Targeting of nanoparticles in cancer: drug delivery and diagnostics. Anticancer Drugs. 2011;22:949-962. [PMID: 21970851 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0b013e32834a4554]

Quantitative Analysis of Salmon Calcitonin Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticle Permeation to substantiate Non-Invasive Bone Targeting via Sublingual Delivery

We earlier reported comparable efficacy in bone parameters of sublingually administered salmon calcitonin hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (SCT-HAP-NPs) compared to the subcutaneous injection, in the ovariectomy rat model, despite a bioavailability of barely ~ 15%. We ascribed this intriguing finding to targeted bone delivery, facilitated by translocation of significant quantity of intact NP into systemic circulation. In the present study we track the translocation of FITC-SCT-HAP-NPs (~ 100 nm) across porcine sublingual mucosa using the Franz diffusion cell to validate our hypothesis. Confocal Laser Scanning microscopy (CLSM) established that SCT-HAP-NPs permeated into the deeper layers of sublingual porcine mucosal tissue. We confirmed the nanoparticles were present in the receptor medium of the Franz diffusion cell by DLS and TEM. We also demonstrate for the first time quantification of the NPs (%) translocated across the porcine mucosa, using the Amnis Image StreamX Mk II imaging flow cytometer. Computation revealed transport of ~ 60% of the FITC-SCT-HAP-NPs across mucosa in 2 h, substantiated that high NP concentrations could reach systemic circulation. Such high NP concentration in systemic circulation coupled with the small size (~ 100 nm) and the high bone affinity of HAP, validate our hypothesis of targeted bone delivery following sublingual administration. Furthermore, quantification of translocated NPs, which we demonstrate for the first time, would permit rational development of optimal targeted nanoparticulate carriers for delivery by noninvasive routes.

Targeted nanodelivery systems for personalized cancer therapy

Conventional cancer therapies such as chemotherapy face challenges such as poor tumor targeting, systemic toxicity, and drug resistance. Nanotechnology offers solutions through advanced drug delivery systems that preferentially accumulate in tumors while avoiding healthy tissues. Recent innovations have enabled the optimization of engineered nanocarriers for extended circulation and tumor localization via both passive and active targeting mechanisms. Passive accumulation exploits the leaky vasculature of tumors, whereas active strategies use ligands to selectively bind cancer cell receptors. Multifunctional nanoparticles also allow the combination of imaging, multiple therapeutic modalities and on-demand drug release within a single platform. Overall, precisely tailored nanotherapeutics that leverage unique pathophysiological traits of malignancies provide opportunities to overcome the limitations of traditional treatment regimens. This emerging field promises more effective and personalized nanomedicine approaches to detect and treat cancer. The key aspects highlighted in this review include the biological barriers associated with nanoparticles, rational design principles to optimize nanocarrier pharmacokinetics and tumor uptake, passive and active targeting strategies, multifunctionality, and reversal of multidrug resistance.

Emerging Gene Therapy Based on Nanocarriers: A Promising Therapeutic Alternative for Cardiovascular Diseases and a Novel Strategy in Valvular Heart Disease

Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of global mortality, with many unresolved issues in current clinical treatment strategies despite years of extensive research. Due to the great progress in nanotechnology and gene therapy in recent years, the emerging gene therapy based on nanocarriers has provided a promising therapeutic alternative for cardiovascular diseases. This review outlines the status of nanocarriers as vectors in gene therapy for cardiovascular diseases, including coronary heart disease, pulmonary hypertension, hypertension, and valvular heart disease. It discusses challenges and future prospects, aiming to support emerging clinical treatments. This review is the first to summarize gene therapy using nanocarriers for valvular heart disease, highlighting their potential in targeting challenging tissues.

Synthesis and Bioapplication of Emerging Nanomaterials of Hafnium

A significant amount of progress in nanotechnology has been made due to the development of engineered nanoparticles. The use of metallic nanoparticles for various biomedical applications has been extensively investigated. Biomedical research is highly focused on them because of their inert nature, nanoscale structure, and similar size to many biological molecules. The intrinsic characteristics of these particles, including electronic, optical, physicochemical, and surface plasmon resonance, that can be altered by altering their size, shape, environment, aspect ratio, ease of synthesis, and functionalization properties, have led to numerous biomedical applications. Targeted drug delivery, sensing, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, and imaging are some of these. The promising clinical results of NBTXR3, a high-Z radiosensitizing nanomaterial derived from hafnium, have demonstrated translational potential of this metal. This radiosensitization approach leverages the dependence of energy attenuation on atomic number to enhance energy-matter interactions conducive to radiation therapy. High-Z nanoparticle localization in tumor issue differentially increases the effect of ionizing radiation on cancer cells versus nearby healthy ones and mitigates adverse effects by reducing the overall radiation burden. This principle enables material multifunctionality as contrast agents in X-ray-based imaging. The physiochemical properties of hafnium (Z = 72) are particularly advantageous for these applications. A well-placed K-edge absorption energy and high mass attenuation coefficient compared to elements in human tissue across clinical energy ranges leads to significant attenuation. Chemical reactivity allows for variety in nanoparticle synthesis, composition, and functionalization. Nanoparticles such as hafnium oxide exhibit excellent biocompatibility due to physiochemical inertness prior to incidence with ionizing radiation. Additionally, the optical and electronic properties are applicable in biosensing, optical component coatings, and semiconductors. The wide interest has prompted extensive research in design and synthesis to facilitate property fine-tuning. This review summarizes synthetic methods for hafnium-based nanomaterials and applications in therapy, imaging, and biosensing with a mechanistic focus. A discussion and future perspective section highlights clinical progress and elaborates on current challenges. By focusing on factors impacting applicational effectiveness and examining limitations this review aims to support researchers and expedite clinical translation of future hafnium-based nanomedicine.

Ursolic acid: a pentacyclic triterpenoid that exhibits anticancer therapeutic potential by modulating multiple oncogenic targets

The world is currently facing a global challenge against neoplastic diseases. Chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, surgery, and radiation therapy are some approaches used to treat cancer. However, these treatments are frequently causing side effects in patients, such as multidrug resistance, fever, weakness, and allergy, among others side effects. As a result, current research has focused on phytochemical compounds isolated from plants to treat deadly cancers. Plants are excellent resources of bioactive molecules, and many natural molecules have exceptional anticancer properties. They produce diverse anticancer derivatives such as alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, pigments, and tannins, which have powerful anticancer activities against various cancer cell lines and animal models. Because of their safety, eco-friendly, and cost-effective nature, research communities have recently focused on various phytochemical bioactive molecules. Ursolic acid (UA) and its derivative compounds have anti-inflammatory, anticancer, apoptosis induction, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-breast cancer proliferation properties. Ursolic acid (UA) can improve the clinical management of human cancer because it inhibits cancer cell viability and proliferation, preventing tumour angiogenesis and metastatic activity. Therefore, the present article focuses on numerous bioactivities of Ursolic acid (UA), which can inhibit cancer cell production, mechanism of action, and modulation of anticancer properties via regulating various cellular processes.

Emerging theranostics to combat cancer: a perspective on metal-based nanomaterials

OBJECTIVE

Theranostics, encompassing diagnostics and therapeutics, has emerged as a critical component of cancer treatment. Metal-based theranostics is one such next-generation nanotechnology-based drug delivery system with a myriad of benefits in pre-clinical and clinical medication for the deadly diseases like cancer, where early detection can actually be life-saving.

SIGNIFICANCE

Metal theranostics have shown promising outcomes in terms of anticancer medication monitoring, targeted drug delivery, and simultaneous detection and treatment of early-stage cancer.

METHODS

For collection of literature data, different search engines including Google scholar, SciFinder, PubMed, ScienceDirect have been employed. With key words like, cancer, theranostics, metal nanoparticles relevant and appropriate data have been generated.

RESULTS

Noninvasive administration of the active drug is made possible by theranostics nanoparticulate systems' ability to aggregate at the tumor site and offer morphological and biochemical characteristics of the tumor site. The recent advancement of metal-based theranostics including metallic nanoparticles, metal oxides, metal sulfides, nanocomposites, etc. has been explored at length in this article.

CONCLUSION

The review highlights emerging applications in terms of molecular imaging, targeted therapy and different diagnostic approaches of metal theranostics. Possible challenges faced by nanotheranostics in terms of clinical immersion and toxicological aspects which need to be addressed at depth are also discussed at the end.

Engineering nanosystems to overcome barriers to cancer diagnosis and treatment

Over the past two decades, multidisciplinary investigations into the development of nanoparticles for medical applications have continually increased. However, nanoparticles are still subject to biological barriers and biodistribution challenges, which limit their overall clinical potential. This has motivated the implementation of innovational modifications to a range of nanoparticle formulations designed for cancer imaging and/or cancer treatment to overcome specific barriers and shift the accumulation of payloads toward the diseased tissues. In recent years, novel technological and chemical approaches have been employed to modify or functionalize the surface of nanoparticles or manipulate the characteristics of nanoparticles. Combining these approaches with the identification of critical biomarkers provides new strategies for enhancing nanoparticle specificity for both cancer diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This review discusses the most recent advances in the design and engineering of nanoparticles as well as future directions for developing the next generation of nanomedicines.

Lipid-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery Systems in Breast Cancer Therapy

Globally, breast cancer is one of the most prevalent diseases, inducing critical intimidation to human health. Lipid-based nanomaterials have been successfully demonstrated as drug carriers for breast cancer treatment. To date, the development of a better drug delivery system based on lipid nanomaterials is still urgent to make the treatment and diagnosis easily accessible to breast cancer patients. In a drug delivery system, lipid nanomaterials have revealed distinctive features, including high biocompatibility and efficient drug delivery. Specifically, a targeted drug delivery system based on lipid nanomaterials has inherited the advantage of optimum dosage and low side effects. In this review, insights on currently used potential lipid-based nanomaterials are collected and introduced. The review sheds light on conjugation, targeting, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical significance of lipid-based nanomaterials to treat breast cancer. Furthermore, a brighter side of lipid-based nanomaterials as future potential drug delivery systems for breast cancer therapy is discussed.

Targeted Delivery Methods for Anticancer Drugs

Several drug-delivery systems have been reported on and often successfully applied in cancer therapy. Cell-targeted delivery can reduce the overall toxicity of cytotoxic drugs and increase their effectiveness and selectivity. Besides traditional liposomal and micellar formulations, various nanocarrier systems have recently become the focus of developmental interest. This review discusses the preparation and targeting techniques as well as the properties of several liposome-, micelle-, solid-lipid nanoparticle-, dendrimer-, gold-, and magnetic-nanoparticle-based delivery systems. Approaches for targeted drug delivery and systems for drug release under a range of stimuli are also discussed.

Histidine-Tagged Folate-Targeted Gold Nanoparticles for Enhanced Transgene Expression in Breast Cancer Cells In Vitro

Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising treatment strategy in gene therapy, especially against diseases such as cancer. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are regarded as favorable gene delivery vehicles due to their low toxicity, ease of synthesis and ability to be functionalized. This study aimed to prepare functionalized AuNPs (FAuNPs) and evaluate their folate-targeted and nontargeted pCMV-Luc-DNA delivery in breast cancer cells in vitro. CS was added to induce stability and positive charges to the AuNPs (Au-CS), histidine (Au-CS-His) to enhance endosomal escape and folic acid for folate-receptor targeting (Au-CS-FA-His). The FAuNP:pDNA nanocomplexes possessed favorable sizes (<135 nm) and zeta potentials (<-20 mV), strong compaction efficiency and were capable of pDNA protection against nuclease degradation. These nanocomplexes showed minimal cytotoxicity (>73% cell viability) and enhanced transgene activity. The influence of His was notable in the HER2 overexpressing SKBR3 cells, which produced higher gene expression. Furthermore, the FA-targeted nanocomplexes enhanced receptor-mediated endocytosis, especially in MCF-7 cells, as confirmed by the receptor competition assay. While the role of His may need further optimization, the results achieved suggest that these FAuNPs may be suitable gene delivery vehicles for breast cancer therapeutics.

Hyaluronic acid nanoparticle-encapsulated microRNA-125b repolarizes tumor-associated macrophages in pancreatic cancer

Aim: To investigate a novel strategy to target tumor-associated macrophages and reprogram them to an antitumor phenotype in pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Methods: M2 peptides were conjugated to HA-PEG/HA-PEI polymer to form self-assembled nanoparticles with miR-125b. The efficacy of HA-PEI/PEG-M2peptide nanoparticles in pancreatic tumors from LSL-KrasG12D/+, LSL-Trp53R172H/+, Pdx1-Cre genetically engineered mice was evaluated. Results: In vitro M2 macrophage-specific delivery of targeted nanoformulations was demonstrated. Intraperitoneal administration of M2-targeted nanoparticles showed preferential accumulation in the pancreas of KPC-PDAC mice and an above fourfold increase in the M1-to-M2 macrophage ratio compared with transfection with scrambled miR. Conclusion: M2-targeted HA-PEI/PEG nanoparticles with miR-125b can transfect tumor-associated macrophages in pancreatic tissues and may have implications for PDAC immunotherapy.

Frontiers in the treatment of glioblastoma: Past, present and emerging

Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most aggressive cancers of the brain. Despite extensive research over the last several decades, the survival rates for GBM have not improved and prognosis remains poor. To date, only a few therapies are approved for the treatment of GBM with the main reasons being: 1) significant tumour heterogeneity which promotes the selection of resistant subpopulations 2) GBM induced immunosuppression and 3) fortified location of the tumour in the brain which hinders the delivery of therapeutics. Existing therapies for GBM such as radiotherapy, surgery and chemotherapy have been unable to reach the clinical efficacy necessary to prolong patient survival more than a few months. This comprehensive review evaluates the current and emerging therapies including those in clinical trials that may potentially improve both targeted delivery of therapeutics directly to the tumour site and the development of agents that may specifically target GBM. Particular focus has also been given to emerging delivery technologies such as focused ultrasound, cellular delivery systems nanomedicines and immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the importance of developing novel materials for improved delivery efficacy of nanoparticles and therapeutics to reduce the suffering of GBM patients.

Obstructions in Nanoparticles Conveyance, Nano-Drug Retention, and EPR Effect in Cancer Therapies

In this chapter, the authors first review nano-devices that are mixtures of biologic molecules and synthetic polymers like nano-shells and nano-particles for the most encouraging applications for different cancer therapies. Nano-sized medications additionally spill especially into tumor tissue through penetrable tumor vessels and are then held in the tumor bed because of diminished lymphatic drainage. This procedure is known as the enhanced penetrability and retention (EPR) impact. Nonetheless, while the EPR impact is generally held to improve conveyance of nano-medications to tumors, it in certainty offers not exactly a 2-overlay increment in nano-drug conveyance contrasted with basic ordinary organs, bringing about medication concentration that is not adequate for restoring most malignant growths. In this chapter, the authors likewise review different obstructions for nano-sized medication conveyance and to make the conveyance of nano-sized medications to tumors progressively successful by expanding on the EPR impact..

Interactions Between Tumor Biology and Targeted Nanoplatforms for Imaging Applications

Although considerable efforts have been conducted to diagnose, improve, and treat cancer in the past few decades, existing therapeutic options are insufficient, as mortality and morbidity rates remain high. Perhaps the best hope for substantial improvement lies in early detection. Recent advances in nanotechnology are expected to increase the current understanding of tumor biology, and will allow nanomaterials to be used for targeting and imaging both in vitro and in vivo experimental models. Owing to their intrinsic physicochemical characteristics, nanostructures (NSs) are valuable tools that have received much attention in nanoimaging. Consequently, rationally designed NSs have been successfully employed in cancer imaging for targeting cancer-specific or cancer-associated molecules and pathways. This review categorizes imaging and targeting approaches according to cancer type, and also highlights some new safe approaches involving membrane-coated nanoparticles, tumor cell-derived extracellular vesicles, circulating tumor cells, cell-free DNAs, and cancer stem cells in the hope of developing more precise targeting and multifunctional nanotechnology-based imaging probes in the future.

Lactoferrin's Anti-Cancer Properties: Safety, Selectivity, and Wide Range of Action

Despite recent advances in cancer therapy, current treatments, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy, although beneficial, present attendant side effects and long-term sequelae, usually more or less affecting quality of life of the patients. Indeed, except for most of the immunotherapeutic agents, the complete lack of selectivity between normal and cancer cells for radio- and chemotherapy can make them potential antagonists of the host anti-cancer self-defense over time. Recently, the use of nutraceuticals as natural compounds corroborating anti-cancer standard therapy is emerging as a promising tool for their relative abundance, bioavailability, safety, low-cost effectiveness, and immuno-compatibility with the host. In this review, we outlined the anti-cancer properties of Lactoferrin (Lf), an iron-binding glycoprotein of the innate immune defense. Lf shows high bioavailability after oral administration, high selectivity toward cancer cells, and a wide range of molecular targets controlling tumor proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, and metastasization. Of note, Lf is able to promote or inhibit cell proliferation and migration depending on whether it acts upon normal or cancerous cells, respectively. Importantly, Lf administration is highly tolerated and does not present significant adverse effects. Moreover, Lf can prevent development or inhibit cancer growth by boosting adaptive immune response. Finally, Lf was recently found to be an ideal carrier for chemotherapeutics, even for the treatment of brain tumors due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, thus globally appearing as a promising tool for cancer prevention and treatment, especially in combination therapies.

Active Targeting of Dendritic Polyglycerols for Diagnostic Cancer Imaging

Active tumor targeting involves the decoration of nanomaterials (NMs) with oncotropic vector biomolecules that selectively recognize certain antigens on malignant cells or in the tumor microenvironment. This strategy can facilitate intracellular uptake of NM through specific interactions such as receptor-mediated endocytosis and can lead to prolonged retention in the malignant tissues by preventing rapid efflux from the tumor. Here, the design of actively targeting, renally excretible bimodal dendritic polyglycerols (dPGs) for diagnostic cancer imaging is described. Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) specifically binding to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) are employed herein as targeting warheads owing to their small size and high affinity for their corresponding antigen. The dPGs equipped with EGFR-targeting feature are compared head-to-head with their nontargeting counterparts in terms of interaction with EGFR-overexpressing cells in vitro as well as accumulation at receptor-positive tumors in vivo. Experimental results reveal a higher specificity and preferential tumor accumulation for the α-EGFR dPGs, resulting from the introduction of active targeting capabilities on their backbone. These results highlight the potential for improving the tumor uptake properties of dPGs by strategic use of sdAb functionalization, which can ultimately prove useful to the development of ultrasmall NM with highly specific tumor accumulation.

An acellular tissue matrix-based drug carriers with dual chemo-agents for colon cancer growth suppression

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Relapse, metastasis, and chemo-resistance are the main factors responsible for the failure of surgical treatment of malignant tumors, and typically are the main obstacles to effective cancer treatment. Although significant advances have been made in the field of cancer chemotherapy, many patients still receive inadequate treatment due to the severe adverse effects of these drugs, resulting in an inability to reach therapeutic concentrations at the tumor site with systemic chemotherapy. Thus, a biological patch loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs could be an ideal strategy for the treatment of cancer at the tumor site.

METHODS

We developed an acellular matrix using the submucosa of porcine jejunum, then loaded this matrix with different amounts of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and rapamycin nanoparticles. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry and related markers were evaluated using real-time PCR and western blotting. The patches were evaluated in vitro to characterize their release kinetics and therapeutic feasibility. We then analyzed the therapeutic efficacy and systemic toxicity of these patches in vivo by using them in a mouse model of colon cancer.

RESULTS

The patches delivered 5-FU and rapamycin in a controlled manner for more than 8 weeks, arrested the cell cycle of LoVo cells and sw480 cells at G2/M phase, and induced apoptosis in vitro. The patches also suppressed the growth of xenografted tumors in vivo with lower adverse effects than typically observed with systemic administration of these drugs.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that patches loaded with 5-FU-RAPA-PLA-NP significantly inhibited the growth of colon cancer in vitro and in vivo. These results demonstrated the feasibility of the use of a multi-effect biological patch for cancer treatment.

Optimisation of Folate-Mediated Liposomal Encapsulated Arsenic Trioxide for Treating HPV-Positive Cervical Cancer Cells In Vitro

High-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is directly associated with cervical cancer development. Arsenic trioxide (ATO), despite inducing apoptosis in HPV-infected cervical cancer cells in vitro, has been compromised by toxicity and poor pharmacokinetics in clinical trials. Therefore, to improve ATO’s therapeutic profile for HPV-related cancers, this study aims to explore the effects of length of ligand spacers of folate-targeted liposomes on the efficiency of ATO delivery to HPV-infected cells. Fluorescent ATO encapsulated liposomes with folic acid (FA) conjugated to two different PEG lengths (2000 Da and 5000 Da) were synthesised, and their cellular uptake was examined for HPV-positive HeLa and KB and HPV-negative HT-3 cells using confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and spectrophotometer readings. Cellular arsenic quantification and anti-tumour efficacy was evaluated through inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and cytotoxicity studies, respectively. Results showed that liposomes with a longer folic acid-polyethylene glycol (FA-PEG) spacer (5000 Da) displayed a higher efficiency in targeting folate receptor (FR) + HPV-infected cells without increasing any inherent cytotoxicity. Targeted liposomally delivered ATO also displayed superior selectivity and efficiency in inducing higher cell apoptosis in HPV-positive cells per unit of arsenic taken up than free ATO, in contrast to HT-3. These findings may hold promise in improving the management of HPV-associated cancers.

Self-assembled 4-(1,2-diphenylbut-1-en-1-yl)aniline based nanoparticles: podophyllotoxin and aloin as building blocks

The ability of 4-(1,2-diphenylbut-1-en-1-yl)aniline as a self-assembly inducer is reported. The conjugation of this moiety with aloin or podophyllotoxin resulted in spherical nanoparticles that were characterized by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and NanoSight technology. A preliminary biological evaluation on two cancer cell lines is reported.

A paclitaxel prodrug with bifunctional folate and albumin binding moieties for both passive and active targeted cancer therapy

Folate receptor (FR) has proven to be a valuable target for chemotherapy using folic acid (FA) conjugates. However, FA-conjugated chemotherapeutics still have low therapeutic efficacy accompanied with side effects, resulting from complications such as short circulation half-life, limited tumor delivery, as well as high kidney accumulation. Herein, we present a novel FA-conjugated paclitaxel (PTX) prodrug which was additionally conjugated with an Evans blue (EB) derivative for albumin binding. The resulting bifunctional prodrug prolonged blood circulation, enhanced tumor accumulation, and consequently improved tumor therapeutic efficacy. Methods: Fmoc-Cys(Trt)-OH was coupled onto PTX at the 7'-OH position for further synthesis of ester prodrug FA-PTX-EB. The targeting ability was investigated using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. The pharmacokinetics of this bifunctional compound was also studied. Meanwhile, cell viability was evaluated in normal cells and three cancer cell lines by MTT assay. In vivo therapeutic effect was tested on FR-α overexpressing MDA-MB-231 tumor model. Results: Compared with free PTX, the FA-PTX, PTX-EB and FA-PTX-EB prodrugs increased circulation half-life in mice from 2.19 to 3.82, 4.41, and 7.51 h, respectively. Pharmacokinetics studies showed that the FA-PTX-EB delivered more PTX to tumors than FA-PTX and free PTX. In vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that FA-EB-conjugated PTX induced potent antitumor activity. Conclusion: FA-PTX-EB showed prolonged blood circulation, enhanced drug accumulation in tumors, higher therapeutic index, and lower side effects than either free PTX or monofunctional FA-PTX and EB-PTX. The results support the potential of using EB for the development of long-acting therapeutics.

Conjugate of PAMAM Dendrimer, Doxorubicin and Monoclonal Antibody-Trastuzumab: The New Approach of a Well-Known Strategy

The strategy utilizing trastuzumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody against human epidermal growth receptor 2 (HER-2), as a therapeutic agent in HER-2 positive breast cancer therapy seems to have advantage over traditional chemotherapy, especially when given in combination with anticancer drugs. However, the effectiveness of single antibody or antibody conjugated with chemotherapeutics is still far from ideal. Antibody–dendrimer conjugates hold the potential to improve the targeting and release of active substance at the tumor site. In the present study, we developed and synthesized PAMAM dendrimer–trastuzumab conjugates carrying doxorubicin (dox) specifically to cells overexpressing HER-2. ¹HNMR, FTIR and RP-HPLC were used to characterize the products and analyze their purity. Toxicity of PAMAM–trastuzumab and PAMAM–dox–trastuzumab conjugates compared with free trastuzumab and doxorubicin towards HER-2 positive (SKBR-3) and negative (MCF-7) human breast cancer cell lines was determined using MTT assay. Furthermore, the cellular uptake and cellular localization were studied by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, respectively. A cytotoxicity profile of above mentioned compounds indicated that conjugate PAMAM–dox–trastuzumab was more effective when compared to free drug or the conjugate PAMAM–trastuzumab. Moreover, these results reveal that trastuzumab can be used as a targeting agent in PAMAM–dox–trastuzumab conjugate. Therefore PAMAM–dox–trastuzumab conjugate might be an interesting proposition which could lead to improvements in the effectiveness of drug delivery systems for tumors that overexpress HER-2.

Biotin conjugated organic molecules and proteins for cancer therapy: A review

The main transporter for biotin is sodium dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT), which is overexpressed in various aggressive cancer cell lines such as ovarian (OV 2008, ID8), leukemia (L1210FR), mastocytoma (P815), colon (Colo-26), breast (4T1, JC, MMT06056), renal (RENCA, RD0995), and lung (M109) cancer cell lines. Furthermore, its overexpression was found higher to that of folate receptor. Therefore, biotin demand in the rapidly growing tumors is higher than normal tissues. Several biotin conjugated organic molecules has been reported here for selective delivery of the drug in cancer cell. Biotin conjugated molecules are showing higher fold of cytotoxicity in biotin positive cancer cell lines than the normal cell. Nanoparticles and polymer surface modified drugs and biotin mediated cancer theranostic strategy was highlighted in this review. The cytotoxicity and selectivity of the drug in cancer cells has enhanced after biotin conjugation.

Synthesis, Functionalization, and Design of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Theranostic Applications

In order to translate nanotechnology into medical practice, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been presented as a class of non-invasive nanomaterials for numerous biomedical applications. In particular, MNPs have opened a door for simultaneous diagnosis and brisk treatment of diseases in the form of theranostic agents. This review highlights the recent advances in preparation and utilization of MNPs from the synthesis and functionalization steps to the final design consideration in evading the body immune system for therapeutic and diagnostic applications with addressing the most recent examples of the literature in each section. This study provides a conceptual framework of a wide range of synthetic routes classified mainly as wet chemistry, state-of-the-art microfluidic reactors, and biogenic routes, along with the most popular coating materials to stabilize resultant MNPs. Additionally, key aspects of prolonging the half-life of MNPs via overcoming the sequential biological barriers are covered through unraveling the biophysical interactions at the bio-nano interface and giving a set of criteria to efficiently modulate MNPs' physicochemical properties. Furthermore, concepts of passive and active targeting for successful cell internalization, by respectively exploiting the unique properties of cancers and novel targeting ligands are described in detail. Finally, this study extensively covers the recent developments in magnetic drug targeting and hyperthermia as therapeutic applications of MNPs. In addition, multi-modal imaging via fusion of magnetic resonance imaging, and also innovative magnetic particle imaging with other imaging techniques for early diagnosis of diseases are extensively provided.

Nucleic acid aptamer application in diagnosis and therapy of colorectal cancer based on cell-SELEX technology

Nucleic acid aptamers are a class of high-affinity nucleic acid ligands. They serve as “chemical antibodies” since their high affinity and specificity. Nucleic acid aptamers are generated from nucleic acid random-sequence using a systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) technology. SELEX is a process of effectively selecting aptamers from different targets. A newly developed cell-based SELEX technique has been widely used in biomarker discovery, early diagnosis and targeted cancer therapy, particular at colorectal cancer (CRC). Combined with nanostructures, nano-aptamer-drug delivery system was constructed for drug delivery. Various nanostructures functionalized with aptamers are highly efficient and has been used in CRC therapeutic applications. In the present, we introduce a cell- SELEX technique, and summarize the potential application of aptamers as biomarkers in CRC diagnosis and therapy. And some characteristics of aptamer-targeted nanocarriers in CRC have been expatiated. The challenges and perspectives for cell-SELEX are also discussed.

Ursolic acid nanoparticles inhibit cervical cancer growth in vitro and in vivo via apoptosis induction

Cervical cancer is a cause of cancer death, making it one of the most common causes of death among women globally. Previously, a variety of studies have revealed the molecular mechanisms by which cervical cancer develops. However, there are still limitations in treatment for cervical cancer. Ursolic acid is a naturally derived pentacyclic triterpene acid, exhibiting broad anticancer effects. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have been known to better the bioavailability of drugs on intranasal administration compared with only drug solutions. Administration of ursolic acid nanoparticles is thought to be sufficient to lead to considerable suppression of cervical cancer progression. We loaded gold-ursolic acid into poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles to cervical cancer cell lines due to the properties of ursolic acid in altering cellular processes and the easier absorbance of nanoparticles. In addition, in this study, ursolic acid nanoparticles were administered to cervical cancer cells to find effective treatments for cervical cancer inhibition. In the present study, ELISA, western blotting, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry assays were carried out to calculate the molecular mechanism by which ursolic acid nanoparticles modulated cervical cancer progression. Data indicated that ursolic acid nanoparticles, indeed, significantly suppress cervial cancer cell proliferation, invasion and migration compared to the control group, and apoptosis was induced by ursolic acid nanoparticles in cervical cancer cells through activating caspases, p53 and suppressing anti-apoptosis-related signals. Furthermore, tumor size was reduced by treatment of ursolic acid nanoparticles in in vivo experiments. In conclusion, this study suggests that ursolic acid nanoparticles inhibited cervical cancer cell proliferation via apoptosis induction, which could be a potential target for future therapeutic strategy clinically.

Redox responsive albumin autogenic nanoparticles for the delivery of cancer drugs

The present study explores preparation and characterization of redox sensitive albumin autogenic nanoparticles (ANPs) for drug delivery applications. Human serum albumin nanoparticles are prepared by desolvation method. The particles are stabilized through self-crosslinking and no external stabilizers are involved in the preparation. ANPs are then subjected to Camptothecin (CPT) drug loading. Experiments on in vitro and in vivo release profile, cytotoxic and cytocompatability, hemocompatability, blood clearance, tracking and bio imaging are studied in detail. The redox sensitive and drug release properties of ANPs studied in the presence of glutathione. Results on the physical, chemical and instrumental characterization warrant the property of the nanoparticles. ANPs obtained in the present study is biocompatible, biodegradable, effectively entangle the chosen drug, release the drug in the controlled manner, sensitive to reducing environment, nil toxicity and appreciable uptake by cells. In the current scenario on the requirement of a drug carrier with redox sensitive property to encounter cancer cells, the results of the present study on albumin nanoparticles with redox sensitivity is smart and pave the way in the cancer therapeutics.

Folate-conjugated gold nanoparticle as a new nanoplatform for targeted cancer therapy

Conventional cancer treatment methods suffer from many limitations such as non-specificity and low efficacy in discrimination between healthy and cancer cells. Recent developments in nanotechnology have introduced novel and smart therapeutic nanomaterials that basically take advantage of various targeting approaches. Targeted nanomaterials selectively bind to the cancer cells and affect them with minor effects on healthy cells. Folic acid (folate) is an essential molecule in DNA synthesis pathway which is highly needed for cancer cell duplication. Some certain cancer cells overexpress folate receptors higher than normal cells, and this fact is the basis of folate targeting strategy. There are many publications reporting various folate conjugated nanomaterials among which folate-conjugated gold nanoparticles hold great promises in targeted cancer therapy. Gold nanoparticles have been identified as promising candidates for new cancer therapy modalities because of biocompatibility, easy synthesis and functionalization, chemo-physical stability, and optical tunable characteristics. In the last decade, there has been a significant explosion in gold nanoparticles research, with a rapid increase in publications related to the area of biomedicine. Although there are many reports published on "gold nanoparticles" and "folate targeting," there are a few reports on "folate-conjugated gold nanoparticles" in biomedical literature. This paper intends to review and illustrate the recent advances in biomedicine which have been designed on the basis of folate-conjugated gold nanoparticles.

Aptamer-Functionalized Nanoparticles as "Smart Bombs": The Unrealized Potential for Personalized Medicine and Targeted Cancer Treatment

Conventional delivery of chemotherapeutic agents leads to multiple systemic side effects and toxicity, limiting the doses that can be used. The development of targeted therapies to selectively deliver anti-cancer agents to tumor cells without damaging neighboring unaffected cells would lead to higher effective local doses and improved response rates. Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that bind to target molecules with both high affinity and high specificity. The high specificity exhibited by aptamers promotes localization and uptake by specific cell populations, such as tumor cells, and their conjugation to anti-cancer drugs has been explored for targeted therapy. Advancements in the development of polymeric nanoparticles allow anti-cancer drugs to be encapsulated in protective nonreactive shells for controlled drug delivery with reduced toxicity. The conjugation of aptamers to nanoparticle-based therapeutics may further enhance direct targeting and personalized medicine. Here we present how the combinatorial use of aptamer and nanoparticle technologies has the potential to develop "smart bombs" for targeted cancer treatment, highlighting recent pre-clinical studies demonstrating efficacy for the direct targeting to particular tumor cell populations. However, despite these pre-clinical promising results, there has been little progress in moving this technology to the bedside.

Oligonucleotide-based theranostic nanoparticles in cancer therapy

Theranostic approaches, combining the functionality of both therapy and imaging, have shown potential in cancer nanomedicine. Oligonucleotides such as small interfering RNA and microRNA, which are powerful therapeutic agents, have been effectively employed in theranostic systems against various cancers. Nanoparticles are used to deliver oligonucleotides into tumors by passive or active targeting while protecting the oligonucleotides from nucleases in the extracellular environment. The use of quantum dots, iron oxide nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles and tagging with contrast agents, like fluorescent dyes, optical or magnetic agents and various radioisotopes, has facilitated early detection of tumors and evaluation of therapeutic efficacy. In this article, we review the advantages of theranostic applications in cancer therapy and imaging, with special attention to oligonucleotide-based therapeutics.

Recent developments in curcumin and curcumin based polymeric materials for biomedical applications: A review

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a popular Indian spice that has been used for centuries in herbal medicines for the treatment of a variety of ailments such as rheumatism, diabetic ulcers, anorexia, cough and sinusitis. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) is the main curcuminoid present in turmeric and responsible for its yellow color. Curcumin has been shown to possess significant anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic, anticoagulant and anti-infective effects. This review summarizes and discusses recently published papers on the key biomedical applications of curcumin based materials. The highlighted studies in the review provide evidence of the ability of curcumin to show the significant vitro antioxidant, diabetic complication, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-cancer activities and detection of hypochlorous acid, wound healing, treatment of major depression, healing of paracentesis, and treatment of carcinoma and optical detection of pyrrole properties. Hydrophobic nature of this polyphenolic compound along with its rapid metabolism, physicochemical and biological instability contribute to its poor bioavailability. To redress these problems several approaches have been proposed like encapsulation of curcumin in liposomes and polymeric micelles, inclusion complex formation with cyclodextrin, formation of polymer-curcumin conjugates, etc.

Folate-conjugated nanoparticles as a potent therapeutic approach in targeted cancer therapy

The selective and efficient drug delivery to tumor cells can remarkably improve different cancer therapeutic approaches. There are several nanoparticles (NPs) which can act as a potent drug carrier for cancer therapy. However, the specific drug delivery to cancer cells is an important issue which should be considered before designing new NPs for in vivo application. It has been shown that cancer cells over-express folate receptor (FR) in order to improve their growth. As normal cells express a significantly lower levels of FR compared to tumor cells, it seems that folate molecules can be used as potent targeting moieties in different nanocarrier-based therapeutic approaches. Moreover, there is evidence which implies folate-conjugated NPs can selectively deliver anti-tumor drugs into cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we will discuss about the efficiency of different folate-conjugated NPs in cancer therapy.

Translational Nano-Medicines: Targeted Therapeutic Delivery for Cancer and Inflammatory Diseases

With the advent of novel and personalized therapeutic approaches for cancer and inflammatory diseases, there is a growing demand for designing delivery systems that circumvent some of the limitation with the current therapeutic strategies. Nanoparticle-based delivery of drugs has provided means of overcoming some of these limitations by ensuring the drug payload is directed to the disease site and insuring reduced off-target activity. This review highlights the challenges posed by the solid tumor microenvironment and the systemic limitations for effective chemotherapy. It then assesses the basis of nanoparticle-based targeting to the tumor tissues, which helps to overcome some of the microenvironmental and systemic limitations to therapy. We have extensively focused on some of the tumor multidrug resistance mechanisms (e.g., hypoxia and aerobic glycolysis) that contribute to the development of multidrug resistance and how targeted nano-approaches can be adopted to overcome drug resistance. Finally, we assess the combinatorial approach and how this platform has been used to develop multifunctional delivery systems for cancer therapy. The review article also focuses on inflammatory diseases, the biological therapies available for its treatment, and the concept of macrophage repolarization for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Cancer active targeting by nanoparticles: a comprehensive review of literature

PURPOSE

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, and thus, the scientific community has but great efforts to improve cancer management. Among the major challenges in cancer management is development of agents that can be used for early diagnosis and effective therapy. Conventional cancer management frequently lacks accurate tools for detection of early tumors and has an associated risk of serious side effects of chemotherapeutics. The need to optimize therapeutic ratio as the difference with which a treatment affects cancer cells versus healthy tissues lead to idea that it is needful to have a treatment that could act a the "magic bullet"-recognize cancer cells only. Nanoparticle platforms offer a variety of potentially efficient solutions for development of targeted agents that can be exploited for cancer diagnosis and treatment. There are two ways by which targeting of nanoparticles can be achieved, namely passive and active targeting. Passive targeting allows for the efficient localization of nanoparticles within the tumor microenvironment. Active targeting facilitates the active uptake of nanoparticles by the tumor cells themselves.

METHODS

Relevant English electronic databases and scientifically published original articles and reviews were systematically searched for the purpose of this review.

RESULTS

In this report, we present a comprehensive review of literatures focusing on the active targeting of nanoparticles to cancer cells, including antibody and antibody fragment-based targeting, antigen-based targeting, aptamer-based targeting, as well as ligand-based targeting.

CONCLUSION

To date, the optimum targeting strategy has not yet been announced, each has its own advantages and disadvantages even though a number of them have found their way for clinical application. Perhaps, a combination of strategies can be employed to improve the precision of drug delivery, paving the way for a more effective personalized therapy.

SIBLINGs and SPARC families: Their emerging roles in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer has a considerably poor prognosis with a 5-year survival probability of less than 5% when all stages are combined. Pancreatic cancer is characterized by its dense stroma, which is involved in the critical interplay with the tumor cells throughout tumor progression and furthermore, creates a barrier restricting efficient penetration of therapeutics. Alterations in a large number of genes are reflected by a limited number of signaling pathways, which are potential targets. Understanding more about the molecular basis of this devastating cancer type regarding tumor microenvironment, distinct subpopulations of cells, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and inflammation will lead to the development of various targeted therapies for controlling tumor growth and metastasis. In this complex scenario of pancreatic cancer, especially members of the “small integrin binding ligand N-linked glycoproteins” (SIBLINGs) and “secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine” (SPARC) families have emerged due to their prominent roles in properties including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, adhesion, migration, angiogenesis, wound repair and regulation of extracellular matrix remodeling. SIBLINGs consist of five members, which include osteopontin (OPN), bone sialoprotein, dentin matrix protein 1, dentin sialophosphoprotein and matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein. The SPARC family of modular extracellular proteins is comprised of SPARC/osteonectin (ON) and SPARC-like 1 (hevin); secreted modular calcium binding proteins; testicans and follistatin-like protein. In this review, we especially focus on OPN and ON, elaborating on their special and growing importance in pancreatic cancer diagnosis and prognosis.

Quantitative comparison of tumor delivery for multiple targeted nanoparticles simultaneously by multiplex ICP-MS

Given the rapidly expanding library of disease biomarkers and targeting agents, the number of unique targeted nanoparticles is growing exponentially. The high variability and expense of animal testing often makes it unfeasible to examine this large number of nanoparticles in vivo. This often leads to the investigation of a single formulation that performed best in vitro. However, nanoparticle performance in vivo depends on many variables, many of which cannot be adequately assessed with cell-based assays. To address this issue, we developed a lanthanide-doped nanoparticle method that allows quantitative comparison of multiple targeted nanoparticles simultaneously. Specifically, superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles with different targeting ligands were created, each with a unique lanthanide dopant. Following the simultaneous injection of the various SPIO compositions into tumor-bearing mice, inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy was used to quantitatively and orthogonally assess the concentration of each SPIO composition in serial blood and resected tumor samples.

New class of squalene-based releasable nanoassemblies of paclitaxel, podophyllotoxin, camptothecin and epothilone A

The present study reports the preparation of a novel class of squalene conjugates with paclitaxel, podophyllotoxin, camptothecin and epothilone A. The obtained compounds are characterized by a squalene tail that makes them able to self-assemble in water, and by a drug unit connected via a disulfide-containing linker to secure the release inside the cell. All the obtained compounds were effectively able to self-assemble and to release the parent drug in vitro. Disulfide-containing paclitaxel-squalene derivative showed a similar biological activity when compared to the free drug. Immunofluorescence assay shows that this squalene conjugate enters A549 cells and stain microtubule bundles. The results described herein pave the way for different classes of squalene-based releasable nanoassemblies.

Passive targeting of nanoparticles to cancer: A comprehensive review of the literature

Cancer remains the one of the most common causes of mortality in humans; thus, cancer treatment is currently a major focus of investigation. Researchers worldwide have been searching for the optimal treatment (the 'magic bullet') that will selectively target cancer, without afflicting significant morbidity. Recent advances in cancer nanotechnology have raised exciting opportunities for specific drug delivery by an emerging class of nanotherapeutics that may be targeted to neoplastic cells, thereby offering a major advantage over conventional chemotherapeutic agents. There are two ways by which targeting of nanoparticles may be achieved, namely passive and active targeting. The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive review of the literature focusing on passive targeting.

Nanomedicine strategies for drug delivery to the ear

The highly compartmentalized anatomy of the ear aggravates drug delivery, which is used to combat hearing-related diseases. Novel nanosized drug vehicles are thought to overcome the limitations of classic approaches. In this article, we summarize the nanotechnology-based efforts involving nano-objects, such as liposomes, polymersomes, lipidic nanocapsules and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles, as well as nanocoatings of implants to provide an efficient means for drug transfer in the ear. Modern strategies do not only enhance drug delivery efficiency, in the inner ear these vector systems also aim for specific uptake into hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons. These novel peptide-mediated strategies for specific delivery are reviewed in this article. Finally, the biosafety of these vector systems is still an outstanding issue, since long-term application to the ear has not yet been assessed.

Imaging macrophages with nanoparticles

Nanomaterials have much to offer, not only in deciphering innate immune cell biology and tracking cells, but also in advancing personalized clinical care by providing diagnostic and prognostic information, quantifying treatment efficacy and designing better therapeutics. This Review presents different types of nanomaterial, their biological properties and their applications for imaging macrophages in human diseases, including cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, aortic aneurysm, diabetes and other conditions. We anticipate that future needs will include the development of nanomaterials that are specific for immune cell subsets and can be used as imaging surrogates for nanotherapeutics. New in vivo imaging clinical tools for noninvasive macrophage quantification are thus ultimately expected to become relevant to predicting patients' clinical outcome, defining treatment options and monitoring responses to therapy.

Targeted therapy using nanotechnology: focus on cancer

Recent advances in nanotechnology and biotechnology have contributed to the development of engineered nanoscale materials as innovative prototypes to be used for biomedical applications and optimized therapy. Due to their unique features, including a large surface area, structural properties, and a long circulation time in blood compared with small molecules, a plethora of nanomaterials has been developed, with the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of several diseases, in particular by improving the sensitivity and recognition ability of imaging contrast agents and by selectively directing bioactive agents to biological targets. Focusing on cancer, promising nanoprototypes have been designed to overcome the lack of specificity of conventional chemotherapeutic agents, as well as for early detection of precancerous and malignant lesions. However, several obstacles, including difficulty in achieving the optimal combination of physicochemical parameters for tumor targeting, evading particle clearance mechanisms, and controlling drug release, prevent the translation of nanomedicines into therapy. In spite of this, recent efforts have been focused on developing functionalized nanoparticles for delivery of therapeutic agents to specific molecular targets overexpressed on different cancer cells. In particular, the combination of targeted and controlled-release polymer nanotechnologies has resulted in a new programmable nanotherapeutic formulation of docetaxel, namely BIND-014, which recently entered Phase II clinical testing for patients with solid tumors. BIND-014 has been developed to overcome the limitations facing delivery of nanoparticles to many neoplasms, and represents a validated example of targeted nanosystems with the optimal biophysicochemical properties needed for successful tumor eradication.