Genetic structure of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) in the Old World reveals a strong differentiation between eastern and western populations

Whole mitochondrial and chloroplast genome sequencing of Tunisian date palm cultivars: diversity and evolutionary relationships

BACKGROUND

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is the most widespread crop in arid and semi-arid regions and has great traditional and socioeconomic importance, with its fruit well-known for its high nutritional and health value. However, the genetic variation of date palm cultivars is often neglected. The advent of high-throughput sequencing has made possible the resequencing of whole organelle (mitochondria and chloroplast) genomes to explore the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of cultivated plants with unprecedented detail.

RESULTS

Whole organelle genomes of 171 Tunisian accessions (135 females and 36 males) were sequenced. Targeted bioinformatics pipelines were used to identify date palm haplotypes and genome variants, aiming to provide variant annotation and investigate patterns of evolutionary relationship. Our results revealed the existence of unique haplotypes, identified by 45 chloroplastic and 156 mitochondrial SNPs. Estimation of the effect of these SNPs on genes functions was predicted in silico.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study have important implications, in the light of ongoing environmental changes, for the conservation and sustainable use of the genetic resources of date palm cultivars in Tunisia, where monoculture threatens biodiversity leading to genetic erosion. These data will be useful for breeding and genetic improvement programs of the date palm through selective cross-breeding.

Genome-wide association of dry (Tamar) date palm fruit color

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruit (dates) are an economically and culturally significant crop in the Middle East and North Africa. There are hundreds of different commercial cultivars producing dates with distinctive shapes, colors, and sizes. Genetic studies of some date palm traits have been performed, including sex determination, sugar content, and fresh fruit color. In this study, we used genome sequences and image data of 199 dry dates (Tamar) collected from 14 countries to identify genetic loci associated with the color of this fruit stage. Here, we find loci across multiple linkage groups (LG) associated with dry fruit color phenotype. We recover both the previously identified VIRESCENS (VIR) genotype associated with fresh fruit yellow or red color and new associations with the lightness and darkness of dry fruit. This study will add resolution to our understanding of date color phenotype, especially at the most commercially important Tamar stage.

Whole chloroplast genome-specific non-synonymous SNPs reveal the presence of substantial diversity in the pigeonpea mini-core collection

To unravel the plastid genome diversity among the cultivated groups of the pigeonpea germplasm, we characterized the SNP occurrence and distribution of 142 pigeonpea mini-core collections based on their reference-based assembly of the chloroplast genome. A total of 8921 SNPs were found, which were again filtered and finally 3871 non-synonymous SNPs were detected and used for diversity estimates. These 3871 SNPs were classified into 12 groups and were present in only 44 of the 125 genes, demonstrating the presence of a precise mechanism for maintaining the whole chloroplast genome throughout evolution. The Acetyl-CoA carboxylase D gene possesses the maximum number of SNPs (12.29%), but the Adenosine Tri-Phosphate synthatase cluster genes (atpA, atpB, atpE, atpF, atpH, and atpI) altogether bear 43.34% of the SNPs making them most diverse. Various diversity estimates, such as the number of effective alleles (1.013), Watterson's estimate (0.19), Tajima's D ( - 3.15), Shannon's information index (0.036), suggest the presence of less diversity in the cultivated gene pool of chloroplast genomes. The genetic relatedness estimates based on pairwise correlations were also in congruence with these diversity descriptors and indicate the prevalence of rare alleles in the accessions. Interestingly, no stratification was observed either through STRUCTURE, PCoA, or phylogenetic analysis, indicating the common origin of the chloroplast in all the accessions used, irrespective of their geographical distribution. Further 6194 Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequences (CAPS) markers for 531 SNPs were developed and validated in a selected set of germplasm. Based on these results, we inferred that all of the cultivated gene pools of pigeonpea have a common origin for the chloroplast genome and they possess less diversity in protein-coding regions, indicating a stable and evolved plastid genome. At the same time, all diversity analysis indicates the occurrence of rare alleles, suggesting the suitability of the mini-core collection in future pigeonpea improvement programs. In addition, the development of chloroplast genome-based CAPS markers would have utility in pigeonpea breeding programs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03785-8.

Analysis of genetic diversity and population structure of Moroccan date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) using SSR and DAMD molecular markers

BACKGROUND

Date palm, oasis pivot, plays a vital socio-economic part in the southern area of Morocco. However, with climate change and drought intensity and frequency increasing, the Moroccan palm grove is threatened with significant genetic degradation. Genetic characterization of this resource is key element for the development of effective conservation and management strategies in the current circumstances of climate change and various biotic and abiotic stresses. To evaluate the genetic diversity of date palm populations collected from different Moroccan oases, we used simple sequence repeats (SSR) and directed amplification of mini-satellite DNA (DAMD) markers. Our results showed that used markers could efficiently assess genetic diversity in Phoenix dactylifera L.

RESULTS

A total of 249 and 471 bands were respectively scored for SSR and DAMD, of which 100% and 92.9% were polymorphic. The polymorphic information content (PIC = 0.95), generated by the SSR primer was nearly identical to that generated by the DAMD primer (PIC = 0.98). The resolving power (Rp) was higher in DAMD than SSR (29.46 and 19.51, respectively). Analysis of the molecular variance (AMOVA) based on the combined data sets for both markers revealed a higher variance within populations (75%) than among populations (25%). Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and the ascendant hierarchical classification showed that the population of Zagora and Goulmima regions were the closest populations. The STRUCTURE analysis clustering of the 283 tested samples into seven clusters based on their genetic composition.

CONCLUSION

The results drawn from this study will orient genotypes selection strategies for a successful future breeding and conservation program, particularly under climate change context.

Agro-morphological traits assessment of Tunisian male date palms (Phœnix dactylifera L.) for preservation and sustainable utilization of local germplasm

Date palm (Phœnix dactylifera L.) like other crop species in the arid Mediterranean region is being threatened by genetic erosion and climate change. Therefore, the understanding and assessment of the diversity extent of this species is a primary requisite for preserving these crop resources. This study was designed to quantify the potential of Tunisian male date palms using a set of agro-morphological characteristics i.e. flowering traits, inflorescence morphology and pollen quality. The flowering time traits exhibited a trend of precocious phenotype at emergence spathe trait and the dominance of the full-season phenotype at the opening date. At inflorescence morphology, all observed traits expressed wide ranges which reflected the broad variability of the evaluated male genotypes. Significant difference was recorded for the majority of the examined traits with a high significant variation in the tree quantitative traits: Spathe Total Length, Spathe Maximum Width and Length to the brunched part. Pollen viability ranged from 51.10% to 98.75% while the germination rate was between 0.90% and 70.50%. Our phenotypic investigation has allowed the identification of males with desirable agronomic traits which have been genotyped using 18 nuclear SSR markers and a chloroplast minisatellite for preservation and effective utilization purposes.

Phenotypic Diversity in Wild and Cultivated Date Palm (Phoenix, Arecaceae): Quantitative Analysis Using Information Theory

The quantitative study of genetic diversity requires tools to describe quantitatively and in parallel the whole phenotypic diversity in order to produce meaningful comparisons. The genus Phoenix offers examples of species with very different levels of diversity or heterogeneity. Within Phoenix, date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a major food crop of global relevance. The concept of information entropy was introduced by Claude Shannon; although initially intended to evaluate data communication systems, it has been used to measure biodiversity in terms of richness, evenness and dominance. In the present work, we will use it to describe heterogeneity within the different taxonomic units in the genus Phoenix. The description of the Phoenix morphological diversity in the present work is based on 596 accessions or populations belonging to 43 mutually exclusive taxonomic units (species, subspecies, varieties, landrace groups and hybrids). As Phoenix is a dioecious palm genus, female and male individuals are described separately. Each accession or sample is described using 116 characters totaling 449 states. The Shannon information entropy index allows the quantitative representation of the different levels of heterogeneity in the various taxonomic units of the genus Phoenix. Morphology, consistency and coloration of fruit and seed, followed by the inflorescences and female flowers, comprise the taxonomic characters that contribute the most to heterogeneity. Vegetative characters contribute less than the characters of the reproductive organs as a whole. Phoenix dactylifera and related Mediterranean and Macaronesian taxa present the maximum heterogeneity. Immediately afterwards we find P. loureiroi and, behind, the group of P. pusilla. At the lower limit of heterogeneity, we find species restricted in their distribution area: P. rupicola, P. theophrasti, P. roebelenii and P. acaulis. Phoenix dactylifera conforms to a complex of landraces and cultivars that coexist as phenotypically well-defined geographical groups with numerous intermediate forms and the long-distance translocation of otherwise local cultivars. This results in high heterogeneity. For the western and eastern groups of Phoenix dactylifera, it is extremely difficult to find a set of well-defined differential characters. However, some of the variables analyzed here allow us to propose a set of their respective syndromes. The high phenotypic heterogeneity in various Phoenix species is related to the genetic diversity, age and ancestry of different taxa, hybridization events and introgressions prior to domestication, and selective pressures after domestication and, again, interspecific crosses after domestication.

Toxicity Studies on Essential Oil from Phoenix dactylifera (L.) Seed in Wistar Rats

This study evaluated the toxicological effect of oral administration of Phoenix dactylifera seed essential oil (PDEO) in Wistar rats. PDEO was extracted through a steam-distillation technique. Acute toxicity study evaluated administration of a single dose of the oil in a group (n = 5) of rats followed by 24 h observation, for sub-acute toxicity evaluation, the animals were randomly divided into five groups (n = 3). Group 1 to 4 rats, respectively, received 62.5, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg bw of PDEO for fourteen days, while the fifth group served as control. At the termination of the study, blood samples were obtained for biochemical and hematological analyses, while vital organs were histopathologically examined. Results from this study revealed no mortality or abnormal behavioral changes in the animals. A dose-related increase in bodyweight and hematological parameters was observed across the treated groups (p < 0.05). At a dosage of 500 mg/kg bw, PDEO caused slight elevation in biochemical marker levels and mild changes in histological architecture of liver and kidney of the test rats. This study revealed that PDEO exhibited significant hematopoietic attributes with no adverse effect on the experimental rats’ vital organs at concentrations below 500 mg/kg bw.

Elucidating Genetic Diversity in Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) Cultivated in the North-Western Himalayan Provinces of India Using SSR Markers

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is an important temperate fruit crop worldwide. The availability of wild apricot germplasm and its characterization through genomic studies can guide us towards its conservation, increasing productivity and nutritional composition. Therefore, in this study, we carried out the genomic characterization of 50 phenotypically variable accessions by using SSR markers in the erstwhile States of Jammu and Kashmir to reveal genetic variability among accessions and their genetic associations. The genetic parameter results revealed that the number of alleles per locus (Na) ranged from 1 to 6 with a mean Na value of 3.89 and the mean effective number of alleles (Ne) per locus 1.882 with a range of 1.22 to 2. Similarly, the polymorphic information content (PIC) values ranged from 0.464 to 0.104. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) (0.547) was found to have higher than expected heterozygosity (He) (0.453) with average heterozygosity of 0.4483. The dendrogram clustered genotypes into three main clades based on their pedigree. The population structure revealed IV sub-populations with all admixtures except the III sub-population, which was mainly formed of exotic cultivars. The average expected heterozygosity (He) and population differentiation within four sub-populations was 1.78 and 0.04, respectively, and explained 95.0% of the total genetic variance in the population. The results revealed that the SSR marker studies could easily decrypt the genetic variability present within the germplasm, which may form the base for the establishment of good gene banks by reducing redundancy of germplasm, selection of parents for any breeding program.

The genomes of ancient date palms germinated from 2,000 y old seeds

Resurrection genomics is an alternative to ancient DNA approaches in studying the genetics and evolution of past and possibly extinct populations. By reviving biological material such as germinating ancient seeds from archaeological and paleontological sites, or historical collections, one can study genomes of lost populations. We applied this approach by sequencing the genomes of seven Judean date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) that were germinated from ∼2,000 y old seeds recovered in the Southern Levant. Using this genomic data, we were able to document that introgressive hybridization of the wild Cretan palm Phoenix theophrasti into date palms had occurred in the Eastern Mediterranean by ∼2,200 y ago and examine the evolution of date palm populations in this pivotal region two millennia ago.

Seven date palm seeds (Phoenix dactylifera L.), radiocarbon dated from the fourth century BCE to the second century CE, were recovered from archaeological sites in the Southern Levant and germinated to yield viable plants. We conducted whole-genome sequencing of these germinated ancient samples and used single-nucleotide polymorphism data to examine the genetics of these previously extinct Judean date palms. We find that the oldest seeds from the fourth to first century BCE are related to modern West Asian date varieties, but later material from the second century BCE to second century CE showed increasing genetic affinities to present-day North African date palms. Population genomic analysis reveals that by ∼2,400 to 2,000 y ago, the P. dactylifera gene pool in the Eastern Mediterranean already contained introgressed segments from the Cretan palm Phoenix theophrasti, a crucial genetic feature of the modern North African date palm populations. The P. theophrasti introgression fraction content is generally higher in the later samples, while introgression tracts are longer in these ancient germinated date palms compared to modern North African varieties. These results provide insights into crop evolution arising from an analysis of plants originating from ancient germinated seeds and demonstrate what can be accomplished with the application of a resurrection genomics approach.

Genetic diversity and population structure of date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) in Ethiopia using microsatellite markers

Background

Date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a perennial monocotyledonous plant belonging to the Arecaceae family, a special plant with extraordinary nature that gives eminent contributions in agricultural sustainability and huge socio-economic value in many countries of the world including Ethiopia. Evaluation of genetic diversity across date palms at DNA level is very important for breeding and conservation. The result of this study could help to design for genetic improvement and develop germplasm introduction programmes of date palms mainly in Ethiopia.

Results

In this study, 124 date palm genotypes were collected, and 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers were used. Among 10 microsatellites, MPdCIR085 and MPdCIR093 loci showed the highest value of observed and expected heterozygosity, maximum number of alleles, and highest polymorphic information content values. A total of 112 number of alleles were found, and the mean number of major allele frequency was 0.26, with numbers ranging from 0.155 (MPdCIR085) to 0.374 (MPdCIR016); effective number of alleles with a mean value of 6.61, private alleles ranged from 0.0 to 0.65; observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.355 to 0.726; expected heterozygosity varied from 0.669 to 0.906, polymorphic information content with a mean value of 0.809; fixation index individuals relative to subpopulations ranged from 0.028 for locus MPdCIR032 to 0.548 for locus MPdCIR025, while subpopulations relative to total population value ranged from − 0.007 (MPdCIR070) to 0.891 (MPdCIR015). All nine accesstions, neighbour-joining clustering analysis, based on dissimilarity coefficient values were grouped into five major categories; in population STRUCTURE analysis at highest K value, three groups were formed, whereas DAPC separated date palm genotypes into eight clusters using the first two linear discriminants. Principal coordinate analysis was explained, with a 17.33% total of variation in all populations. Generally, the result of this study revealed the presence of allele variations and high heterozygosity (> 0.7) in date palm genotypes.

Conclusions

Microsatellites (SSR) are one of the most preferable molecular markers for the study of genetic diversity and population structure of plants. In this study, we found the presence of genetic variations of date palm genotypes in Ethiopia; therefore, these genetic variations of date palms is important for crop improvement and conservation programmes; also, it will be used as sources of information to national and international genbanks.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s43141-021-00168-5.

Dietary fiber components, microstructure, and texture of date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera, L.)

Date fruits vary widely in the hardness of their edible parts and they are classified accordingly into soft, semi-dry, and dry varieties. Fruit texture, a significant parameter in determining consumer acceptance, is related to the tissue structure and chemical composition of the fruit, mainly the ratio of sucrose to reducing sugars. This study aimed to understand the relationship between the chemical composition, microstructure, and texture profile of 10 major Emirati date fruits. The soluble sugars, glucose and fructose, represent ca 80 g/100 g of the fruits on the basis of dry weight (DW) while the dietary fiber contents varied 5.2-7.4 g/100 dg D.W. with lignin being the main determinant of the variability. The textures of the samples were studied using instrumental texture profile analysis. While no correlation was found between the soluble sugar and texture parameters in this study, the different fiber constituents correlated variably with the different parameters of date fruit texture. Lignin, arabinoxylan, galactomannan, and pectin were found to correlate significantly with fruit hardness and the related parameters, gumminess and chewiness. Both lignin and arabinoxylan correlated with resilience, and arabinoxylan exhibited a strong correlation with cohesiveness.

On the necessity of combining ethnobotany and genetics to assess agrobiodiversity and its evolution in crops: A case study on date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) in Siwa Oasis, Egypt

Crop diversity is shaped by biological and social processes interacting at different spatiotemporal scales. Here, we combined population genetics and ethnobotany to investigate date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) diversity in Siwa Oasis, Egypt. Based on interviews with farmers and observation of practices in the field, we collected 149 date palms from Siwa Oasis and 27 uncultivated date palms from abandoned oases in the surrounding desert. Using genotyping data from 18 nuclear and plastid microsatellite loci, we confirmed that some named types each constitute a clonal line, that is, a true-to-type cultivar. We also found that others are collections of clonal lines, that is, ethnovarieties, or even unrelated samples, that is, local categories. This alters current assessments of agrobiodiversity, which are visibly underestimated, and uncovers the impact of low-intensity, but highly effective, farming practices on biodiversity. These hardly observable practices, hypothesized by ethnographic survey and confirmed by genetic analysis, are enabled by the way Isiwans conceive and classify living beings in their oasis, which do not quite match the way biologists do: a classic disparity of etic versus. emic categorizations. In addition, we established that Siwa date palms represent a unique and highly diverse genetic cluster, rather than a subset of North African and Middle Eastern palm diversity. As previously shown, North African date palms display evidence of introgression by the wild relative Phoenix theophrasti, and we found that the uncultivated date palms from the abandoned oases share even more alleles with this species than cultivated palms in this region. The study of Siwa date palms could hence be a key to the understanding of date palm diversification in North Africa. Integration of ethnography and population genetics promoted the understanding of the interplay between diversity management in the oasis (short-time scale), and the origins and dynamic of diversity through domestication and diversification (long-time scale).

Deletion of beta-fructofuranosidase (invertase) genes is associated with sucrose content in Date Palm fruit

The fruit of date palm trees are an important part of the diet for a large portion of the Middle East and North Africa. The fruit is consumed both fresh and dry and can be stored dry for extended periods of time. Date fruits vary significantly across hundreds of cultivars identified in the main regions of cultivation. Most dried date fruit are low in sucrose but high in glucose and fructose. However, high sucrose content is a distinctive feature of some date fruit and affects flavor as well as texture and water retention. To identify the genes controlling high sucrose content, we analyzed date fruit metabolomics for association with genotype data from 120 date fruits. We found significant association of dried date sucrose content and a genomic region that contains 3 tandem copies of the beta-fructofuranosidase (invertase) gene in the reference Khalas genome, a low-sucrose fruit. High-sucrose cultivars including the popular Deglet Noor had a homozygous deletion of two of the 3 copies of the invertase gene. We show the deletion allele is derived when compared to the ancestral allele that retains all copies of the gene in 3 other species of Phoenix. The fact that 2 of the 3 tandem invertase copies are associated with dry fruit sucrose content will assist in better understanding the distinct roles of multiple date palm invertases in plant physiology. Identification of the recessive alleles associated with end-point sucrose content in date fruit may be used in selective breeding in the future.

Origins and insights into the historic Judean date palm based on genetic analysis of germinated ancient seeds and morphometric studies

Germination of 2000-year-old seeds of Phoenix dactylifera from Judean desert archaeological sites provides a unique opportunity to study the Judean date palm, described in antiquity for the quality, size, and medicinal properties of its fruit, but lost for centuries. Microsatellite genotyping of germinated seeds indicates that exchanges of genetic material occurred between the Middle East (eastern) and North Africa (western) date palm gene pools, with older seeds exhibiting a more eastern nuclear genome on a gradient from east to west of genetic contributions. Ancient seeds were significantly longer and wider than modern varieties, supporting historical records of the large size of the Judean date. These findings, in accord with the region's location between east and west date palm gene pools, suggest that sophisticated agricultural practices may have contributed to the Judean date's historical reputation. Given its exceptional storage potentialities, the date palm is a remarkable model for seed longevity research.

Phoenix phylogeny, and analysis of genetic variation in a diverse collection of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) and related species

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), one of the most ancient crops, is grown commercially in >30 countries. Using whole plastome assemblies, phylogenetic analyses revealed that cultivated date palm accessions share the same clade with P hoenix sylvestris, P hoenix pusilla and P hoenix acaulis, which are native to the Indian subcontinent, and Phoenix caespitosa that is native to the Arabian Peninsula and the deserts of Somalia. Analysis of genetic diversity and genetic relationships among date palm accessions from 13 producing countries involved 195 date palm accessions that were genotyped at 19 microsatellite loci. Extensive genetic diversity was observed, with many accessions heterozygous for most markers in this clonally propagated crop. The average number of alleles per locus (42.1), expected heterozygosity (0.8), observed heterozygosity (0.47) and fixation indices (F_ST = 0.42) demonstrated substantial genetic diversity and population structure. Iraqi accessions were found to have the richest allelic diversity, and the most private alleles. The model-based Bayesian method indicated that these accessions could be broadly divided into two structure groups, one group with predominantly African accessions and another predominantly Asian. Some germplasm, especially from Tunisia and Iraq, deviated from this generalization. Many accessions in the STRUCTURE-derived groups were found to be genetic admixtures, with gene flow between Asian and African groups. Indian and Pakistani date palms were found to be most closely related to North African germplasm.

Plant Domestication: Wild Date Palms Illuminate a Crop's Sticky Origins

In a new study, previously unknown populations of wild date palm have been identified in remote areas of Oman. Genomic analyses indicate date palm domestication occurred in the eastern portion of the Arabian Peninsula and reveal substantial subsequent gene flow with African palm populations.

Novel subpopulations in date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) identified by population-wide organellar genome sequencing

Background

The date palm is one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees. The tree can withstand high temperatures and low water and the fruit can be stored dry offering nutrition across the year. The first region of cultivation is believed to be near modern day Iraq, however, where and if the date palm was domesticated is still a topic of debate. Recent studies of chloroplast and genomic DNA revealed two major subpopulations of cultivars centered in both the Eastern range of date palm cultivation including Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and parts of South Asia, and the Western range, including North Africa.

Results

To better understand the origins of date palm cultivation we sequenced and analyzed over 200 mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes from a geographically diverse set of date palms. Here we show that, based on mitochondrial and chloroplast genome-wide genotyping data, the most common cultivated date palms contain 4 haplotypes that appear associated with geographical region of cultivar origin.

Conclusions

These data suggest at least 3 and possibly 4 original maternal contributions to the current date palm population and doubles the original number. One new haplotype was found mainly in Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt and the second in Iraq, Iran and Oman. We propose that earliest date palm cultivation occurred independently in at least 3 distinct locations. This discovery will further inform understanding of the history and origins of cultivated date palm.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5834-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cross-species hybridization and the origin of North African date palms

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a major fruit crop of arid regions that were domesticated ∼7,000 y ago in the Near or Middle East. This species is cultivated widely in the Middle East and North Africa, and previous population genetic studies have shown genetic differentiation between these regions. We investigated the evolutionary history of P. dactylifera and its wild relatives by resequencing the genomes of date palm varieties and five of its closest relatives. Our results indicate that the North African population has mixed ancestry with components from Middle Eastern P. dactylifera and Phoenix theophrasti, a wild relative endemic to the Eastern Mediterranean. Introgressive hybridization is supported by tests of admixture, reduced subdivision between North African date palm and P. theophrasti, sharing of haplotypes in introgressed regions, and a population model that incorporates gene flow between these populations. Analysis of ancestry proportions indicates that as much as 18% of the genome of North African varieties can be traced to P. theophrasti and a large percentage of loci in this population are segregating for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that are fixed in P. theophrasti and absent from date palm in the Middle East. We present a survey of Phoenix remains in the archaeobotanical record which supports a late arrival of date palm to North Africa. Our results suggest that hybridization with P. theophrasti was of central importance in the diversification history of the cultivated date palm.

Advances in genotyping microsatellite markers through sequencing and consequences of scoring methods for Ceratonia siliqua (Leguminosae)

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers have been used in a broad range of studies mostly scoring alleles on the basis of amplicon size as a proxy for the number of repeat units of an SSR motif. However, additional sources of variation within the SSR or in the flanking regions have largely remained undetected.

METHODS

In this study, we implemented a next-generation sequencing-based genotyping approach in a newly characterized set of 18 nuclear SSR markers for the carob tree, Ceratonia siliqua. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of three different methods of scoring molecular variation present within microsatellite markers on the genetic diversity and structure results.

RESULTS

The analysis of the sequences of 77 multilocus genotypes from four populations revealed SSR variation and additional sources of polymorphism in 87% of the loci analyzed (42 single-nucleotide polymorphisms and five insertion/deletion polymorphisms), as well as divergent paralog copies in two loci. Ignoring sequence variation under standard amplicon size genotyping resulted in incorrect identification of 69% of the alleles, with important effects on the genetic diversity and structure estimates.

DISCUSSION

Next-generation sequencing allows the detection and scoring of SSRs, single-nucleotide polymorphisms, and insertion/deletion polymorphisms to increase the resolution of population genetic studies.

Genomic Insights into Date Palm Origins

With the development of next-generation sequencing technology, the amount of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) genomic data has grown rapidly and yielded new insights into this species and its origins. Here, we review advances in understanding of the evolutionary history of the date palm, with a particular emphasis on what has been learned from the analysis of genomic data. We first record current genomic resources available for date palm including genome assemblies and resequencing data. We discuss new insights into its domestication and diversification history based on these improved genomic resources. We further report recent discoveries such as the existence of wild ancestral populations in remote locations of Oman and high differentiation between African and Middle Eastern populations. While genomic data are consistent with the view that domestication took place in the Gulf region, they suggest that the process was more complex involving multiple gene pools and possibly a secondary domestication. Many questions remain unanswered, especially regarding the genetic architecture of domestication and diversification. We provide a road map to future studies that will further clarify the domestication history of this iconic crop.

First chloroplast genomics study of Phoenix dactylifera (var. Naghal and Khanezi): A comparative analysis

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is one of the oldest fruit crops in the arid regions of the Middle East. However, little information is available regarding its plastid genomes. In this study, we sequenced the chloroplast (cp) genomes of two economically important but genomically unexplored date palm cultivars of Phoenix dactylifera (var. Naghal and Khanezi). The data assembly and genome annotation revealed a typical quadripartite structure similar to Arecaceae, and the genome sizes of Naghal and Khanezi were 158,210 bp and 158,211 bp, respectively. Structurally, both cp genomes were comprised of four regions: a pair of inverted repeats (27,273 bp for Khanezi and for Naghal 27,272 bp), a large single-copy region (86,090 bp and 86,092 bp) and a small single-copy region (17,575 bp and 17,574 bp). Both genomes had 138 representative genes, whereas 227 and 229 randomly distributed microsatellites were also observed in Khanezi and Naghal, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on the whole cp genomes and 68 shared genes showed identical phylogenetic trees of Khanezi and Naghal forming clades with Khalas and Aseel cultivars, respectively. The current study showed detailed comparative cp genome analysis, which could be essential for broader population genetics and molecular studies of these four date palm cultivars.

On the origins and domestication of the olive: a review and perspectives

Background

Unravelling domestication processes is crucial for understanding how species respond to anthropogenic pressures, forecasting crop responses to future global changes and improving breeding programmes. Domestication processes for clonally propagated perennials differ markedly from those for seed-propagated annual crops, mostly due to long generation times, clonal propagation and recurrent admixture with local forms, leading to a limited number of generations of selection from wild ancestors. However, additional case studies are required to document this process more fully.

Scope

The olive is an iconic species in Mediterranean cultural history. Its multiple uses and omnipresence in traditional agrosystems have made this species an economic pillar and cornerstone of Mediterranean agriculture. However, major questions about the domestication history of the olive remain unanswered. New paleobotanical, archeological, historical and molecular data have recently accumulated for olive, making it timely to carry out a critical re-evaluation of the biogeography of wild olives and the history of their cultivation. We review here the chronological history of wild olives and discuss the questions that remain unanswered, or even unasked, about their domestication history in the Mediterranean Basin. We argue that more detailed ecological genomics studies of wild and cultivated olives are crucial to improve our understanding of olive domestication. Multidisciplinary research integrating genomics, metagenomics and community ecology will make it possible to decipher the evolutionary ecology of one of the most iconic domesticated fruit trees worldwide.

Conclusion

The olive is a relevant model for improving our knowledge of domestication processes in clonally propagated perennial crops, particularly those of the Mediterranean Basin. Future studies on the ecological and genomic shifts linked to domestication in olive and its associated community will provide insight into the phenotypic and molecular bases of crop adaptation to human uses.

Date Palm Genetic Diversity Analysis Using Microsatellite Polymorphism

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is considered one of the great socioeconomic resources in the Middle East and the Arab regions. The tree has been and still is at the center of the comprehensive agricultural development. The number of known date palm cultivars, distributed worldwide, is approximately 3000. The success of genetic diversity conservation or any breeding program depends on an understanding of the amount and distribution of the genetic variation already in existence in the genetic pool. Development of suitable DNA molecular markers for this tree may allow researchers to estimate genetic diversity, which will ultimately lead to the genetic conservation of date palm. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are DNA strands, consisting of tandemly repeated mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-nucleotide units that are arranged throughout the genomes of most eukaryotic species. Microsatellite markers, developed from genomic libraries, belong to either the transcribed region or the non-transcribed region of the genome, and there is rarely available information on their functions. Microsatellite sequences are especially suited to distinguish closely related genotypes due to a high degree of variability making them ideally suitable in population studies and the identification of closely related cultivars. This chapter focuses on the methods employed to characterize date palm genotypes using SSR markers.

Diversity of Algerian oases date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L., Arecaceae): Heterozygote excess and cryptic structure suggest farmer management had a major impact on diversity

Date palm (Phoenix dactyliferaL.) is the mainstay of oasis agriculture in the Saharan region. It is cultivated in a large part of the Mediterranean coastal area of the Sahara and in most isolated oases in the Algerian desert. We sampled 10 oases in Algeria to understand the structure of date palm diversity from the coastal area to a very isolated desert location. We used 18 microsatellite markers and a chloroplast minisatellite to characterize 414 individual palm trees corresponding to 114 named varieties. We found a significant negative inbreeding coefficient, suggesting active farmer selection for heterozygous individuals. Three distinct genetic clusters were identified, a ubiquitous set of varieties found across the different oases, and two clusters, one of which was specific to the northern area, and the other to the drier southern area of the Algerian Sahara. The ubiquitous cluster presented very striking chloroplast diversity, signing the frequency of haplotypes found in Saudi Arabia, the most eastern part of the date palm range. Exchanges of Middle Eastern and Algerian date palms are known to have occurred and could have led to the introduction of this particular chlorotype. However, Algerian nuclear diversity was not of eastern origin. Our study strongly suggests that the peculiar chloroplastic diversity of date palm is maintained by farmers and could originate from date palms introduced from the Middle East a long time ago, which since then, hasbeen strongly introgressed. This study illustrates the complex structure of date palm diversity in Algerian oases and the role of farmers in shaping such cryptic diversity.

Complete chloroplast genomes from apomictic Taraxacum (Asteraceae): Identity and variation between three microspecies

Chloroplast DNA sequences show substantial variation between higher plant species, and less variation within species, so are typically excellent markers to investigate evolutionary, population and genetic relationships and phylogenies. We sequenced the plastomes of Taraxacum obtusifrons Markl. (O978); T. stridulum Trávniček ined. (S3); and T. amplum Markl. (A978), three apomictic triploid (2n = 3x = 24) dandelions from the T. officinale agg. We aimed to characterize the variation in plastomes, define relationships and correlations with the apomictic microspecies status, and refine placement of the microspecies in the evolutionary or phylogenetic context of the Asteraceae. The chloroplast genomes of accessions O978 and S3 were identical and 151,322 bp long (where the nuclear genes are known to show variation), while A978 was 151,349 bp long. All three genomes contained 135 unique genes, with an additional copy of the trnF-GGA gene in the LSC region and 20 duplicated genes in the IR region, along with short repeats, the typical major Inverted Repeats (IR1 and IR2, 24,431bp long), and Large and Small Single Copy regions (LSC 83,889bp and SSC 18,571bp in O978). Between the two Taraxacum plastomes types, we identified 28 SNPs. The distribution of polymorphisms suggests some parts of the Taraxacum plastome are evolving at a slower rate. There was a hemi-nested inversion in the LSC region that is common to Asteraceae, and an SSC inversion from ndhF to rps15 found only in some Asteraceae lineages. A comparative repeat analysis showed variation between Taraxacum and the phylogenetically close genus Lactuca, with many more direct repeats of 40bp or more in Lactuca (1% larger plastome than Taraxacum). When individual genes and non-coding regions were for Asteraceae phylogeny reconstruction, not all showed the same evolutionary scenario suggesting care is needed for interpretation of relationships if a limited number of markers are used. Studying genotypic diversity in plastomes is important to characterize the nature of evolutionary processes in nuclear and cytoplasmic genomes with the different selection pressures, population structures and breeding systems.

Endemic insular and coastal Tunisian date palm genetic diversity

The breeding of crop species relies on the valorisation of ancestral or wild varieties to enrich the cultivated germplasm. The Tunisian date palm genetic patrimony is being threatened by diversity loss and global climate change. We have conducted a genetic study to evaluate the potential of spontaneous coastal resources to improve the currently exploited Tunisian date palm genetic pool. Eighteen microsatellite loci of Phoenix dactylifera L. were used to compare the genetic diversity of coastal accessions from Kerkennah, Djerba, Gabès and continental date palm accessions from Tozeur. A collection of 105 date palms from the four regions was analysed. This study has provided us with an extensive understanding of the local genetic diversity and its distribution. The coastal date palm genotypes exhibit a high and specific genetic diversity. These genotypes are certainly an untapped reservoir of agronomically important genes to improve cultivated germplasm in continental date palm.