Crystal structure of the human alpha-thrombin-haemadin complex: an exosite II-binding inhibitor

Identification and functional characterization of multiple haemadins and an oligomeric decorsin in the Asian land leech Haemadipsa interrupta

Haematophagous leeches rely on a broad variety of bioactive compounds to secure a sufficient blood meal from their vertebrate prey. Both the primary (platelet aggregation) and secondary (blood coagulation) haemostasis are the main targets of action. The platelet aggregation inhibitor decorsin was first described in the North American leech, Macrobdella decora Say, 1824, whereas the bivalent thrombin inhibitor hirudin was originally identified in the European medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis Linnaeus, 1758. Hirudin blocks both the catalytic site and the fibrinogen-binding site (exosite I) of thrombin. Haemadin of the Indian land leech Haemadipsa sylvestris Blanchard, 1894, is also a highly efficient bivalent thrombin inhibitor but blocks exosite II of thrombin. So far, only the archetypal form of haemadin from H. sylvestris has been purified and functionally characterized, and two putative haemadins have been identified in the salivary transcriptome of Haemadipsa interrupta Moore, 1835, a terrestrial leech inhabiting mainly the Malayan peninsula. Here, we describe the identification of ten additional putative haemadins in the transcriptomic data set of H. interrupta, first generated by another study. Furthermore, we identified a putative oligomeric decorsin, which represents the first finding of this anticoagulant in a haemadipsid leech. Both the putative decorsin and a selection of haemadins were expressed, purified, and functionally characterized. The putative haemadins displayed a broad spectrum of thrombin-inhibitory potencies, whereas the putative oligomeric decorsin was indeed a weak inhibitor of platelet aggregation.

Bait and Cleave: Exosite-Binding Peptides on Quantum Dots Selectively Accelerate Protease Activity for Sensing with Enhanced Sensitivity

The advantageous optical properties of quantum dots (QDs) motivate their use in a wide variety of applications related to imaging and bioanalysis, including the detection of proteases and their activity. Recent studies have shown that surface chemistry on QDs is able to modulate protease activity, but only nonspecifically. Here, we present a strategy to selectively accelerate the activity of a particular target protease by as much as two orders of magnitude. Exosite-binding "bait" peptides were derived from proteins that span a range of biological roles─substrate, receptor, and inhibitor─and were used to increase the affinity of the QD-peptide conjugates for either thrombin or factor Xa, resulting in increased rates of proteolysis for coconjugated substrates. Unlike effects from QD surface chemistry, the acceleration was specific to the target protease with negligible acceleration of other proteases. Benefits of this "bait and cleave" sensing approach included detection limits that improved by more than an order of magnitude, reenabled detection of target protease against an overwhelming background of nontarget proteolysis, and mitigation of the action of inhibitors. The cumulative results point to a generalizable strategy, where the mechanism of acceleration, considerations for the design of bait peptides and conjugates, and routes to expanding the scope of this approach are discussed. Overall, this research represents a major step forward in the rational design of nanoparticle-based enzyme sensors that enhance sensitivity and selectivity.

Aptameric hirudins as selective and reversible EXosite-ACTive site (EXACT) inhibitors

Potent and selective inhibition of the structurally homologous proteases of coagulation poses challenges for drug development. Hematophagous organisms frequently accomplish this by fashioning peptide inhibitors combining exosite and active site binding motifs. Inspired by this biological strategy, we create several EXACT inhibitors targeting thrombin and factor Xa de novo by linking EXosite-binding aptamers with small molecule ACTive site inhibitors. The aptamer component within the EXACT inhibitor (1) synergizes with and enhances the potency of small-molecule active site inhibitors by many hundred-fold (2) can redirect an active site inhibitor's selectivity towards a different protease, and (3) enable efficient reversal of inhibition by an antidote that disrupts bivalent binding. One EXACT inhibitor, HD22-7A-DAB, demonstrates extraordinary anticoagulation activity, exhibiting great potential as a potent, rapid onset anticoagulant to support cardiovascular surgeries. Using this generalizable molecular engineering strategy, selective, potent, and rapidly reversible EXACT inhibitors can be created against many enzymes through simple oligonucleotide conjugation for numerous research and therapeutic applications.

Potential elevation of exopeptidase activity of Glu-specific endopeptidase I/GluV8 mediated by hydrophobic P1'-position amino acid residue

We recently reported that the activities of dipeptidyl-peptidase (DPP)7 and DPP11, S46-family exopeptidases were significantly elevated by the presence of prime-side amino acid residues of substrates caused by an increase in kcat [Ohara-Nemoto Y. et al., J Biol Chem 298(3):101585. doi: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022]. In the present study, the effects of prime-side residues on Glu-specific endopeptidase I/GluV8 from Staphylococcus aureus were investigated using a two-step cleavage method with tetrapeptidyl-methycoumaryl-7-amide (MCA) carrying P2- to P2'-position residues coupled with DPP11 as the second enzyme. GluV8 showed maximal activity toward benzyloxycarbonyl (Z)-LLE-MCA, while the effects of hydrolysis of substrates one residue shorter, such as acetyl (Ac)-Val-Glu- and Leu-Glu-MCA, were negligible. Nevertheless, activity towards Ac-VE-|-ID-MCA, a substrate carrying P1' and P2' residues, emerged and reached a level 44 % of that for Z-LLE-MCA. Among 11 Ac-HAXD-MCA (X is a varied amino acid), the highest level of activity enhancement was achieved with P1'-Leu and Ile, followed by Phe, Val, Ser, Tyr, and Ala, while Gly and Lys showed scant effects. This activation order was in parallel with the hydrophobicity indexes of these amino acids. The prime-side residues increased kcat/KM primarily through a maximum 500-fold elevation of kcat as well as S46-family exopeptidases. The MEROPS substrate database also indicates a close relationship between activity and hydrophobicity of the P1' residues in 93 N-terminal-truncated substrates, though no correlation was observed among all 4328 GluV8 entities examined. Taken together, these results are the first to demonstrate N-terminal exopeptidase activity of GluV8, considered to be prompted by hydrophobic P1' amino acid residues.

From haemadin to haemanorm: Synthesis and characterization of full-length haemadin from the leech Haemadipsa sylvestris and of a novel bivalent, highly potent thrombin inhibitor (haemanorm)

Hirudin from Hirudo medicinalis is a bivalent α-Thrombin (αT) inhibitor, targeting the enzyme active site and exosite-I, and is currently used in anticoagulant therapy along with its simplified analogue hirulog. Haemadin, a small protein (57 amino acids) isolated from the land-living leech Haemadipsa sylvestris, selectively inhibits αT with a potency identical to that of recombinant hirudin (KI  = 0.2 pM), with which it shares a common disulfide topology and overall fold. At variance with hirudin, haemadin targets exosite-II and therefore (besides the free protease) it also blocks thrombomodulin-bound αT without inhibiting the active intermediate meizothrombin, thus offering potential advantages over hirudin. Here, we produced in reasonably high yields and pharmaceutical purity (>98%) wild-type haemadin and the oxidation resistant Met5 → nor-Leucine analogue, both inhibiting αT with a KI of 0.2 pM. Thereafter, we used site-directed mutagenesis, spectroscopic, ligand-displacement, and Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange-Mass Spectrometry techniques to map the αT regions relevant for the interaction with full-length haemadin and with the synthetic N- and C-terminal peptides Haem(1-10) and Haem(45-57). Haem(1-10) competitively binds to/inhibits αT active site (KI  = 1.9 μM) and its potency was enhanced by 10-fold after Phe3 → β-Naphthylalanine exchange. Conversely to full-length haemadin, haem(45-57) displays intrinsic affinity for exosite-I (KD  = 1.6 μM). Hence, we synthesized a peptide in which the sequences 1-9 and 45-57 were joined together through a 3-Glycine spacer to yield haemanorm, a highly potent (KI  = 0.8 nM) inhibitor targeting αT active site and exosite-I. Haemanorm can be regarded as a novel class of hirulog-like αT inhibitors with potential pharmacological applications.

Make it double: identification and characterization of a Tandem-Hirudin from the Asian medicinal leech Hirudinaria manillensis

Haematophagous leeches express a broad variety of secretory proteins in their salivary glands, among them are hirudins and hirudin-like factors. Here, we describe the identification, molecular and initial functional characterization of Tandem-Hirudin (TH), a novel salivary gland derived factor identified in the Asian medicinal leech, Hirudinaria manillensis. In contrast to the typical structure of hirudins, TH comprises two globular domains arranged in a tandem-like orientation and lacks the elongated C-terminal tail. Similar structures of thrombin inhibitors have so far been identified only in kissing bugs and ticks. Expression of TH was performed in both cell-based and cell-free bacterial systems. A subsequent functional characterization revealed no evidence for a thrombin-inhibitory potency of TH.

Screening of the Promising Direct Thrombin Inhibitors from Haematophagous Organisms. Part I: Recombinant Analogues and Their Antithrombotic Activity In Vitro

The success in treatment of venous thromboembolism and acute coronary syndromes using direct thrombin inhibitors has stimulated research aimed at finding a new anticoagulant from haematophagous organisms. This study deals with the comparison between hirudin-1 from Hirudomedicinalis(desirudin), being the first-known and most well-studied natural anticoagulant, along with recombinant analogs of haemadin from the leech Haemadipsa sylvestris, variegin from the tick Amblyomma variegatum, and anophelin from Anopheles albimanus. These polypeptides were chosen due to their high specificity and affinity for thrombin, as well as their distinctive inhibitory mechanisms. We have developed a universal scheme for the biotechnological production of these recombinant peptides as pharmaceutical substances. The anticoagulant activities of these peptides were compared using the thrombin amidolytic activity assay and prolongation of coagulation time (thrombin time, prothrombin time, and activated partial thromboplastin time) in mouse and human plasma. The preliminary results obtained suggest haemadin as the closest analog of recombinant hirudin-1, the active substance of the medicinal product Iprivask (Aventis Pharmaceuticals, USA) for the prevention of deep venous thrombosis in patients undergoing elective hip or knee replacement surgery. In contrast, variegin can be regarded as a natural analog of bivalirudin (Angiomax, The Medicines Company), a synthetic hirudin-1 derivative certified for the treatment of patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention and of patients with unstable angina pectoris after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.

Identification of a substrate-like cleavage-resistant thrombin inhibitor from the saliva of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis

The salivary glands of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis, a vector of the plague bacterium, Yersinia pestis, express proteins and peptides thought to target the hemostatic and inflammatory systems of its mammalian hosts. Past transcriptomic analyses of salivary gland tissue revealed the presence of two similar peptides (XC-42 and XC-43) having no extensive similarities to any other deposited sequences. Here we show that these peptides specifically inhibit coagulation of plasma and the amidolytic activity of α-thrombin. XC-43, the smaller of the two peptides, is a fast, tight-binding inhibitor of thrombin with a dissociation constant of less than 10 pM. XC-42 exhibits similar selectivity as well as kinetic and binding properties. The crystal structure of XC-43 in complex with thrombin shows that despite its substrate-like binding mode, XC-43 is not detectably cleaved by thrombin and that it interacts with the thrombin surface from the enzyme catalytic site through the fibrinogen-binding exosite I. The low rate of hydrolysis was verified in solution experiments with XC-43, which show the substrate to be largely intact after 2 h of incubation with thrombin at 37 °C. The low rate of XC-43 cleavage by thrombin may be attributable to specific changes in the catalytic triad observable in the crystal structure of the complex or to extensive interactions in the prime sites that may stabilize the binding of cleavage products. Based on the increased arterial occlusion time, tail bleeding time, and blood coagulation parameters in rat models of thrombosis XC-43 could be valuable as an anticoagulant.

Exosite Binding in Thrombin: A Global Structural/Dynamic Overview of Complexes with Aptamers and Other Ligands

Thrombin is the key enzyme of the entire hemostatic process since it is able to exert both procoagulant and anticoagulant functions; therefore, it represents an attractive target for the developments of biomolecules with therapeutic potential. Thrombin can perform its many functional activities because of its ability to recognize a wide variety of substrates, inhibitors, and cofactors. These molecules frequently are bound to positively charged regions on the surface of protein called exosites. In this review, we carried out extensive analyses of the structural determinants of thrombin partnerships by surveying literature data as well as the structural content of the Protein Data Bank (PDB). In particular, we used the information collected on functional, natural, and synthetic molecular ligands to define the anatomy of the exosites and to quantify the interface area between thrombin and exosite ligands. In this framework, we reviewed in detail the specificity of thrombin binding to aptamers, a class of compounds with intriguing pharmaceutical properties. Although these compounds anchor to protein using conservative patterns on its surface, the present analysis highlights some interesting peculiarities. Moreover, the impact of thrombin binding aptamers in the elucidation of the cross-talk between the two distant exosites is illustrated. Collectively, the data and the work here reviewed may provide insights into the design of novel thrombin inhibitors.

Distinct 3-disulfide-bonded isomers of tridegin differentially inhibit coagulation factor XIIIa: The influence of structural stability on bioactivity

Tridegin is a 66mer cysteine-rich coagulation factor XIIIa (FXI-IIa) inhibitor from the giant amazon leech Haementeria ghilianii of yet unknown disulfide connectivity. This study covers the structural and functional characterization of five different 3-disulfide-bonded tridegin isomers. In addition to three previously identified isomers, one isomer containing the inhibitory cystine knot (ICK, knottin) motif, and one isomer with the leech antihemostatic protein (LAP) motif were synthesized in a regioselective manner. A fluorogenic enzyme activity assay revealed a positive correlation between the constriction of conformational flexibility in the N-terminal part of the peptide and the inhibitory potential towards FXI-IIa with clear differences between the isomers. This observation was supported by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and subsequent molecular docking studies. The presented results provide detailed structure-activity relationship studies of different tridegin disulfide isomers towards FXI-IIa and reveal insights into the possibly existing native linkage compared to non-native disulfide tridegin species.

A novel thrombin inhibitory peptide discovered from leech using affinity chromatography combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectroscopy

Thrombin (THR) inhibitors play an important role in the treatment of thrombotic diseases. This study established a THR-based bio-specific extraction coupled with affinity chromatography and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectroscopy (UPLC-HR-MS) analysis method to screen and identify THR ligands in Leech. After evaluating the reliability of the screening method using positive control drug (hirudin), it was successfully used to screen the potential active constituents in leech. And a comprehensive analysis of the peptides in leech elution was performed by UPLC-HR-MS, a total of 34 peptides were identified. At the same time, anti-THR activity was explored and inferred by searching databases and published literature. As a result, six peptides were discovered to be potential active compounds in leech. Further, the six peptides were synthesized and in vitro enzymatic activity assay was performed. Finally, SYELPDGQVITIGNER was screened as an anti-THR peptide with an IC50 value of 255.75 µM and it was discovered for the first time from Whitmania pigra Whitman and Hirudo nipponica Whitman. The molecular docking study showed that THR inhibitory activity of the polypeptide was mainly attributed to the hydrogen bond interactions, van der Waals forces and electrostatic interactions interaction between polypeptide and THR. These results suggest that the polypeptide is a potential natural THR inhibitor that can be used as anticoagulant.

Inhibitors of blood coagulation factor XIII

The blood coagulation factor XIII (FXIII) plays an essential role in the stabilization of fibrin clots. This factor, belonging to the class of transglutaminases, catalyzes the final step of secondary hemostasis, i.e. the crosslinking of fibrin polymers. These crosslinks protect the clots against premature fibrinolysis. Consequently, FXIII is an interesting target for the therapeutic treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In this context, inhibitors can influence FXIII in the activation process of the enzyme itself or in its catalytic activity. To date, there is no FXIII inhibitor in medical application, but several studies have been conducted in the past. These studies provided a better understanding of FXIII and identified new lead structures for FXIII inhibitors. Next to small molecule inhibitors, the most promising candidates for the development of clinically applicable FXIII inhibitors are the peptide inhibitors tridegin and transglutaminase-inhibiting Michael acceptors (TIMAs) due to their selectivity towards activated FXIII (FXIIIa). In this review, select FXIII inhibitors and their pharmacological potential are discussed.

Identification and inhibitory activity against α-thrombin of a novel anticoagulant peptide derived from oyster (Crassostrea gigas) protein

A newly discovered anticoagulant peptide was isolated, purified and identified from the pepsin hydrolysate of oyster (Crassostrea gigas) which could potently prolong the activated partial thromboplastin time and the thrombin time. The anticoagulant peptide with a 1264.36 Da molecular mass was similar to the amino acid sequence of the C-terminal segment (DFEEIPEEYLQ) of hirudin (a potent thrombin inhibitor). The peptide specifically inhibited a vital blood coagulation factor: thrombin. The molecular docking energy scores of the anticoagulant peptide with the active site, exosite-I and exosite-II of thrombin were 132.355 kcal mol-1, 151.266 kcal mol-1 and 147.317 kcal mol-1, respectively. The anticoagulant peptide interacted with thrombin by competing with fibrinogen for an anion-binding exosite I. In the anticoagulant peptide-thrombin complex, there are seven hydrogen bonds and reciprocity exists between hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms, and electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions are also involved. Such abundant interactions may be accountable for the high affinity and specificity of the anticoagulant peptide.

Food-derived antithrombotic peptides: Preparation, identification, and interactions with thrombin

Thromboembolism and its sequelae have been the leading causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Food-derived antithrombotic peptides, as potential ingredients in health-promoting functional foods targeting thrombus, have attracted increasing attention because of their high biological activities, low toxicity, and ease of metabolism in the human body. This review presents the conventional workflow of preparation, isolation and identification of antithrombotic peptides from various kinds of food materials. More importantly, to analyze the antithrombotic effects and mechanism of antithrombotic peptides, methods for interaction of anticoagulant peptides and thrombin, the main participant in thrombosis, were analyzed from biochemistry, solution chemistry and crystal chemistry. The present study is intended to highlight the recent advances in research of food-derived antithrombotic peptide as a novel vehicle in the field of food science and nutrition. Future outlooks are highlighted with the aim to suggest a research line to be followed in further studies with the introduced research approach.

High-resolution structure of a Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor from the dengue vector Aedes aegypti

Blood-feeding exoparasites are rich sources of protease inhibitors, and the mosquito Aedes aegypti, which is a vector of Dengue virus, Yellow fever virus, Chikungunya virus and Zika virus, is no exception. AaTI is a single-domain, noncanonical Kazal-type serine proteinase inhibitor from A. aegypti that recognizes both digestive trypsin-like serine proteinases and the central protease in blood clotting, thrombin, albeit with an affinity that is three orders of magnitude lower. Here, the 1.4 Å resolution crystal structure of AaTI is reported from extremely tightly packed crystals (∼22% solvent content), revealing the structural determinants for the observed inhibitory profile of this molecule.

Phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain of myosin in striated muscle: methodological perspectives

Phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain (RLC) of myosin modulates cellular functions such as muscle contraction, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Phosphorylation defects are implicated in a number of diseases. Here we focus on striated muscle where changes in RLC phosphorylation relate to diseases such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy, or age-related changes. RLC phosphorylation in smooth muscle and non-muscle cells are covered briefly where relevant. There is much scientific interest in controlling the phosphorylation levels of RLC in vivo and in vitro in order to understand its physiological function in striated muscles. A summary of available and emerging in vivo and in vitro methods is presented. The physiological role of RLC phosphorylation and novel pathways are discussed to highlight the differences between muscle types and to gain insights into disease processes.

More than just one: multiplicity of Hirudins and Hirudin-like Factors in the Medicinal Leech, Hirudo medicinalis

Blood-sucking leeches like the medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis, have been used for medical purposes since ancient times. During feeding, medicinal leeches transfer a broad range of bioactive substances into the host's wound to prevent premature hemostasis and blood coagulation. Hirudin is probably the best known of these substances. Despite its long history of investigation, recombinant production and clinical use, there still exist conflicting data regarding the primary structure of hirudin. Entirely unclear is the potential biological significance of three different subtypes and many isoforms of hirudins that have been characterized so far. Furthermore, there is only incomplete information on their cDNA sequences and no information at all on gene structures and DNA sequences are available in the databases. Our efforts to fill these gaps revealed the presence of multiple hirudin-encoding genes in the genome of Hirudo medicinalis. We have strong evidence for the expression of all three subtypes of hirudin within individual leeches and for the expression of additional hirudins or hirudin-like factors that may have different biological functions and may be promising candidates for new drugs.

Identification and Mechanistic Analysis of a Novel Tick-Derived Inhibitor of Thrombin

A group of peptides from the salivary gland of the tick Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, a vector of Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever show weak similarity to the madanins, a group of thrombin-inhibitory peptides from a second tick species, Haemaphysalis longicornis. We have evaluated the anti-serine protease activity of one of these H. marginatum peptides that has been given the name hyalomin-1. Hyalomin-1 was found to be a selective inhibitor of thrombin, blocking coagulation of plasma and inhibiting S2238 hydrolysis in a competitive manner with an inhibition constant (Ki) of 12 nM at an ionic strength of 150 mM. It also blocks the thrombin-mediated activation of coagulation factor XI, thrombin-mediated platelet aggregation, and the activation of coagulation factor V by thrombin. Hyalomin-1 is cleaved at a canonical thrombin cleavage site but the cleaved products do not inhibit coagulation. However, the C-terminal cleavage product showed non-competitive inhibition of S2238 hydrolysis. A peptide combining the N-terminal parts of the molecule with the cleavage region did not interact strongly with thrombin, but a 24-residue fragment containing the cleavage region and the C-terminal fragment inhibited the enzyme in a competitive manner and also inhibited coagulation of plasma. These results suggest that the peptide acts by binding to the active site as well as exosite I or the autolysis loop of thrombin. Injection of 2.5 mg/kg of hyalomin-1 increased arterial occlusion time in a mouse model of thrombosis, suggesting this peptide could be a candidate for clinical use as an antithrombotic.

Natural inhibitors of thrombin

The serine protease thrombin is the effector enzyme of blood coagulation. It has many activities critical for the formation of stable clots, including cleavage of fibrinogen to fibrin, activation of platelets and conversion of procofactors to active cofactors. Thrombin carries-out its multiple functions by utilising three special features: a deep active site cleft and two anion binding exosites (exosite I and II). Similarly, thrombin inhibitors have evolved to exploit the unique features of thrombin to achieve rapid and specific inactivation of thrombin. Exogenous thrombin inhibitors come from several different protein families and are generally found in the saliva of haematophagous animals (blood suckers) as part of an anticoagulant cocktail that allows them to feed. Crystal structures of several of these inhibitors reveal how peptides and proteins can be targeted to thrombin in different and interesting ways. Thrombin activity must also be regulated by endogenous inhibitors so that thrombi do not occlude blood flow and cause thrombosis. A single protein family, the serpins, provides all four of the endogenous thrombin inhibitors found in man. The crystal structures of these serpins bound to thrombin have been solved, revealing a similar exosite-dependence on complex formation. In addition to forming the recognition complex, serpins destroy the structure of thrombin, allowing them to be released from cofactors and substrates for clearance. This review examines how the special features of thrombin have been exploited by evolution to achieve inhibition of the ultimate coagulation protease.

Unique thrombin inhibition mechanism by anophelin, an anticoagulant from the malaria vector

Anopheles mosquitoes are vectors of malaria, a potentially fatal blood disease affecting half a billion humans worldwide. These blood-feeding insects include in their antihemostatic arsenal a potent thrombin inhibitor, the flexible and cysteine-less anophelin. Here, we present a thorough structure-and-function analysis of thrombin inhibition by anophelin, including the 2.3-Å crystal structure of the human thrombin·anophelin complex. Anophelin residues 32-61 are well-defined by electron density, completely occupying the long cleft between the active site and exosite I. However, in striking contrast to substrates, the D50-R53 anophelin tetrapeptide occupies the active site cleft of the enzyme, whereas the upstream residues A35-P45 shield the regulatory exosite I, defining a unique reverse-binding mode of an inhibitor to the target proteinase. The extensive interactions established, the disruption of thrombin's active site charge-relay system, and the insertion of residue R53 into the proteinase S(1) pocket in an orientation opposed to productive substrates explain anophelin's remarkable specificity and resistance to proteolysis by thrombin. Complementary biophysical and functional characterization of point mutants and truncated versions of anophelin unambiguously establish the molecular mechanism of action of this family of serine proteinase inhibitors (I77). These findings have implications for the design of novel antithrombotics.

On the specificity of heparin/heparan sulfate binding to proteins. Anion-binding sites on antithrombin and thrombin are fundamentally different

Background

The antithrombin–heparin/heparan sulfate (H/HS) and thrombin–H/HS interactions are recognized as prototypic specific and non-specific glycosaminoglycan (GAG)–protein interactions, respectively. The fundamental structural basis for the origin of specificity, or lack thereof, in these interactions remains unclear. The availability of multiple co-crystal structures facilitates a structural analysis that challenges the long-held belief that the GAG binding sites in antithrombin and thrombin are essentially similar with high solvent exposure and shallow surface characteristics.

Methodology

Analyses of solvent accessibility and exposed surface areas, gyrational mobility, symmetry, cavity shape/size, conserved water molecules and crystallographic parameters were performed for 12 X-ray structures, which include 12 thrombin and 16 antithrombin chains. Novel calculations are described for gyrational mobility and prediction of water loci and conservation.

Results

The solvent accessibilities and gyrational mobilities of arginines and lysines in the binding sites of the two proteins reveal sharp contrasts. The distribution of positive charges shows considerable asymmetry in antithrombin, but substantial symmetry for thrombin. Cavity analyses suggest the presence of a reasonably sized bifurcated cavity in antithrombin that facilitates a firm ‘hand-shake’ with H/HS, but with thrombin, a weaker ‘high-five’. Tightly bound water molecules were predicted to be localized in the pentasaccharide binding pocket of antithrombin, but absent in thrombin. Together, these differences in the binding sites explain the major H/HS recognition characteristics of the two prototypic proteins, thus affording an explanation of the specificity of binding. This provides a foundation for understanding specificity of interaction at an atomic level, which will greatly aid the design of natural or synthetic H/HS sequences that target proteins in a specific manner.

On scaffold hopping: challenges in the discovery of sulfated small molecules as mimetics of glycosaminoglycans

The design of sulfated, small, nonsaccharide molecules as modulators of proteins is still in its infancy as standard drug discovery tools such as library of diverse sulfated molecules and in silico docking and scoring protocol have not been firmly established. Databases, such as ZINC, contain too few sulfate-containing nonsaccharide molecules, which severely limits the identification of new hits. Lack of a generally applicable protocol for scaffold hopping limits the development of sulfated small molecules as synthetic mimetics of the highly sulfated glycosaminoglycans. We explored a sequential ligand-based (LBVS) and structure-based virtual screening (SBVS) approach starting from our initial discovery of monosulfated benzofurans to discover alternative scaffolds as allosteric modulators of thrombin, a key coagulation enzyme. Screening the ZINC database containing nearly 1 million nonsulfated small molecules using a pharmacophore developed from the parent sulfated benzofurans followed by a genetic algorithm-based dual-filter docking and scoring screening identified a group of 10 promising hits, of which three top-scoring hits were synthesized. Each was found to selectively inhibit human alpha-thrombin suggesting the possibility of this approach for scaffold hopping. Michaelis-Menten kinetics showed allosteric inhibition mechanism for the best molecule and human plasma studies confirmed good anticoagulation potential as expected. Our simple sequential LBVS and SBVS approach is likely to be useful as a general strategy for identification of sulfated small molecules hits as modulators of glycosaminoglycan-protein interactions.

Crystallization and preliminary crystallographic characterization of the N-terminal Kunitz domain of boophilin

Boophilin is a tight-binding thrombin inhibitor composed of two canonical Kunitz-type domains in a tandem arrangement. Thrombin-bound boophilin can inhibit a second trypsin-like serine proteinase, most likely through the reactive loop of its N-terminal Kunitz domain. Here, the crystallization and preliminary crystallographic analysis of the isolated N-terminal domain of boophilin is reported. The crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) and diffracted to beyond 1.8 Å resolution using a sealed-tube home source and to 0.87 Å resolution at a synchrotron source.

Crystallization and preliminary crystallographic characterization of three peptidic inhibitors in complex with α-thrombin

The serine protease thrombin plays a major role in thrombosis and haemostasis. This has driven interest in thrombin inhibitors as potential antithrombotic drugs. Here, the crystallization and preliminary crystallographic analysis of human α-thrombin in complex with three noncovalent peptide inhibitors of the general sequence D-Phe-Pro-D-Arg-P1'-CONH2 are reported. The crystals belonged to the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) and diffracted to beyond 1.3 Å resolution.

Characterization of thrombin inhibitory mechanism of rAaTI, a Kazal-type inhibitor from Aedes aegypti with anticoagulant activity

Saliva of blood-sucking arthropods contains a complex mixture of anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory and immune-modulator compounds. Among anti-haemostatic factors, there are anticoagulants, vasodilators and platelet aggregation inhibitors. Previous analyses of the sialotranscriptome of Aedes aegypti showed the potential presence of a Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor in the female salivary glands, carcass and also in the whole male, which inhibitor we named AaTI (A. aegypti thrombin inhibitor). Recently, we expressed and characterized rAaTI as a trypsin inhibitor, and its anticoagulant activity [1]. In this work we characterized the thrombin inhibition mechanism of rAaTI. Recombinant AaTI was able to prolong prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time and thrombin time. In contrast, AaTIΔ (rAaTI truncated form) and C-terminal AaTI acidic tail prolong only thrombin time. In the competition assay, rAaTI, AaTIΔ or C-terminal AaTI acidic tail-thrombin interactions seem to be affected by heparin but not by hirudin, suggesting that rAaTI binds to thrombin exosite 2. Finally, the thrombin inhibition assay of rAaTI showed an uncompetitive inhibition mechanism. In conclusion, rAaTI can probably inhibit thrombin by interacting with thrombin exosite 2, and the interaction is not mediated by the AaTI C-terminal region, since the truncated AaTIΔ form also prolongs thrombin time.

Sulfated, low-molecular-weight lignins are potent inhibitorsof plasmin, in addition to thrombin and factor Xa: Novel opportunity for controlling complex pathologies

Recently we prepared sulfated, low-molecular-weight lignins (LMWLs) to mimic the biological activities of heparin and heparan sulfate. Chemo-enzymatically prepared sulfated LMWLs represent a library of diverse non-sugar, aromatic molecules with structures radically different from the heparins, and have been found to potently inhibit thrombin and factor Xa. To assess their effect on the fibrinolytic system, we studied the interaction of LMWLs with human plasmin. Enzyme inhibition studies indicate that the three sulfated LMWLs studied inhibit plasmin with IC50 values in the range of 0.24 and 1.3 mM, which are marginally affected in the presence of antithrombin. Similarly, plasmin degradation of polymeric fibrin is also inhibited by sulfated LMWLs. Michaelis-Menten kinetic studies indicate that maximal velocity of hydrolysis of chromogenic substrates decreases nearly 70% in the presence of LMWLs, while the effect on Michaelis constant is dependent on the nature of the substrate. Competitive binding studies indicate that the sulfated LMWLs compete with full-length heparin. Comparison with thrombin-heparin crystal structure identifies an anionic region on plasmin as a plausible sulfated LMWL binding site. Overall, the chemo-enzymatic origin coupled with coagulation and fibrinolysis inhibition properties of sulfated LMWLs present novel opportunities for designing new pharmaceutical agents that regulate complex pathologies in which both systems are known to play important roles such as disseminated intravascular coagulation.

Tick-derived Kunitz-type inhibitors as antihemostatic factors

Endogenous Kunitz-type inhibitors target a large number of serine proteinases, including coagulation factors VIIa and Xa, but not thrombin. By contrast, several two-domain Kunitz inhibitors of this major procoagulant proteinase have been isolated from both soft ticks (e.g., ornithodorin from Ornithodoros moubata) and hard ticks (e.g., boophilin from Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus). Surprisingly, these anticoagulants do not follow the canonical mechanism of proteinase inhibition. Instead, their N-terminal residues bind across the thrombin active-site cleft, while C-terminal modules interact with the basic exosite I. The reactive-site loop of boophilin remains fully accessible in its complex with thrombin, and might interact with FXa according to the standard mechanism. A conceptually similar inhibition mechanism is employed by a related inhibitor of the TF-FVIIa complex isolated from Ixodes scapularis, ixolaris. Significant variations to the Kunitz fold are encountered in several of these factors, and are particularly evident in the single-domain FXa inhibitor, O. moubata TAP, and in soft tick-derived platelet antiaggregants (e.g., O. moubata disagregin). Altogether, these antihemostatic factors illustrate the divergence between hard and soft ticks. The unsurpassed versatility of tick-derived Kunitz inhibitors establishes them as valuable tools for biochemical investigations, but also as lead compounds for the development of novel antithrombotics.

Fibrinogen-elongated gamma chain inhibits thrombin-induced platelet response, hindering the interaction with different receptors

The expression of the elongated fibrinogen gamma chain, termed gamma', derives from alternative splicing of mRNA and causes an insertion sequence of 20 amino acids. This insertion domain interacts with the anion-binding exosite (ABE)-II of thrombin. This study investigated whether and how gamma' chain binding to ABE-II affects thrombin interaction with its platelet receptors, i.e. glycoprotein Ibalpha (GpIbalpha), protease-activated receptor (PAR) 1, and PAR4. Both synthetic gamma' peptide and fibrinogen fragment D*, containing the elongated gamma' chain, inhibited thrombin-induced platelet aggregation up to 70%, with IC(50) values of 42+/-3.5 and 0.47+/-0.03 microm, respectively. Solid-phase binding and spectrofluorimetric assays showed that both fragment D* and the synthetic gamma' peptide specifically bind to thrombin ABE-II and competitively inhibit the thrombin binding to GpIbalpha with a mean K(i) approximately 0.5 and approximately 35 microm, respectively. Both these gamma' chain-containing ligands allosterically inhibited thrombin cleavage of a synthetic PAR1 peptide, of native PAR1 molecules on intact platelets, and of the synthetic chromogenic peptide D-Phe-pipecolyl-Arg-p-nitroanilide. PAR4 cleavage was unaffected. In summary, fibrinogen gamma' chain binds with high affinity to thrombin and inhibits with combined mechanisms the platelet response to thrombin. Thus, its variations in vivo may affect the hemostatic balance in arterial circulation.

Isolation, cloning and structural characterisation of boophilin, a multifunctional Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor from the cattle tick

Inhibitors of coagulation factors from blood-feeding animals display a wide variety of structural motifs and inhibition mechanisms. We have isolated a novel inhibitor from the cattle tick Boophilus microplus, one of the most widespread parasites of farm animals. The inhibitor, which we have termed boophilin, has been cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. Mature boophilin is composed of two canonical Kunitz-type domains, and inhibits not only the major procoagulant enzyme, thrombin, but in addition, and by contrast to all other previously characterised natural thrombin inhibitors, significantly interferes with the proteolytic activity of other serine proteinases such as trypsin and plasmin. The crystal structure of the bovine α-thrombin·boophilin complex, refined at 2.35 Å resolution reveals a non-canonical binding mode to the proteinase. The N-terminal region of the mature inhibitor, Q16-R17-N18, binds in a parallel manner across the active site of the proteinase, with the guanidinium group of R17 anchored in the S₁ pocket, while the C-terminal Kunitz domain is negatively charged and docks into the basic exosite I of thrombin. This binding mode resembles the previously characterised thrombin inhibitor, ornithodorin which, unlike boophilin, is composed of two distorted Kunitz modules. Unexpectedly, both boophilin domains adopt markedly different orientations when compared to those of ornithodorin, in its complex with thrombin. The N-terminal boophilin domain rotates 9° and is displaced by 6 Å, while the C-terminal domain rotates almost 6° accompanied by a 3 Å displacement. The reactive-site loop of the N-terminal Kunitz domain of boophilin with its P₁ residue, K31, is fully solvent exposed and could thus bind a second trypsin-like proteinase without sterical restraints. This finding explains the formation of a ternary thrombin·boophilin·trypsin complex, and suggests a mechanism for prothrombinase inhibition in vivo.

Variegin, a novel fast and tight binding thrombin inhibitor from the tropical bont tick

Tick saliva contains potent antihemostatic molecules that help ticks obtain their enormous blood meal during prolonged feeding. We isolated thrombin inhibitors present in the salivary gland extract from partially fed female Amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick, and characterized the most potent, variegin, one of the smallest (32 residues) thrombin inhibitors found in nature. Full-length variegin and two truncated variants were chemically synthesized. Despite its small size and flexible structure, variegin binds thrombin with strong affinity (K(i) approximately 10.4 pM) and high specificity. Results using the truncated variants indicated that the seven residues at the N terminus affected the binding kinetics; when removed, the binding characteristics changed from fast to slow. Further, the thrombin active site binding moiety of variegin is in the region of residues 8-14, and the exosite-I binding moiety is within residues 15-32. Our results show that variegin is structurally and functionally similar to the rationally designed thrombin inhibitor, hirulog. However, compared with hirulog, variegin is a more potent inhibitor, and its inhibitory activity is largely retained after cleavage by thrombin.

Exosites in the substrate specificity of blood coagulation reactions

The specificity of blood coagulation proteinases for substrate, inhibitor, and effector recognition is mediated by exosites on the surfaces of the catalytic domains, physically separated from the catalytic site. Some thrombin ligands bind specifically to either exosite I or II, while others engage both exosites. The involvement of different, overlapping constellations of exosite residues enables binding of structurally diverse ligands. The flexibility of the thrombin structure is central to the mechanism of complex formation and the specificity of exosite interactions. Encounter complex formation is driven by electrostatic ligand-exosite interactions, followed by conformational rearrangement to a stable complex. Exosites on some zymogens are in low affinity proexosite states and are expressed concomitant with catalytic site activation. The requirement for exosite expression controls the specificity of assembly of catalytic complexes on the coagulation pathway, such as the membrane-bound factor Xa*factor Va (prothrombinase) complex, and prevents premature assembly. Substrate recognition by prothrombinase involves a two-step mechanism with initial docking of prothrombin to exosites, followed by a conformational change to engage the FXa catalytic site. Prothrombin and its activation intermediates bind prothrombinase in two alternative conformations determined by the zymogen to proteinase transition that are hypothesized to involve prothrombin (pro)exosite I interactions with FVa, which underpin the sequential activation pathway. The role of exosites as the major source of substrate specificity has stimulated development of exosite-targeted anticoagulants for treatment of thrombosis.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of a protease inhibitor from the haemolymph of the Indian tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitta

A protein with inhibitory activity against fungal proteases was purified from the haemolymph of the Indian tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitta and was crystallized using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. Polyethylene glycol 3350 was used as a precipitant. Crystals belonged to space group P6(3)22, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 60.6, c = 85.1 angstroms. X-ray diffraction data were collected and processed to a maximum resolution of 2.1 angstroms.

Structure and interaction modes of thrombin

Any vascular injury triggers the burst-like release of the trypsin-like serine proteinase alpha-thrombin. Thrombin, the main executioner of the coagulation cascade, exhibits procoagulant as well as anticoagulant and antifibrinolytic properties, very specifically interacting with a number of protein substrates, receptors, cofactors, inhibitors, carbohydrates, and modulators. A large number of crystal structures of alpha-thrombin have shown that the thrombin surface can be subdivided into several functional regions, which recognize different substrates, inhibitors, and mediators with high specificity.

The anticoagulant fraction from the leaves ofDiospyros kaki L. has an antithrombotic activity

The leaves of Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) has long been used for tea in Korea since it was thought to be effective against hypertension. An anticoagulant fraction was purified through gel filtration G-100, hydrophobic, gel filtration G-150, and FPLC, Phenyl superpose column chromatographies. The purified fraction was homogenous and its Mr was estimated 10,000 Da by gel filtration and SDS-PAGE. The purified fraction was sensitive to treatment of subtilisin B, but not to heat and its activity was not changed after periodate oxidation, indicating that the activity was not due to carbohydrates. It delayed thrombin time (TT), activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and prothrombin time (PT) using human plasma. TT was more sensitive than APTT and PT, suggesting that the anticoagulant activity may be caused by a degradation or a defect of fibrin or thrombin. It did not cause the hydrolysis of fibrin after incubation. However, it inhibited thrombin-catalyzed fibrin formation with a competitive inhibition pattern. These results indicate that it may be an antithrombotic agent and that it is bound to fibrinogen binding sites of thrombin.

The many faces of protease-protein inhibitor interaction

Proteases and their natural protein inhibitors are among the most intensively studied protein-protein complexes. There are about 30 structurally distinct inhibitor families that are able to block serine, cysteine, metallo- and aspartyl proteases. The mechanisms of inhibition can be related to the catalytic mechanism of protease action or include a mechanism-unrelated steric blockage of the active site or its neighborhood. The structural elements that are responsible for the inhibition most often include the N- or the C-terminus or exposed loop(s) either separately or in combination of several such elements. During complex formation, no major conformational changes are usually observed, but sometimes structural transitions of the inhibitor and enzyme occur. In many cases, convergent evolution, with respect to the inhibitors' parts that are responsible for the inhibition, can be inferred from comparisons of their structures or sequences, strongly suggesting that there are only limited ways to inhibit proteases by proteins.

Evolutionary families of peptidase inhibitors

The proteins that inhibit peptidases are of great importance in medicine and biotechnology, but there has never been a comprehensive system of classification for them. Some of the terminology currently in use is potentially confusing. In the hope of facilitating the exchange, storage and retrieval of information about this important group of proteins, we now describe a system wherein the inhibitor units of the peptidase inhibitors are assigned to 48 families on the basis of similarities detectable at the level of amino acid sequence. Then, on the basis of three-dimensional structures, 31 of the families are assigned to 26 clans. A simple system of nomenclature is introduced for reference to each clan, family and inhibitor. We briefly discuss the specificities and mechanisms of the interactions of the inhibitors in the various families with their target enzymes. The system of families and clans of inhibitors described has been implemented in the MEROPS peptidase database (http://merops.sanger.ac.uk/), and this will provide a mechanism for updating it as new information becomes available.

Thrombin activation of factor XI on activated platelets requires the interaction of factor XI and platelet glycoprotein Ib alpha with thrombin anion-binding exosites I and II, respectively

Activation of factor XI (FXI) by thrombin on stimulated platelets plays a physiological role in hemostasis, providing additional thrombin generation required in cases of severe hemostatic challenge. Using a collection of 53 thrombin mutants, we identified 16 mutants with <50% of the wild-type thrombin FXI-activating activity in the presence of dextran sulfate. These mutants mapped to anion-binding exosite (ABE) I, ABE-II, the Na+-binding site, and the 50-insertion loop. Only the ABE-II mutants showed reduced binding to dextran sulfate-linked agarose. Selected thrombin mutants in ABE-I (R68A, R70A, and R73A), ABE-II (R98A, R245A, and K248A), the 50-insertion loop (W50A), and the Na+-binding site (E229A and R233A) with <10% of the wild-type activity also showed a markedly reduced ability to activate FXI in the presence of stimulated platelets. The ABE-I, 50-insertion loop, and Na+-binding site mutants had impaired binding to FXI, but normal binding to glycocalicin, the soluble form of glycoprotein Ibalpha (GPIb alpha). In contrast, the ABE-II mutants were defective in binding to glycocalicin, but displayed normal binding to FXI. Our data support a quaternary complex model of thrombin activation of FXI on stimulated platelets. Thrombin bound to one GPIb alpha molecule, via ABE-II on its posterior surface, is properly oriented for its activation of FXI bound to a neighboring GPI alpha molecule, via ABE-I on its anterior surface. GPIb alpha plays a critical role in the co-localization of thrombin and FXI and the resultant efficient activation of FXI.

Targeting thrombin – rational drug design from natural mechanisms

It is difficult to overstate the medical importance of the serine protease thrombin. Thrombin is involved in many diverse processes, such as cell signaling and memory, but it is the crucial role that it plays in blood coagulation that commands the interest of the medical community. Thrombosis is the most common cause of death in the industrialized world and, whether through venous thromboembolism, myocardial infarction or stroke, ultimately involves the inappropriate activity of thrombin. The number and type of intrinsic and extrinsic natural mechanisms of targeting thrombin that have evolved validate thrombin as an important physiological target, and provide strategies to knock it out. The more we learn about the natural mechanisms that determine thrombin specificity the more likely we are to develop compounds that selectively alter thrombin activity. In this article, we review the natural mechanisms that regulate thrombin activity and novel approaches to inhibit thrombin based on these mechanisms.

Thrombin interactions

After generation from prothrombin, thrombin plays multiple roles in the blood coagulation cascade that are mediated by interaction with a number of physiologic substrates, effectors, and inhibitors. Structural and mutagenesis studies have helped unravel the molecular basis of thrombin interactions in the context of both well-established and emerging new roles of the enzyme. The functional versatility of thrombin owes much to its evolutionary origin and results from structural determinants and mechanisms that can be exploited by pharmacologic intervention.

Human rhinovirus 2 2Apro recognition of eukaryotic initiation factor 4GI. Involvement of an exosite

The 2A proteinase (2Apro) of human rhinovirus 2 is a cysteine proteinase with a unique chymotrypsin-like fold. During viral replication, 2Apro performs self-processing by cleaving between its own N terminus and the C terminus of the preceding protein, VP1. Subsequently, 2Apro cleaves the two isoforms of the cellular protein, eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4G. We have previously shown that HRV2 2Apro can directly bind to eIF4G isoforms. Here we demonstrate using deletion mutants of eIF4GI that HRV2 2Apro requires eIF4GI amino acids 600-674 for binding; however, the amino acids at the cleavage site, Arg681 downward arrow Gly, are not required. The HRV2 2Apro binding domain for eIF4GI was identified by site-directed mutagenesis. Specifically, mutations Leu17 --> Arg and Asp35 --> Glu severely impaired HRV2 2Apro binding and thus processing of eIF4GI in rabbit reticulocyte lysates; self-processing, however, was not affected. Alanine scanning analysis further identified the loop containing residues Tyr32, Ser33, and Ser34 as important for eIF4GI binding. Although Asp35 is part of the catalytic triad, most of the eIF4GI binding domain lies in a unique exosite structure absent from other chymotrypsin-like enzymes and is distinct from the substrate binding cleft. The exosite represents a novel virulence determinant that may allow the development of specific inhibitors for HRV2 2Apro.

The multiple site binding of carboxypeptidase Y inhibitor (IC) to the cognate proteinase. Implications for the biological roles of the phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein

The serine carboxypeptidase inhibitor in the cytoplasm of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, IC, specifically inhibits vacuolar carboxypeptidase Y (CPY) and belongs to a functionally unknown family of phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins (PEBPs). In the presence of 1 M guanidine hydrochloride, a CPY-IC complex is formed and is almost fully activated. The reactivities of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, p-chloromercuribenzoic acid, and diisopropyl fluorophosphate toward the complex are considerably increased in 1 M guanidine hydrochloride, indicating that IC contains a binding site other than its inhibitory reactive site. IC is able to form the complex with diisopropyl fluorophosphate-modified CPY. Tryptic digestion of the complex indicates that two fragments from IC are involved in complex formation with CPY. These findings demonstrate the multiple site binding of IC with CPY. Considering the fact that mouse PEBP has recently been identified as a novel thrombin inhibitor, the binding that characterizes the CPY-IC complex could be a common feature of PEBPs.

Interaction of the 268-282 region of glycoprotein Ibalpha with the heparin-binding site of thrombin inhibits the enzyme activation of factor VIII

Activation of factor VIII (FVIII) by thrombin plays a fundamental role in the amplification of the coagulation cascade and takes place through specific proteolytic cleavages at Arg(372), Arg(740) and Arg(1689). Full FVIII activation requires cleavage at Arg(372), a process involving the alpha-thrombin exosite-II; referred to as heparin-binding site (HBS). The present study was aimed at investigating the effect of glycoprotein Ibalpha (GpIbalpha; 1-282 fragment) binding to thrombin HBS on FVIII activation. Similar experiments were also performed using a synthetic peptide modelled on the 268-282 sequence of GpIbalpha, and sulphated successfully at all tyrosine residues present along its sequence, at positions 276, 278 and 279. Both GpIbalpha 1-282 and the sulphated GpIb 268-282 peptides induced a progressive decrease (up to 70%) in activated FVIII generation, assessed by coagulation and FXa-generation assays. Furthermore, SDS/PAGE and Western-blot experiments showed that the specific appearance of the 44 kDa A2 domain on cleavage of the FVIII Arg(372)-Ser(373) peptide bond was delayed significantly in the presence of either GpIbalpha 1-282 or GpIb 268-282 peptide. Moreover, the effect of the latter on thrombin-mediated hydrolysis of a peptide having the sequence 341-376 of FVIII was investigated using reverse-phase HPLC. The k (cat)/ K (m) values of the FVIII 341-376 peptide hydrolysis by thrombin decreased linearly as a function of the GpIbalpha 268-282 peptide concentration, according to a competitive inhibition effect. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the sulphated 268-282 region of GpIbalpha binds to thrombin HBS, and is responsible for the inhibition of the Arg(372)-Ser(373) bond cleavage and activation of FVIII.

Inhibition mechanisms of hematophagous invertebrate compounds acting on the host blood coagulation and platelet aggregation pathways

To facilitate blood feeding, hematophagous invertebrates have evolved a sophisticated array of physiological compounds that counteract homeostatic systems and inflammatory reactions of the vertebrate host. For this reason, hematophagous invertebrates possess a variety of anticoagulation components that are inhibitors of coagulant factors or antagonists of the platelet receptor. The examination of kinetic data and the crystal structure analysis have exposed the inhibition mechanisms for many of these anticoagulant reagents. Here, we attempt to classify the antihemostatic molecules and to focus on the kinetic approaches that have been instrumental in defining these mechanisms.

Mutations in autolytic loop-2 and at Asp554 of human prothrombin that enhance protein C activation by meizothrombin

Thrombin acts on many protein substrates during the hemostatic process. Its specificity for these substrates is modulated through interactions at regions remote from the active site of the thrombin molecule, designated exosites. Exosite interactions can be with the substrate, cofactors such as thrombomodulin, or fragments from prothrombin. The relative activity of alpha-thrombin for fibrinogen is 10 times greater than that for protein C. However, the relative activity of meizothrombin for protein C is 14 times greater than that for fibrinogen. Modulation of thrombin specificity is linked to its Na(+)-binding site and residues in autolytic loop-2 that interact with the Na(+)-binding site. Recombinant prothrombins that yield recombinant meizothrombin (rMT) and rMT des-fragment 1 (rMT(desF1)) enable comparisons of the effects of mutations at the Na(+)-binding residue (Asp(554)) and deletion of loop-2 (Glu(466)-Thr(469)) on the relative activity of meizothrombin for several substrates. Hydrolysis of t-butoxycarbonyl-VPR-p-nitroanilide by alpha-thrombin, recombinant alpha-thrombin, or rMT(desF1) was almost identical, but that by rMT was only 40% of that by alpha-thrombin. Clotting of fibrinogen by rMT and rMT(desF1) was 12-16% of that by alpha-thrombin, as already known. Strikingly, however, although meizothrombins modified by substitution of Asp(554) with either Ala or Leu or by deletion of loop-2 had 6-8 and <1%, respectively, of the clotting activity of alpha-thrombin, the activity of these meizothrombins for protein C was increased to >10 times that of alpha-thrombin. It is proposed that interactions within thrombin that involve autolytic loop-2 and the Na(+)-binding site primarily enhance thrombin action on fibrinogen, but impair thrombin action on protein C.