing = 0.3, 0.6 and 1 m). Detailed records of plant development, plant architecture and organ growth were made throughout the growing period. Model calibration was performed for each situation using a statistical optimization procedure (multi-fitting).

KEY RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Obvious limitations of the present version of the model appeared to account fully for the plant plasticity induced by inter-plant competition for light. A lack of stability was identified for some model parameters at very high planting density. In particular, those parameters characterizing organ sink strengths and governing light interception proved to be environment-dependent. Remarkably, however, responses of the parameter values concerned were consistent with actual growth measurements and with previously reported results. Furthermore, modifications of total biomass production and of allocation patterns induced by the planting-density treatments were accurately simulated using the sets of optimized parameters. These results demonstrate that the overall model structure is potentially able to reproduce the observed plant plasticity and suggest that sound biologically based adaptations could overcome the present model limitations. Potential options for model improvement are proposed, and the possibility of using the kernel algorithm currently available as a fitting tool to build up more sophisticated model versions is advocated.