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Abstract
The systemic responses triggered by burns have been shown to include effects on the gastrointestinal tract. However, it is not clear if these changes lead to long-term gastrointestinal morbidity in patients with burns. The aim of this study was to assess if pediatric burns are associated with increased hospital use for gastrointestinal diseases after discharge for the initial injury. A population-based longitudinal study was performed using linked hospital and death data from Western Australia for children younger than 15 years when hospitalized for a first burn injury (n = 10,436) between 1980 and 2012, along with a frequency-matched noninjury comparison cohort, randomly selected from Western Australia's birth registrations (n = 40,819). Crude admission rates and cumulative length of stay for digestive diseases were calculated. Negative binomial and Cox proportional hazards regression modeling were used to generate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and hazard ratios, respectively. After discharge, the pediatric burn cohort experienced twice the rate of gastrointestinal disease admissions (IRR, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.03, 1.56-2.65), spent over twice as long in hospital (IRR, 95% CI: 2.23, 1.67-2.98), and had a higher rate of first-time or incident gastrointestinal disease admissions (hazard ratio, 95% CI: 1.18, 1.08-1.29) when compared with the uninjured cohort, after adjusting for demographic and preexisting health factors. Children who experience a burn injury hospitalization are at increased risk of postburn hospital service use for gastrointestinal diseases when compared with uninjured children.
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Abstract
Traumatic injury remains one of the most prevalent reasons for patients to be hospitalized. Burn injury accounts for 40,000 hospitalizations in the United States annually, resulting in a large burden on both the health and economic system and costing millions of dollars every year. The complications associated with postburn care can quickly cause life-threatening conditions including sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction and failure. In addition, alcohol intoxication at the time of burn injury has been shown to exacerbate these problems. One of the biggest reasons for the onset of these complications is the global suppression of the host immune system and increased susceptibility to infection. It has been hypothesized that infections after burn and other traumatic injury may stem from pathogenic bacteria from within the host's gastrointestinal tract. The intestine is the major reservoir of bacteria within the host, and many studies have demonstrated perturbations of the intestinal barrier after burn injury. This article reviews the findings of these studies as they pertain to changes in the intestinal immune system after alcohol and burn injury.
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Li X, Rendon JL, Choudhry MA. T cell IFN-γ suppression following alcohol and burn injury is independent of miRNA155. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105314. [PMID: 25126745 PMCID: PMC4134308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
miRNA155 has been implicated in normal T cell function and their differentiations into the Th1 subtype. We have shown that acute alcohol (ethanol) intoxication combined with burn injury suppresses T cell IFN-γ release. Herein, we examined whether the decrease in IFN-γ is resulted from altered expression of miRNA155 and transcription factors--NFAT, Tbx21, Jun and Fos--in T cells following ethanol and burn injury. Mice received ethanol (∼3 g/Kg) 4 hours prior to ∼12.5% total body surface area sham or burn injury and were sacrificed one day after injury. Splenic T cells were harvested and cultured with anti-CD3 (2 µg/ml) in the presence or absence of rIL-12 (10 ng/ml) or PMA (10 ng/ml) plus ionomycin (50 ng/ml) for 48 hours. We observed a significant decrease in miRNA155, NFAT, Tbx21, Jun and Fos expression as well as IFN-γ release in T cells cultured with anti-CD3 following ethanol and burn injury compared with shams. The co-treatment of T cells with rIL-12 prevented the decrease in IFN-γ and NFAT, Tbx21, Jun and Fos, but not miRNA155. In contrast, the co-treatment with PMA plus ionomycin normalized the expression of NFAT. It did not prevent the decrease in IFN-γ, Tbx21, Jun, Fos and miRNA155. Finally, results obtained in miRNA155-/- mice did not show any change in T cell release of IFN-γ or expression of nuclear factors compared to wildtype mice. Together, these findings suggest that while ethanol and burn injury decreases the expression of miRNA155, it may not be involved in decreased IFN-γ under those conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Burn & Shock Trauma Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Juan L. Rendon
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Burn & Shock Trauma Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mashkoor A. Choudhry
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Burn & Shock Trauma Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- Deparmtent of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Chicago Health Sciences Division, Maywood, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Intestinal inflammation has been linked with multiorgan failure in patients with burn and other traumatic injuries. We hypothesized that markers of intestinal inflammation are detectible noninvasively. Fecal samples were collected from seven severely burned patients and 15 control patients for the measurement of inflammatory cytokines using a multiplex assay kit. In addition, fecal levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and elastase were measured using standard procedures. Compared with a control group, levels of inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in the burn group. Interleukin (IL)-6 increased to a mean (± SEM) of 2.16 ± 0.61 to 3.81 ± 0.49 pg/mg (P < .05), as did IL-8 (3.32 ± 0.76 to 20.51 ± 6.65 pg/mg; P < .05), IL-12 (6.23±0.98 to 8.11±0.95pg/mg; P=0.01), IL-13 (3.86 ± 0.32 to 11.83 ± 1.47 pg/mg; P < .05), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (2.78 ± 2.61 to 6.5 ± 3.97 pg/mg; P < .05), MPO (13.41 ± 1.40 to 24.52 ± 4.31 units/mg protein; P < .05), and elastase (2.46 ± 0.38 to 5.08 ± 0.72 pg/mL; P < .05). Our results suggest that markers of intestinal inflammation are measurable by noninvasive means and are increased after burn injury compared with controls. Of note, increased IL-8 correlated with increased MPO and elastase activity, suggesting a role for neutrophil activation in burn-mediated intestinal inflammation. Thus, these inflammatory cytokine profiles may be valuable biomarkers of intestinal inflammation after burn injury.
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Rendon JL, Li X, Akhtar S, Choudhry MA. Interleukin-22 modulates gut epithelial and immune barrier functions following acute alcohol exposure and burn injury. Shock 2013; 39:11-8. [PMID: 23143063 PMCID: PMC3526677 DOI: 10.1097/shk.0b013e3182749f96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-22 (IL-22) maintains gut epithelial integrity and expression of antimicrobial peptides Reg3β and Reg3γ. Our laboratory has shown that acute alcohol/ethanol (EtOH) exposure before burn injury results in increased gut permeability, intestinal T-cell suppression, and enhanced bacterial translocation. Herein, we determined the effect of combined EtOH intoxication and burn injury on intestinal levels of IL-22 as well as Reg3β and Reg3γ expression. We further examined whether in vivo restitution of IL-22 restores gut permeability, Reg3β and Reg3γ levels, and bacterial load (e.g., gut bacterial growth) within the intestine after EtOH and burn injury. Male mice, ∼25g, were gavaged with EtOH (2.9 mg/kg) before receiving a ∼12.5% total-body-surface-area, full-thickness burn. Mice were immediately treated with saline control or IL-22 (1 mg/kg) by i.p. injection. One day after injury, there was a significant decrease in intestinal IL-22, Reg3β, and Reg3γ expression along with an increase in intestinal permeability and gut bacterial load after EtOH combined with burn injury, as compared with sham injury. Treatment with IL-22 normalized Reg3β and Reg3γ expression and attenuated the increase in intestinal permeability after EtOH and burn injury. Qualitatively, IL-22 treatment reduced the bacterial load in nearly half of mice receiving EtOH combined with burn injury. Our data indicate that IL-22 maintains gut epithelial and immune barrier integrity after EtOH and burn injury; thus, the IL-22/antimicrobial peptide pathway may provide a therapeutic target for the treatment of patients who sustain burn injury under the influence of EtOH.
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MESH Headings
- Adenosine Monophosphate/biosynthesis
- Alcoholic Intoxication/complications
- Alcoholic Intoxication/immunology
- Alcoholic Intoxication/microbiology
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics
- Bacterial Load
- Biomarkers, Tumor/biosynthesis
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Burns/complications
- Burns/drug therapy
- Burns/immunology
- Burns/microbiology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drug Evaluation, Preclinical/methods
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Interleukins/metabolism
- Interleukins/therapeutic use
- Intestinal Absorption/immunology
- Intestinal Mucosa/immunology
- Intestine, Small/immunology
- Intestine, Small/microbiology
- Lectins, C-Type/biosynthesis
- Lectins, C-Type/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Pancreatitis-Associated Proteins
- Permeability
- Proteins/genetics
- Proteins/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/therapeutic use
- Interleukin-22
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan L. Rendon
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Burn & Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Xiaoling Li
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Burn & Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Surgery, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Suhail Akhtar
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Burn & Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Surgery, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
| | - Mashkoor A. Choudhry
- Alcohol Research Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Burn & Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Surgery, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy Program, Loyola University Health Sciences Division, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Recombinant human erythropoietin improves gut barrier function in a hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation rat model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 71:S456-61. [PMID: 22072003 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0b013e318232e782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gut injury and bacterial translocation develop and persist after limited periods of hemorrhagic shock. Erythropoietin (EPO) can exert hemodynamic, anti-inflammatory, and tissue protective effects. We tested the hypothesis that EPO given at the time of resuscitation with saline will reduce functional ileal injury 24 hours after shock. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 6 per group) were randomized to sham surgery or hemorrhagic shock maintained at mean arterial pressure 40 mm Hg for 60 minutes and then treated with either saline resuscitation (three times the volume of shed blood) or saline + recombinant human EPO (rHuEPO) resuscitation. Intravenous rHuEPO (1,000 U/kg) was given at the start of saline resuscitation, and at 24 hours ileal function was evaluated using quantitative cultures of mesenteric lymph nodes to assess for bacterial translocation (colony-forming units per gram of tissue [CFU/g]), determination of portal vein plasma endotoxin levels and histopathological evaluation using semi-thin plastic sections of the distal ileum. In a second series of animals, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 4000 (FD-4) was used to assess mucosal permeability of the distal ileum to macromolecules. RESULTS At 24 hours, the saline group had morphologic evidence of intestinal injury when compared with the sham group, and the degree of mucosal injury was less in the saline + rHuEPO when compared with the saline group, which demonstrated significantly reduced bacterial translocation to the mesenteric lymph nodes (383 CFU/g ± 111 CFU/g vs. 1130 CFU/g ± 297 CFU/g; p < 0.05) and decreased terminal ileum permeability to FD-4 (3.08 μg/mL ± 0.31 μg/mL vs. 5.14 μg/mL ± 0.88 μg/mL; p < 0.05). No significant difference was found in the portal vein endotoxin levels between the two groups. Histopathological evaluation demonstrated a trend for decreased enterocyte disarray or disruption and vacuolization in the saline + rHuEPO versus saline group. CONCLUSION Using rHuEPO at time of saline resuscitation resulted in decreased bacterial translocation and permeability to macromolecules 24 hours after shock. These observations suggest that rHuEPO can mediate a protective effect on intestinal mucosal barrier function during ischemic injury.
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Inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases prevents mesenteric lymph node T-cell suppression following alcohol intoxication and burn injury. J Burn Care Res 2008; 29:519-30. [PMID: 18388567 DOI: 10.1097/bcr.0b013e318171122c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we have shown that acute alcohol (EtOH) intoxication before burn injury potentiates the suppression of mesenteric lymph node T-cell effector responses. Moreover, the suppression in T-cell was accompanied with a decrease in p-38 and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. This study examined the role of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) in suppressed T-cell p-38, ERK, and cytokine production after EtOH intoxication and burn injury. A blood EtOH level of approximately 100 mg/dl in male rats (approximately 250 g) was achieved by gavaging animals with 5 ml of 20% EtOH suspension 4 hours before burn or sham injury (approximately 12.5% or 25% total body surface area [TBSA]). One day after injury, rats were killed and mesenteric lymph node T-cell cytokine (IL-2/IFN-gamma) production, p-38, and ERK activation were measured. As compared with shams, there was a significant decrease in T-cell cytokine production after 25% and not 12.5% TBSA burn injury. However, T-cell IL-2/IFN-gamma levels were significantly decreased in rats receiving a combined insult of EtOH and burn injury regardless of the percentage of burn area. Furthermore, we found a significant decrease in p-38 and ERK-1/2 phosphorylation in T-cells of rats receiving a combined insult of EtOH and 12.5% TBSA burn compared with shams. Treatment of cells with PTP inhibitor pervanadate (10 muM) prevented T-cell p-38/ERK suppression. The suppression in IL-2/IFN-gamma production was also attenuated in T-cells cultured in the presence of pervanadate. These findings suggest that an increase in PTP activity may contribute to T-cell suppression after EtOH intoxication and burn injury.
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A role for corticosterone in impaired intestinal immunity and barrier function in a rodent model of acute alcohol intoxication and burn injury. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2008; 1:428-34. [PMID: 18040815 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9031-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol (EtOH) intoxication and burn injury independently activate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and glucocorticoids, the end product of the HPA axis, play a role in shaping the immune response under those conditions. By utilizing a rat model of acute EtOH intoxication and burn injury, studies in our laboratory have investigated the role of corticosterone (i.e., glucocorticoids in rodents) in altered intestinal immunity and barrier function following a combined insult of EtOH and burn injury. Results from these studies suggest that EtOH intoxication prior to burn injury augments corticosterone release, which in turn suppresses intestinal T cell function by inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinase (i.e., p38 and ERK) pathway. Furthermore, we found that corticosterone does not directly alter the intestinal barrier function; rather, it up-regulates interleukin-18, which then directly or indirectly contributes to impaired intestinal barrier function. The loss of intestinal immunity/barrier function may result in increased bacterial translocation and thereby contribute to postinjury pathogenesis, leading to sepsis and organ dysfunction in burn patients as well as in patients with a history of EtOH intoxication.
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Toklu HZ, Tunali-Akbay T, Erkanli G, Yüksel M, Ercan F, Sener G. Silymarin, the antioxidant component of Silybum marianum, protects against burn-induced oxidative skin injury. Burns 2007; 33:908-16. [PMID: 17521818 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2006.10.407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Accepted: 10/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite recent advances, severe burn is one of the most common problems faced in the emergency room. Major thermal injury induces the activation of an inflammatory cascade resulting in local tissue damage, to contribute to the development of subsequent damage of multiple organs distant from the original burn wound. OBJECTIVE Silymarin, the major component of milk thistle has been shown to have antioxidant properties. In the present study, we investigated the putative antioxidant effect of local or systemic silymarin treatment on burn-induced oxidative tissue injury. METHODS Wistar albino rats were exposed to 90 degrees C bath for 10 s to induce burn. Silymarin either locally (30 mg/kg) applied on 4 cm(2) area or locally+systemically (50 mg/kg, p.o.) was administered after the burn and repeated twice daily. Rats were decapitated 48 h after injury and blood was collected for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity. In skin tissue samples malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and luminol-lucigenin chemiluminescense (CL) were measured in addition to the histological evaluation. RESULTS Burn caused a significant increase in TNF-alpha and LDH levels. MDA levels were increased and GSH levels were decreased in the skin at 48 h after-burn. Both local and systemic silymarin treatments significantly reversed these parameters. The raised MPO activity and luminol-lucigenin CL were also significantly decreased. CONCLUSION Results indicate that both systemic and local administration of silymarin was effective against burn-induced oxidative damage and morphological alterations in rat skin. Therefore, silymarin merits consideration as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of burns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hale Z Toklu
- Marmara University, School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, Tibbiye Cad., 34668 Istanbul, Turkey
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Erb-Downward JR, Huffnagle GB. Role of oxylipins and other lipid mediators in fungal pathogenesis. Future Microbiol 2007; 1:219-27. [PMID: 17661667 DOI: 10.2217/17460913.1.2.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently there has been a focused interest in the production of bioactive lipid metabolites from eukaryotic microbes, and in the roles that these molecules play in development and pathological processes. These metabolites have long been known in mammals to be potent modulators of various physiological processes, such as the regulation of inflammation. This area of research has been of particular interest in fungi, where oxylipin production has been correlated with pathogenicity. The aim of this review is to discuss recent findings that show how oxylipins and other lipid mediators affect fungal development, quorum sensing and effecter molecule production, which all amount to a global control by oxylipins of fungal pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Erb-Downward
- University of Michigan Medical School, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0642, USA.
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11
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Matheus AS, Coelho AMM, Sampietre S, Patzina R, Jukemura J, Cunha JEM, Machado MC. Effect of inhibition of prostaglandin E2 production on pancreatic infection in experimental acute pancreatitis. HPB (Oxford) 2007; 9:392-7. [PMID: 18345325 PMCID: PMC2225519 DOI: 10.1080/13651820701646214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Acute pancreatitis is one the important causes of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). SIRS results in gut barrier dysfunction that allows bacterial translocation and pancreatic infection to occur. Indomethacin has been used to reduce inflammatory process and bacterial translocation in experimental models. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of inhibition of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production on pancreatic infection. MATERIALS AND METHODS An experimental model of severe acute pancreatitis (AP) was utilized. The animals were divided into three groups: sham (surgical procedure without AP induction); pancreatitis (AP induction); and indomethacin (AP induction plus administration of 3 mg/kg of indomethacin). Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10, PGE2, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha were measured 2 h after the induction of AP. We analyzed the occurrence of pancreatic infection with bacterial cultures performed 24 h after the induction of AP. The occurrence of pancreatic infection (considered positive when the CFU/g was >105), pancreatic histologic analysis, and mortality rate were studied. RESULTS In spite of the reduction of IL-6, IL-10, and PGE2 levels in the indomethacin group, TNF-alpha level, bacterial translocation, and pancreatic infection were not influenced by administration of indomethacin. The inhibition of PGE2 production did not reduce pancreatic infection, histologic score, or mortality rate. CONCLUSION The inhibition of PGE2 production was not able to reduce the occurrence of pancreatic infection and does not have any beneficial effect in this experimental model. Further investigations will be necessary to discover a specific inhibitor that would make it possible to develop an anti-inflammatory therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre S. Matheus
- Gastroenterology Department, University of Sao PauloSao PaoloBrazil
| | | | - Sandra Sampietre
- Gastroenterology Department, University of Sao PauloSao PaoloBrazil
| | - Rosely Patzina
- Pathology Department, University of Sao PauloSao PaoloBrazil
| | - Jose Jukemura
- Gastroenterology Department, University of Sao PauloSao PaoloBrazil
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Li X, Schwacha MG, Chaudry IH, Choudhry MA. A role of PP1/PP2A in mesenteric lymph node T cell suppression in a two-hit rodent model of alcohol intoxication and injury. J Leukoc Biol 2005; 79:453-62. [PMID: 16387841 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0705369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the role of protein phosphatase type-1 (PP1), type-2A (PP2A), and mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) in altered mesenteric lymph node (MLN) T cell function in a two-hit model of alcohol (EtOH) intoxication and burn injury. Male rats (250 g) were gavaged with EtOH to achieve a blood EtOH level of approximately 100 mg/dL prior to burn or sham injury (25% total body surface area). MLN T cells harvested 24 h after injury show a significant decrease in p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1/2 phosphorylation in T cells from rats receiving a combined insult of EtOH intoxication and burn injury compared with rats receiving EtOH intoxication or burn injury alone. Treatment of cells with inhibitors of PP1/PP2A [calyculin A (CA) and okadaic acid (OA)] prevented the suppression in T cells p38 and ERK-1/2 activation. In addition, the suppression in interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma production was attenuated in T cells cultured in the presence of CA and OA. MKP-1 inhibitor triptolide did not prevent the suppression in T cells p38/ERK-1/2 and cytokine production. Furthermore, there was a significant decrease in PP1alpha phosphorylation (Thr320) and an increase in PP2A (Tyr307) phosphorylation in T cells following a combined insult of EtOH intoxication and burn injury. As phosphorylation of PP1 at Thr320 and PP2A at Tyr307 led to an inhibition of their enzymatic activities, the decrease in the PP1alpha phosphorylation correlates with an increase in its enzyme activity. Thus, these results suggest that activation of PP1 is likely to play a predominant role in T cell suppression following a combined insult of EtOH intoxication and burn injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- Center for Surgical Research and Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Volker Hall G 094, 1670 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Shimizu T, Endo Y, Tabata T, Mori T, Hanasawa K, Tsuchiya M, Tani T. Diagnostic and predictive value of the silkworm larvae plasma test for postoperative infection following gastrointestinal surgery. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:1288-95. [PMID: 15942346 DOI: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000165810.97971.dd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether the silkworm larvae plasma (SLP) test is a reliable diagnostic marker of infection in patients with infectious complications following gastrointestinal surgery. DESIGN Prospective study. SETTING Department of Surgery, University Hospital, Shiga University of Medical Science. PATIENTS One hundred and twelve adult patients undergoing gastrointestinal surgery INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Thirty-nine of 112 patients developed infectious complications (infected group). Seven patients with sepsis (severely infected group) and 32 patients without sepsis (minor infected group) were observed. The operation time, blood loss, and age were significantly greater in both infected groups than in the noninfected group. The systemic inflammatory response syndrome score on postoperative day (POD) 1 and POD7 was highest in the severely infected group. The increase in C-reactive protein on POD3 and POD7 was significantly higher in both infected groups than in the noninfected group. White blood cell counts on POD7 were elevated significantly higher in the severely infected group than in the other groups. Immediately after surgery, SLP activity significantly increased compared with presurgery in all groups and was significantly higher in the minor and severely infected groups than in the noninfected group. The increased SLP activity returned to preoperative levels in the minor and noninfected groups; however, SLP activity in the severely infected groups remained high throughout the observational period. The most significant factor and time point that predicted infectious complications were the SLP test on POD1; sensitivity 66.7%, specificity 90.4%, positive and negative predictive values 78.8% and 83.5%. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for the SLP test was 0.813 +/- 0.046. CONCLUSIONS The SLP test appears to be a useful marker of diagnosis and prediction of infectious complications following gastrointestinal surgery. Moreover, the SLP test may be able to evaluate not only the existence but also the severity of infection in surgical patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoharu Shimizu
- Department of Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta-Tsukinowa, Otsu, Shiga, Japan
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Fazal N, Choudhry MA, Sayeed MM. Inhibition of T cell MAPKs (Erk 1/2, p38) with thermal injury is related to down-regulation of Ca2+ signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2005; 1741:113-9. [PMID: 15955454 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2004.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2004] [Revised: 10/08/2004] [Accepted: 10/14/2004] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated MAPK (Erk 1/2 and p38) signaling mechanisms of altered T-cell-mediated immune responses in thermal injury condition. Rats were subjected to 30% body surface scald burn, and their mesenteric lymph node (MLN) and Peyer's patch (PP) T cells were purified using nylon wool method. Activation of MAPKs, Erk 1/2 and p38 was assessed in T cells by determining its phosphorylation using immunoblot analysis, intracellular immunostaining and confocal microscopy. The results showed a down-regulation of Erk 1/2 and p38 activation in anti-CD3-stimulated T cells from thermally injured animals, compared to Erk 1/2 and p38 in sham rat T cells. The down-regulation of MAPKs in T cells was reversed by treatment of T cells with calcium agonist, ionomycin. These data indicate that attenuated MAPKs (Erk 1/2, p38) activation in thermally injured animals' T cells could result from derangement of Ca(2+) mobilization. This finding suggests that T cell signaling derangements with thermal injury involve an altered cross-talk between Ca(2+) mobilization and MAPK signaling mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeem Fazal
- Burn and Shock Trauma Institute, Department of Surgery, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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Mori T, Yamamoto H, Tabata T, Shimizu T, Endo Y, Hanasawa K, Fujimiya M, Tani T. A free radical scavenger, edaravone (MCI-186), diminishes intestinal neutrophil lipid peroxidation and bacterial translocation in a rat hemorrhagic shock model*. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:1064-9. [PMID: 15891337 DOI: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000162952.14590.ec] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of edaravone, a novel free radical scavenger, on bacterial translocation induced by hemorrhagic shock. DESIGN Prospective, randomized, unblinded animal study. SETTING Surgical research laboratories of Shiga University of Medical Science. SUBJECTS Male specific-pathogen-free Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTIONS The rats were randomly divided into three groups: conventional saline treatment, edaravone treatment, and sham shock induction. The saline and edaravone groups were subjected to hemorrhagic shock (mean arterial pressure of 30 mm Hg, for 30 or 60 mins). Rats were killed 30 or 60 mins after shock induction. Mesenteric lymph nodes were cultured for determination of bacterial translocation. Systemic plasma silkworm larvae plasma test, which can detect peptidoglycan and beta-glucan, and endotoxin tests were performed. Immunohistochemistry for 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) was used to assess lipid peroxidation after shock. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS The incidence and magnitude of hemorrhagic-shock-induced bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph nodes were reduced by edaravone. Hemorrhagic-shock-induced increase of plasma silkworm larvae plasma test was also reduced by edaravone. Immunohistochemistry for 4-HNE showed many 4-HNE-positive cells in the lamina propria of the ileum 60 mins after hemorrhagic shock. Double immunohistochemistry revealed that many of these 4-HNE-positive cells were also myeloperoxidase positive. Moreover, the percentage of double-labeled cells with 4-HNE and myeloperoxidase in myeloperoxidase-positive cells was significantly lower in the edaravone group than in the saline group. CONCLUSIONS The present findings suggest that lipid peroxidation of intestinal neutrophils is involved in bacterial translocation during hemorrhagic shock and that edaravone is potentially useful in diminishing bacterial translocation after hemorrhagic shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Mori
- Department of Surgery, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta, Tsukinowa-cho, Otsu-shi Shiga, 520-2192 Japan
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Rana SN, Li X, Chaudry IH, Bland KI, Choudhry MA. Inhibition of IL-18 reduces myeloperoxidase activity and prevents edema in intestine following alcohol and burn injury. J Leukoc Biol 2005; 77:719-28. [PMID: 15728717 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0704396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that alcohol (EtOH) ingestion before burn injury impaired intestinal barrier and immune function. This study determined whether EtOH and burn injury up-regulate interleukin (IL)-18 and whether IL-18 up-regulation following EtOH and burn injury is a cause for neutrophil recruitment and increased intestinal edema. Rats (250 g) were gavaged with EtOH to achieve a blood EtOH level in the range of 100 mg/dL prior to burn or sham injury (25% total body surface area). A group of rats was treated with Ac-YVAD-CHO (5 mg/kg), an inhibitor of caspase-1 (an enzyme that converts pro-IL-18, an inactive form of IL-18, to mature IL-18), at the time of injury. One day after injury, rats were killed. IL-18 production was determined in circulation and in the supernatants harvested from spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes, and Peyer's patch cell cultures as well as in intestinal tissue homogenates. Neutrophil accumulation in intestine was determined by measuring myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. We found a significant increase in IL-18 levels in the lymphoid cell supernatants and intestinal tissue homogenates obtained from EtOH and burn-injured rats compared with the rats receiving burn or sham injury. This was accompanied by an increase in intestinal MPO and edema. No demonstrable change in intestinal morphology was observed in any group. Treatment of rats with caspase-1 inhibitor significantly attenuated the increase in IL-18 levels and intestinal MPO activity in EtOH and burn-injured rats. Inhibition of IL-18 also prevented an increase in intestinal tissue water content. As MPO is considered an index of neutrophil infiltration, results presented in this manuscript collectively suggest that IL-18 up-regulation is likely to contribute to the increased neutrophil infiltration and edema in intestinal tissue observed following EtOH and burn injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadab N Rana
- Center for Surgical Research , Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Volker Hall G 094, 1670 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Li X, Rana SN, Kovacs EJ, Gamelli RL, Chaudry IH, Choudhry MA. Corticosterone suppresses mesenteric lymph node T cells by inhibiting p38/ERK pathway and promotes bacterial translocation after alcohol and burn injury. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 289:R37-44. [PMID: 15718389 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00782.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that alcohol (EtOH) intoxication before burn injury suppresses mesenteric lymph node (MLN) T cell functions and increases gut bacterial translocation. In this study, we examined whether corticosterone (Cort) plays any role in suppressing MLN T cell function and bacterial accumulation after EtOH intoxication and burn injury. Rats were gavaged with EtOH to achieve a blood EtOH level of approximately 100 mg/dl before receiving 25% total body surface area burn or sham injury. A group of rats was treated with the Cort synthesis inhibitor metyrapone (25 mg/kg) at the time of injury and on day 1 after injury. Two days after injury, a significant increase in blood Cort levels and suppression of MLN T cell proliferation and IL-2 production was observed in rats receiving combined insult of EtOH intoxication and burn injury compared with rats receiving EtOH intoxication or burn injury alone. There was no change in T cell apoptosis after combined insult of EtOH and burn injury. Furthermore, T cell suppression was accompanied by a significant decrease in p38 and ERK1/2 activation (phosphorylation). There was no difference in JNK activation after EtOH and burn injury. Treatment of rats with metyrapone prevented the suppression of MLN T cell proliferation, IL-2 production, and p38 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Restoration of T cell function in metyrapone-treated animals was also associated with the decrease in bacterial accumulation in MLN. These findings suggest that EtOH intoxication before burn injury augments Cort release, which suppresses MLN T cell function by inhibiting p38 and ERK1/2 activation and promotes bacterial accumulation in MLN after EtOH and burn injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Li
- Center for Surgical Research and Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, VolkerHall G 094, 1670 Univ. Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Kita T, Yamaguchi H, Sato H, Kasai K, Tanaka T, Tanaka N. Role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway on renal failure in the infant rat after burn injury. Shock 2005; 21:535-42. [PMID: 15167682 DOI: 10.1097/00024382-200406000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is a proinflammatory signal transduction pathway for the production of cytokines and cellular response to stress, such as bacterial LPS or ischemia. We examined the effects of FR167653, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, to explore the relationship between intestinal barrier damage and remote renal dysfunction. Immunohistochemical data showed the accumulation of neutrophils in the intestine after burn, and a horseradish peroxidase (HRP) tracer experiment showed burn-induced intestinal barrier damage. Our quantitative bacterial culture data demonstrated that viable bacteria reached the remote organs after burn and prevented the invading viable bacteria from using FR167653. Western blotting identified increased phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in the kidney after burn, and it may also have shown the possibility that endotoxin associated with the bacterial translocation enhances the activation of the p38 MAPK pathway. We blocked the intestinal barrier damage using FR167653, which resulted in reduced neutrophils in the intestine. FR167653 also prevented the increased phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in the kidney, which resulted in reduced neutrophils in the glomerulus and the reduction of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-1 beta mRNA in the kidneys, and, finally, prevented burn-induced renal failure. This study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the p38 MAPK pathway controls inflammatory mediators and not only improves intestinal function but also reduces remote renal failure after burn. We identified the pathophysiologic role of the p38 MAPK pathway in the development of renal failure after burn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiro Kita
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Kitakyushu, Japan.
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Kavanaugh MJ, Clark C, Goto M, Kovacs EJ, Gamelli RL, Sayeed MM, Choudhry MA. Effect of acute alcohol ingestion prior to burn injury on intestinal bacterial growth and barrier function. Burns 2005; 31:290-6. [PMID: 15774282 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2004.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that acute alcohol (EtOH) ingestion prior to burn injury enhances intestinal bacterial translocation. This study tested if increased intestinal bacterial translocation in alcohol and burn injured rats is due to an overgrowth in intestinal bacteria. We determined if the translocation was accompanied with alterations in intestinal permeability and immune cell population. Rats (225-250 g) were gavaged with alcohol to achieve a blood EtOH level in the range of 100 mg/dl prior to burn or sham injury (25% total body surface area). Two days after injury, we found that acute alcohol ingestions prior to burn injury results in a significant increase in bacterial counts in small intestine. The increase in intestinal bacterial counts accompanied a significant increase in intestinal permeability. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis revealed a substantial (p<0.05) loss of both T cell and dendritic cells in intestine of alcohol and burn injured rats compared with intestine of rats receiving either burn or sham injury. Altogether, results presented in this manuscript suggest that increase in intestinal bacterial growth along with alterations in intestinal permeability and immune status contribute to the increase in bacterial translocation observed in alcohol and burn injured rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Kavanaugh
- Burn and Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Chicago Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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21
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Patenaude J, D'Elia M, Hamelin C, Garrel D, Bernier J. Burn injury induces a change in T cell homeostasis affecting preferentially CD4+T cells. J Leukoc Biol 2004; 77:141-50. [PMID: 15542542 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0703314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Burn injuries are known to be associated with altered immune functions, resulting in decreased resistance to subsequent infection. In the present study, we determined the in vivo changes in T cell homeostasis following burn injury. Two groups of mice were used: a sham-burn group receiving buprenorphine as an analgesic and a burn group receiving buprenorphine and subjected to burn injury on 20% of the total body surface area. Results showed an important decrease in splenocytes following burn injury. This decrease persisted for 5 days and was followed, at day 10, by a 63% increase in number of cells. In vivo cell proliferation, as determined by the incorporation of 5-bromo-2'-dexoxyuridine, showed a significant increase of cycling splenocytes between days 2 and 10 after burn injury. The percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the spleen was altered for 10 days after thermal injury. Analysis of naive (CD62Lhigh CD44low) and effector/memory (CD62Llow CD44high) T cells showed a percent decrease, independent of the expression of CD4 or CD8 molecules. However, early activation markers, such as CD69+, were expressed only on CD4+ T cells after a number of days following injury. Even with an activated phenotype, 10 days post-burn injury, CD4+ naive T cells significantly increased spontaneous apoptosis, detected by using a fluorescent DNA-binding agent 7-amino-actinomycin D. CD8+ T lymphocytes did not express early activation markers and were more resistant to apoptosis. Using purified T cells, we have shown unresponsiveness at day 10. Overall, these results demonstrate that mechanisms of T cell homeostasis were perturbed following burn injury. However, after 10 days, this perturbation persisted only in CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Patenaude
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada
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Choudhry MA, Ba ZF, Rana SN, Bland KI, Chaudry IH. Alcohol ingestion before burn injury decreases splanchnic blood flow and oxygen delivery. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 288:H716-21. [PMID: 15388502 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00797.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies from our laboratory have shown that alcohol and burn injury impair intestinal barrier and immune functions. Although multiple factors can contribute to impaired intestinal barrier function, such an alteration could result from a decrease in intestinal blood flow (BF) and oxygen delivery (DO2). Therefore, in this study, we tested the hypothesis that alcohol ingestion before burn injury reduces splanchnic blood flow and oxygen delivery. Rats (250 g) were gavaged with alcohol to achieve a blood ethanol level in the range of 100 mg/dl before burn or sham injury (25% total body surface area). Day 1 after injury, animals were anesthetized with methoxyflurane. Blood pressure, cardiac output (CO), +/-dP/dt, organ BF (in ml.min(-1).100 g(-1)), and DO2 (in mg.ml(-1).100 g(-1)) were determined. CO and organ BF were determined using a radioactive microsphere technique. Our results indicate that blood pressure, CO, and +dP/dt were decreased in rats receiving a combined insult of alcohol and burn injury compared with rats receiving either burn injury or alcohol alone. This is accompanied by a decrease in BF and DO2 to the liver and intestine. No significant change in BF to the coronary arteries (heart), brain, lung, skin, and muscles was observed after alcohol and burn injury. In conclusion, the results presented here suggest that alcohol ingestion before burn injury reduces splanchnic BF and DO2. Such decreases in BF and DO2 may cause hypoxic insult to the intestine and liver. Although a hypoxic insult to the liver would result in a release of proinflammatory mediators, a similar insult to the intestine will likely perturb both intestinal immune cell and barrier functions, as observed in our previous study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Center for Surgical Research and Department of Surgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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Choudhry MA, Ren X, Romero A, Kovacs EJ, Gamelli RL, Sayeed MM. Combined alcohol and burn injury differentially regulate p-38 and ERK activation in mesenteric lymph node T cell. J Surg Res 2004; 121:62-8. [PMID: 15313377 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2004.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies from our laboratory have suggested that acute alcohol ingestion prior to burn injury enhances gut bacterial translocation by suppressing T cell-mediated intestinal immune defense. To determine the mechanism responsible for suppressed T cell function, we examined the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) members p-38 and ERK-1/2. Both p-38 and ERK-1/2 are known to play a significant role in the T cell proliferation and their cytokine production. Rats were gavaged with ethanol to achieve a blood alcohol level of approximately 100 mg/dl, before they were subjected to a 25% total body surface area burn injury. Two days after injury, rats were sacrificed and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) T cells were isolated and their ability to proliferate in response to anti-CD3 was determined. For p-38 and ERK-1/2 determination, T cells were divided into two groups. Cells in one group were stimulated with anti-CD3 for 3 min and lysed. The cells in the second group were cultured for approximately 18 h in the presence of anti-CD3 and lysed. MAPK status in 18-h cultured cells allowed us to determine whether or not the changes in p-38 and ERK-1/2 are transient or persist in the proliferating cells. Two days after injury, anti-CD3-mediated MLN T cell proliferation was more suppressed in rats gavaged with alcohol prior to burn injury compared to rats receiving either burn injury alone or sham-injured rats regardless of their exposure. Western blot analyses showed significant inhibition of ERK-1/2 phosphorylation in both freshly isolated and 18-h cultured T cells from alcohol and burn-injured rats compared to the sham rat T cells. The inhibition of p-38 phosphorylation in T cells derived from alcohol and burn-injured rats was found to be transient as no significant difference in p-38 phosphorylation was noted between the 18 h incubated MLN T cells of sham and alcohol and burn-injured rats. Taken together, our findings suggest that low levels of ERK-1/2 activation is likely to play a significant role in MLN T cell proliferative suppression in alcohol and burn-injured rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Center for Surgical Research and Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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24
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Choudhry MA, Rana SN, Kavanaugh MJ, Kovacs EJ, Gamelli RL, Sayeed MM. Impaired intestinal immunity and barrier function: a cause for enhanced bacterial translocation in alcohol intoxication and burn injury. Alcohol 2004; 33:199-208. [PMID: 15596088 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2004] [Revised: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/19/2004] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol intoxication is being recognized increasingly as the major factor in pathogenesis after burn injury. Findings from multiple studies support the suggestion that, in comparison with burn-injured patients who sustained injury in the absence of alcohol intoxication, burn-injured patients who sustained injury under the influence of alcohol exhibit higher rates of infection and are more likely to die. Thus, infection becomes the primary cause of death in burn-injured patients. Because the intestine is considered to be a major source of bacteria, studies in experimental animals have been designed to examine whether alcohol intoxication before burn injury enhances bacterial translocation from the intestine. Results of these studies have shown a several-fold increase in bacterial translocation from the intestine in the group of animals receiving combined insult of alcohol intoxication and burn injury compared with findings for the groups receiving either insult alone. Alcohol intoxication and burn injury independent of each other have also been shown to cause an increase in bacterial translocation. The gastrointestinal tract normally maintains a physical mucosal and immunologic barrier that provides an effective defense in keeping bacteria within the intestinal lumen. However, in injury conditions these defense mechanisms are impaired. Intestinal bacteria consequently gain access to extraintestinal sites. Intestine-derived bacteria are implicated in causing systemic infection and in subsequent multiple organ dysfunction in both immunocompromised patients and patients with injury, such as burn and trauma. In this article, we discuss three potential mechanisms that are likely to contribute to the increase in bacterial translocation in alcohol intoxication and burn injury: (1) increase in bacterial growth in the intestine, (2) physical disruption of mucosal barrier of the intestine, and (3) suppression of the immune defense in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Center for Surgical Research, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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Toth B, Alexander M, Daniel T, Chaudry IH, Hubbard WJ, Schwacha MG. The role of γδ T cells in the regulation of neutrophil-mediated tissue damage after thermal injury. J Leukoc Biol 2004; 76:545-52. [PMID: 15197233 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0404219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Thermal injury induces an inflammatory response that contributes to the development of secondary tissue damage. Neutrophil recruitment and activation are in part responsible for this tissue damage. Although gammadelta T cells have been shown to regulate the inflammatory responses in tissues that are prone to neutrophil-mediated injury post-burn, their role in the induction of secondary tissue injury post-burn remains unknown. To study this, gammadelta T cell-deficient (gammadelta TCR-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to thermal injury or sham procedure, and tissue samples were isolated 1-24 h thereafter. Burn injury induced neutrophil accumulation in the lung and small intestines of WT mice at 1-3 h post-injury. No such increase in neutrophil tissue content was observed in gammadelta TCR-/- mice. An increase in tissue wet/dry weight ratios was also observed in these organs at 3 h post-burn in WT but not in gammadelta TCR-/- mice. A parallel increase in plasma and small intestine levels of the chemokines macrophage-inflammatory protein-1beta (chemokine ligand 4) and keratinocyte-derived chemokine (CXC chemokine ligand 1) were observed in injured WT mice but not in injured gammadelta TCR-/- mice. Increased activation (CD120b expression) of the circulating gammadelta T cell population was also observed at 3 h post-burn in WT mice. These results indicate the gammadelta T cells, through the production of chemokines, play a central role in the initiation of neutrophil-mediated tissue damage post-burn.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Burns/immunology
- Burns/pathology
- Burns/physiopathology
- Cell Division/genetics
- Cell Division/immunology
- Chemokine CCL4
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/genetics
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes/genetics
- Inflammation/immunology
- Inflammation/pathology
- Inflammation/physiopathology
- Intestine, Small/immunology
- Intestine, Small/physiopathology
- Lung/immunology
- Lung/pathology
- Lung/physiopathology
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/immunology
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Neutrophils/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/deficiency
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-8A/immunology
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/immunology
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Balazs Toth
- Center for Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, G094 Volker Hall, 1670 University Blvd., Birmingham, AL 35294-0019, USA
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Cho K, Pham TN, Crivello SD, Jeong J, Green TL, Greenhalgh DG. Involvement of CD14 and Toll-Like Receptor 4 in the Acute Phase Response of Serum Amyloid A Proteins and Serum Amyloid P Component in the Liver After Burn Injury. Shock 2004; 21:144-50. [PMID: 14752288 DOI: 10.1097/01.shk.0000108398.56565.ae] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Acute phase proteins such as serum amyloid A proteins (SAAs) and serum amyloid P component (SAP) are induced in the liver after various insults (e.g., infection, injury). The cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling the expression of these acute phase proteins may be specifically designed for different insults. The roles of two central molecules of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation pathway (CD14 and toll-like receptor 4 [Tlr4]) were investigated for the regulation of SAAs and SAP in the liver of mice after an 18% total body surface area burn injury. RT-PCR analysis revealed a subtype- and time-dependent induction of SAA mRNAs between 3 h and 3 days, while there was a peak induction of SAP mRNA at day 1. Marked elevations of SAA and SAP protein levels at day 1 supported the mRNA data. Furthermore, a differential regulation of SAAs and SAP mRNAs was noted between CD14 knockout (KO) and their control mice after injury. SAA protein was induced to a lesser degree after injury in C3H/HeJ (Tlr4-defective) mice than in their control mice. In addition, in both CD14 KO and C3H/HeJ mice, the induction of SAP protein was significantly reduced compared with respective controls. These data provide evidence that CD14 and Tlr4 participate, at least in part, in a cascade of signaling events that control the immediate-early and differential induction of SAAs and SAP in the liver after injury. They also suggest that LPS may be one of the initial inducing agents associated with these acute phase responses in the liver after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiho Cho
- Burn Research, Shriners Hospitals for Children Northern California, Department of Surgery, University of California at Davis, Sacramento 95817, USA
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27
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Kotadia BK, Ravindranath TM, Choudhry MA, Haque F, Al-Ghoul W, Sayeed MM. Effects of Pentoxyfylline on Mesenteric Lymph Node T-Cells in a Rat Model of Thermal Injury. Shock 2003; 20:517-20. [PMID: 14625475 DOI: 10.1097/01.shk.0000098103.41147.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous burn injury-induced T lymphocyte suppression is a well-known phenomenon. In this study, we evaluated the effect of treatment of burn rats with pentoxifylline (PTX) on the burn-induced suppression of T lymphocytes. Anesthetized rats were subjected to 30% total body surface area burn by exposing skin to 95 degrees C water for 10 s. T lymphocytes were isolated from sham and burn rats with or without PTX treatment (120 mg/kg, ip). T cell proliferation and interleukin (IL)-2 production in response to T cell mitogen concanavalin A was measured using 3 H-thymidine uptake and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. P59 fyn autophosphorylation and its kinase activity was determined using in vitro kinase assay. In addition, T lymphocyte Ca2+ signaling was assessed using Ca2+ imaging technique. Two days after injury, there was a significant decrease in mesenteric lymph node T cell proliferation and IL-2 production in burn injured rats compared with those obtained from sham-injured rats. This decrease in T cell proliferation and IL-2 production in burn-injured rats was accompanied by a significant suppression in both P59 autophophorylation and kinase activity as well as Ca2+ signaling. Treatment of burn-injured rats with PTX produced a near complete recovery of T cell proliferation and IL-2 production. Furthermore, PTX treatment also prevented the burn-mediated suppression in P59fyn and kinase activity as well as restored Ca2+ signaling similar to those observed in sham injured rats. These findings altogether suggested that PTX treatment attenuate T cell suppression in burn-injured rats and that the effects of PTX are mediated via modulating P59 fyn and Ca2+ signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharat K Kotadia
- Department of Surgery, Trauma/Critical Care Research Laboratories, Ronald McDonald Children's Hospital, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
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Choudhry MA, Haque F, Khan M, Fazal N, Al-Ghoul W, Ravindranath T, Gamelli RL, Sayeed MM. Enteral nutritional supplementation prevents mesenteric lymph node T-cell suppression in burn injury. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:1764-70. [PMID: 12794418 DOI: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000063053.31485.df] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of an immune-enhancing diet supplemented with glutamine, arginine, fish oil, and dietary nucleotides on mesenteric lymph node T-cell functional disturbances encountered after burn injury in rats. DESIGN A prospective animal study. SETTING University medical center research laboratory. SUBJECTS Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTIONS Rats received a 30%, total body surface, full-thickness burn. Burn-injury rats received the IMPACT diet supplemented with glutamine, arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides or arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides, or an isocaloric/isonitrogenous diet without supplementation with glutamine, arginine, fish oil, or nucleotides. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Two days after injury, we found a significant decrease in the proliferation and interleukin-2 production by mesenteric lymph node T cells derived from rats fed on conventional chow compared with sham rats. The burn-related suppression of mesenteric lymph node T-cell proliferation and interleukin-2 production was prevented when the rats were fed on a high-protein diet rich in glutamine, arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides. We found that the immunostimulatory effects of the enriched diet are dependent on the presence of glutamine, arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides as feeding of rats on the isocaloric/isonitrogenous diet deficient in glutamine, arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides did not prevent the burn-related suppression of mesenteric lymph node T-cell dysfunction. Finally, our studies suggested that immunostimulatory effects of the diet are mediated by prostaglandin E(2) regulation of T-cell activation signaling molecule P59fyn. CONCLUSION These results suggest that a diet rich in arginine, fish oil, and nucleotides, with and without glutamine, can effectively prevent T-cell dysfunction encountered after burn injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Critical Care Research Labs, Burn and Shock Trauma Institute, Department of Surgery, Loyola University/Chicago Medical Center, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Choudhry MA, Plackett TP, Schilling EM, Faunce DE, Gamelli RL, Kovacs EJ. Advanced age negatively influences mesenteric lymph node T cell responses after burn injury. Immunol Lett 2003; 86:177-82. [PMID: 12644320 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2478(03)00022-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While the pathophysiology of burn injury is well established in young adults, the factors that contribute to pathogenesis and increased death in elderly burn patients are not defined. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of burn injury on mesenteric lymph node (MLN) T cell responses in young and aged mice. MLN is a cluster of lymph nodes that drains various parts of the intestine and is known to play role in clearance bacteria originating from the intestinal lumen. Results presented here suggest a significant suppression in Con A-induced MLN cell proliferation and IL-2 production in uninjured aged mice compared with uninjured young mice. Following 24 h after injury, although, a significant decrease in lymph node cell proliferation and IL-2 production was observed in both young and aged mice compared with their respective sham-injured animals, the suppression was more in aged mice. In addition we found a reduction in IFN-gamma, a Th-1 cytokine by MLN T cells from aged burned mice relative to young burn (P<0.05) or sham-injured mice (P<0.01). The Th-2 cytokine IL-4, on the other hand, was significantly increased in both young and aged burn-injured mice MLN T cells compared with their respective sham-injured mice. These results show that burn injury causes a greater suppression in MLN T cells ability to proliferate and a more pronounced shift to Th-2 phenotype in aged mice as compared with young mice. Such decreases in T cell functions may impair MLN's ability to clear the bacterial pathogens originating from intestine and thereby contribute to increased pathogenesis in injured host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Burn and Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Chicago Medical Center, Maywood, IL, USA.
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Choudhry MA, Mao H, Haque F, Khan M, Fazal N, Sayeed MM. Role of NFAT and AP-1 in PGE2-mediated T cell suppression in burn injury. Shock 2002; 18:212-6. [PMID: 12353920 DOI: 10.1097/00024382-200209000-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PGE2 is known to suppress T cell proliferation and IL-2 production in many inflammatory conditions. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that such suppression of T cell proliferation in burn and sepsis could result from alteration in T cell activation signaling molecule p59fyn. In this study, we examined the role of downstream signaling molecules NFAT and AP-1 in PGE2-mediated suppression of T cell in burn injury. These studies were carried out utilizing splenic T cells from sham and burn rats 3 days after injury. The data presented in this manuscript suggest a significant suppression of IL-2 production by T cells from burn injured rats compared with the T cells from sham rats. The suppression in T cell IL-2 production was accompanied by a decrease in the activation of NFAT and AP-1 as well as a decrease in T cell p59fyn kinase activity. The treatments of burn-injured animals with PGE2 synthesis blocker indomethacin prevented both the decrease in NFAT and AP-1 binding to IL-2 sequences. In vitro incubation of control rat T cells with PGE2 suppressed the activation of NFAT and AP-1. These results suggested that the suppression of T cell IL-2 production could result from PGE2-mediated alterations in the T cell signaling molecule p59fyn and NFAT/AP-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashkoor A Choudhry
- Bum and Shock Trauma Institute, Loyola University Chicago Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
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Goldfarb R. Elevation of plasma peptidoglycan and peripheral blood neutrophil activation during hemorrhagic shock: plasma peptidoglycan reflects bacterial translocation and may effect neutrophil activation. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:254-5. [PMID: 11902277 DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200201000-00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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