Emerging role of Chlamydia and Chlamydia-like organisms in adverse pregnancy outcomes

Molecular detection of Chlamydiales organisms in ruminant abortions in Brazil

Infections caused by the Chlamydiales order are highly prevalent worldwide and have a well-known association with reproductive and non-reproductive disorders in livestock and humans. This study aimed to identify Chlamydiales organisms in ruminant abortions using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in samples collected from three Brazilian states: Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo. The Chlamydiales order was found in 7.8% (18/231) of the samples, including 10 bovine and 8 ovine samples. For the Chlamydiaceae family, the positivity was 2.2% (5/231), with detection in one bovine and two ovine fetuses from Rio Grande do Sul, one ovine fetus from Santa Catarina, and one bovine from São Paulo. Chlamydiales positive samples detection with Ct value lower than 35 were subjected to Sanger sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, which revealed the presence of an organism belonging to the Waddliaceae family in a bovine fetus and two Simkaneceae bacteria in ovine fetuses. This study is the first report of Chlamydia-like organisms in ruminant abortions in Brazil, highlighting the importance of conducting further surveys to evaluate their role as abortifacient pathogens in the country.

Role of route of delivery on Chlamydia abortus vaccine-induced immune responses and genital tract immunity in mice

We investigated if the efficacy of a Chlamydia abortus (Cab) subunit vaccine is influenced by route of administration. Thus, female CBA/J mice were immunized either by mucosal or systemic routes with Vibrio cholerae ghost (VCG)-based vaccine expressing T and B cell epitopes of Cab polymorphic membrane protein (Pmp) 18D, termed rVCG-Pmp18.3. Vaccine evaluation revealed that all routes of vaccine delivery induced a Th1-type antibody response after a prime boost or three-dose immunization regimen. Also, the intranasal and rectal mucosal and intramuscular systemic routes induced cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies against homologous and heterologous Cab strains. Irrespective of the route of immunization, the vaccine elicited a Th1-type cytokine response (IFN-γ/IL-4 >1) in immunized mice. Analysis of reduction in genital Cab burden as an index of protection showed that immunization induced substantial degrees of protection against infection, irrespective of route of delivery with the intranasal and rectal mucosal routes showing superior levels of protection 12 days postchallenge. Furthermore, there was correlation between the humoral and cellular immune response and protection was associated with the Cab-specific serum IgG antibody avidity and IFN-γ. Thus, while route of administration impacts vaccine efficacy, the rVCG-Pmp18.3-induced protective immunity against Cab respiratory infection can be accomplished by both mucosal and systemic immunization.

Uterine Microbiota and Bisphenols: Novel Influencers in Reproductive Health

Infertility affects 8-12% of couples worldwide, and 30-75% of preclinical pregnancy losses are due to a failure during the implantation process. Exposure to endocrine disruptors, like bisphenols, among others, has been associated with the increase in infertility observed in the past decades. An increase in infertility has correlated with exposure to endocrine disruptors like bisphenols. The uterus harbors its own microbiota, and changes in this microbiota have been linked to several gynecological conditions, including reproductive failure. There are no studies on the effects of bisphenols on the uterine-microbiota composition, but some inferences can be gleaned by looking at the gut. Bisphenols can alter the gut microbiota, and the molecular mechanism by which gut microbiota regulates intestinal permeability involves Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and tight junction (TJ) proteins. TJs participate in embryo implantation in the uterus, but bisphenol exposure disrupts the expression and localization of TJ proteins. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge on the microbiota of the female reproductive tract (FRT), its association with different reproductive diseases-particularly reproductive failure-the effects of bisphenols on microbiota composition and reproductive health, and the molecular mechanisms regulating uterine-microbiota interactions crucial for embryo implantation. This review also highlights existing knowledge gaps and outlines research needs for future risk assessments regarding the effects of bisphenols on reproduction.

The global prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection in pregnant women: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections with severe detrimental effects on pregnant women and fetuses. CTGI increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy, exogenous fetal infection, and respiratory complications such as bronchitis and pneumonia. According to the different published reports, this systematic review and meta-analysis study aimed to evaluate the global prevalence of CTGI in pregnant women.

METHODS

Initial searching was applied using valid databases of PubMed, ScienceDirect, Embase, WoS, Scopus, and Google Scholar using MeSH keywords (by October 2023). Following duplicate detection and data exclusion, the Title and Abstract of other remaining papers were evaluated (primary screening). Full-texts of selected papers were assessed (secondary screening) and eligible studies were included for data extraction (total No of investigated pregnant women and the number of positive cases). The PRISMA approach was used for paper selection, and the quality assessment was determined according to the STROBE checklist. Data meta-analysis, heterogeneity, publication bias, and the factors affecting heterogeneity index were analyzed using CMA software. The findings were presented in the Forest Plot diagram and Static tables. Besides, heterogeneity was analyzed using I2 test and diffusion bias was demonstrated in Funnel Plot.

RESULTS

Among 1061 selected articles, 44 eligible investigations were enrolled for meta-analysis. The global prevalence of chlamydia trachomatis genital infection (CTGI) was found 8.4% (95% CI 5.8 - 12.1). Meta-regression analysis showed that following the increase in sample size and year of paper publication, the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection in pregnant women decreased significantly (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The global prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection in pregnant women is considerably influenced by some interfering factors including Age, Socioeconomic status, Geographic region, and Individual behaviors. Thus, the implementation of more comprehensive health programs for prevention, screening, and treatment seems necessary, especially for high-risk pregnant cases.

A potential role for chlamydial infection in rheumatoid arthritis development

OBJECTIVES

To assess the relationship between self-reported and serological evidence of prior chlamydial infection, rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-related autoantibodies and risk of RA development.

METHODS

This is a nested study within a prospective Swiss-based cohort including all first-degree relatives of RA patients (RA-FDR) who answered a questionnaire on past chlamydial infections. Primary outcome was systemic autoimmunity associated with RA (RA autoimmunity) defined as positivity for anti-citrullinated peptide antibodies (ACPA) and/or rheumatoid factor (RF). Secondary outcomes were high levels of RA autoimmunity, RA-associated symptoms and RA autoimmunity, and subsequent seropositive RA diagnosis. We conducted a nested case-control analysis by measuring the serological status against the major outer membrane protein of Chlamydia trachomatis. We replicated our analysis in an independent USA-based RA-FDR cohort.

RESULTS

Among 1231 RA-FDRs, 168 (13.6%) developed RA autoimmunity. Prevalence of self-reported chlamydial infection was significantly higher in individuals with RA autoimmunity compared with controls (17.9% vs 9.8%, odds ratio [OR] = 2.00; 95% CI: 1.27, 3.09; P < 0.01). This association remained significant after adjustments (OR = 1.91; 95% CI: 1.20, 2.95). Stronger effect sizes were observed in later stages of RA development. There was a similar trend between a positive C. trachomatis serology and high levels of RA autoimmunity (OR = 3.05; 95% CI: 1.10, 8.46; P = 0.032). In the replication cohort, there were significant associations between chlamydial infection and RF positivity and incident RA, but not anti-CCP positivity.

CONCLUSION

Self-reported chlamydial infections are associated with elevated RA autoimmunity in at-risk individuals. The differing association of chlamydial infections and ACPA/RF between cohorts will need to be explored in future studies, but is consistent with a role of mucosal origin of RA-related autoimmunity.

Preconception Chlamydia trachomatis seropositivity and fecundability, live birth, and adverse pregnancy outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To study the impact of preconception Chlamydia trachomatis seropositivity on fecundability, live birth, and pregnancy loss and to assess the effect of low-dose aspirin therapy (81 mg/day) on live birth and pregnancy loss.

DESIGN

Preconception cohort study conducted using data and specimens from the Effects of Aspirin in Gestation and Reproduction study-a randomized placebo-controlled trial.

PATIENTS

A total of 1,228 individuals with proven fecundity and a history of 1-2 pregnancy losses.

EXPOSURE

Preconception C. trachomatis seropositivity determined using an enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay-based synthetic peptide assay at baseline.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Time-to pregnancy (fecundability) was defined as number of menstrual cycles to beta human chorionic gonadrotropin-detected pregnancy; live birth status was determined from medical record abstraction; pregnancy loss was defined as any loss post positive beta human chorionic gonadrotropin test.

RESULTS

After adjusting for confounders (baseline demographic and reproductive history variables), C. trachomatis seropositivity (n = 134/1228, 11%) was associated with a reduced live birth likelihood (relative risk [RR]: 0.77, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.59, 0.99) and an increased risk of pregnancy loss (RR: 1.16, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.29), but was not associated with fecundability (fecundability odds ratio: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.71, 1.20). Among a subset of C. trachomatis seropositive individuals with chronic inflammation indicated by increased C-reactive protein levels ≥1.95 but ≤10 mg/L (n = 50/134, 37.3%), low-dose aspirin therapy improved live birth rates (RR: 1.68, 95% CI: 0.96, 2.92) and reduced the risk of pregnancy loss (RR: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.65, 1.10). However, the sample size reduced precision.

CONCLUSIONS

Prior exposure to C. trachomatis among women with a history of pregnancy loss may impact risk of pregnancy loss. Our results indicate the need for future studies exploring mechanisms by which C. trachomatis may influence long-term reproductive function, because this may identify treatments to improve outcomes among those with a history of infection.

Unveiling the truth: Pathogen infections linked to miscarriage: A STROBE-Compliant Mendelian randomization study

Miscarriage represents a prevalent yet insufficiently studied adverse pregnancy outcome. The definitive causal links between various pathogens and miscarriage remain to be established. To investigate the causal connections between pathogen infections and miscarriage, we utilized a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. We sourced genome-wide association studies data on pathogen infections from the UK Biobank, which included serological markers for infectious diseases and comprehensive whole-genome genetic information from approximately 10,000 individuals. Additionally, genome-wide association studies data on miscarriages were collected from 3 distinct European populations for our analysis. The MR analysis was primarily conducted using the inverse variance weighted method, complemented by Bayesian weighted MR and the weighted median method for robustness. To ensure the reliability of our findings, we performed heterogeneity and pleiotropy tests, leave-one-out sensitivity analyses, and a meta-analysis. Our extensive research has identified a causal association between miscarriage and infections by several human herpesviruses (HHV-1, HHV-3, HHV-4, HHV-6, and HHV-7), polyomaviruses (BK, JC, and Merkel cell polyomaviruses), and Chlamydia trachomatis (inverse variance weighted, P < .05). Notably, a meta-analysis of the integrated data highlighted the particularly high accuracy and consistency of the association with Merkel cell polyomavirus. Our MR analysis has clarified the causal relationships between specific pathogen infections and miscarriage, providing a critical foundation for the prevention and treatment of this adverse pregnancy outcome.

Performance of Cepheid CT/NG Xpert rapid PCR test for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae at a tertiary care centre in North India

INTRODUCTION

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) are prevalent causes of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) globally, leading to substantial morbidity and transmission risks.

METHODS

This study evaluates the diagnostic efficacy of Xpert CT/NG compared to conventional PCR and culture methods in 121 patients at a tertiary care centre in North India.

RESULTS

Xpert CT/NG demonstrated high sensitivity (85.8%) and specificity (96.3%) outperforming conventional PCR. Xpert CT/NG's rapidity and accuracy underscore its utility in timely diagnosis and control of STIs.

CONCLUSION

As sexually transmitted infections pose a serious health concern implementation of such rapid diagnostic methods/point of care testing methods are to be implemented for early diagnosis.

Pharmacophore modelling based virtual screening and molecular dynamics identified the novel inhibitors and drug targets against Waddlia chondrophila

Waddlia chondrophila is a possible cause of fetal death in humans. This Chlamydia-related bacterium is an emergent pathogen that causes human miscarriages and ruminant abortions, which results in financial losses. Despite the years of efforts, the underlying mechanism behind the pathogenesis of W. chondrophila is little known which hindered the development of novel treatment options. In the framework of current study, computational approaches were used to identify novel inhibitors (phytocompounds) and drug targets against W. chondrophila. At first, RNA polymerase sigma factor SigA and 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid transferase were identified through subtractive proteomics pipeline. Afterwards, extensive docking and simulation analyses were conducted to optimize potentially novel phytocompounds by assessing their binding affinity to target proteins. A 100ns molecular dynamics simulation well complimented the compound's binding affinity and indicated strong stability of predicted compounds at the docked site. The calculation of binding free energies with MMGBSA corroborated the significant binding affinity between phytocompounds and target protein binding sites. The proposed phytocompounds may be a viable treatment option for patients infected with W. chondrophila; however, further research is required to ensure their safety.

Architecture, Function, Regulation, and Evolution of α-Glucans Metabolic Enzymes in Prokaryotes

Bacteria have acquired sophisticated mechanisms for assembling and disassembling polysaccharides of different chemistry. α-d-Glucose homopolysaccharides, so-called α-glucans, are the most widespread polymers in nature being key components of microorganisms. Glycogen functions as an intracellular energy storage while some bacteria also produce extracellular assorted α-glucans. The classical bacterial glycogen metabolic pathway comprises the action of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and glycogen synthase, whereas extracellular α-glucans are mostly related to peripheral enzymes dependent on sucrose. An alternative pathway of glycogen biosynthesis, operating via a maltose 1-phosphate polymerizing enzyme, displays an essential wiring with the trehalose metabolism to interconvert disaccharides into polysaccharides. Furthermore, some bacteria show a connection of intracellular glycogen metabolism with the genesis of extracellular capsular α-glucans, revealing a relationship between the storage and structural function of these compounds. Altogether, the current picture shows that bacteria have evolved an intricate α-glucan metabolism that ultimately relies on the evolution of a specific enzymatic machinery. The structural landscape of these enzymes exposes a limited number of core catalytic folds handling many different chemical reactions. In this Review, we present a rationale to explain how the chemical diversity of α-glucans emerged from these systems, highlighting the underlying structural evolution of the enzymes driving α-glucan bacterial metabolism.

Seroepidemiology of Treponema pallidum, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum in fertility treatment-seeking patients in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

BACKGROUND

Several genital pathogens affect fertility. The study estimated the seroprevalence of Treponema pallidum, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Mycoplasma hominis and identify specific factors associated with exposure to at least one of these pathogens in patients seeking fertility treatment in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

METHODS

A seroepidemiological survey was conducted in a major fertility clinic in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Serum samples were screened for eight immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, and IgA) against T. pallidum, U. urealyticum, and M. hominis using enzyme-linked immunoassays. Factors associated with seropositivity to at least one of the pathogens were investigated.

RESULTS

The study surveyed 308 patients seeking fertility treatment (mean age: 36.1 ± 6.8 years). Most patients were female (88.0%), 24.9% had at least one chronic comorbidity, 19.3% had a previous genital infection, and 68.1% had been diagnosed with infertility for ≥ 6 months. Ig seroprevalence of T. pallidum (IgG: 3.0%, IgM: 3.2%), U. urealyticum (IgG: 2.6%, IgM: 2.0%), and M. hominis (IgG: 33.9%) was 6.4%, 4.6%, and 49.0%, respectively. Nearly one quarter (23.0%) and one decile (9.2%) of the patients exhibited evidence of ongoing infection (IgM seropositivity) or recent infection (IgA seropositivity) with M. hominis, respectively. Overall, 53.0% of the patients were seropositive for at least one of the screened immunoglobulins. Patients with an education level of secondary schooling or below (66.2%) or those who were unemployed (61.1%) had a higher seroprevalence of IgG antibodies compared with patients with college or higher-level education (48.4%) or those who were employed (48.1%) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Exposure to T. pallidum or U. urealyticum was relatively low, whereas that to M. hominis was common in the surveyed patients. Enhanced awareness and screening programmes for genital pathogens are crucial to prevent and control the transmission of infections and reduce the growing burden of infertility.

Role of infections in miscarriage

Infections with certain pathogens can lead to perinatal complications. Several infections have been also associated with an increased likelihood of miscarriage. This manuscript discusses these infections, their modes of transmission, the evidence linking them to an increased risk of miscarriage, and whether prevention or treatment strategies are available.

Global burden of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy from 1990 to 2019

BACKGROUND

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a widespread female public problem worldwide. And it could lead to infertility, preterm labor, chronic pelvic pain, and ectopic pregnancy (EP) among reproductive-aged women. This study aimed to assess the global burden and trends as well as the chaning correlation between PID and EP in reproductive-aged women from 1990 to 2019.

METHODS

The data of PID and EP among reproductive-aged women (15 to 49 years old) were extracted from the Global Burden of Disease study 2019. The disease burden was assessed by calculating the case numbers and age-standardized rates (ASR). The changing trends and correlation were evaluated by calculating the estimated annual percentage changes (EAPC) and Pearson's correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

In 2019, the ASR of PID prevalence was 53.19 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC: - 0.50), while the ASR of EP incidence was 342.44 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC: - 1.15). Globally, PID and EP burdens changed with a strong positive correlation (Cor = 0.89) globally from 1990 to 2019. In 2019, Western Sub-Saharan Africa, Australasia, and Central Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest ASR of PID prevalence, and Oceania, Eastern Europe, and Southern Latin America had the highest ASR of EP incidence. Only Western Europe saw significant increasing PID trends, while Eastern Europe and Western Europe saw increasing EP trends. The highest correlations between PID and EP burden were observed in Burkina Faso, Laos, and Bhutan. General negative correlations between the socio-demographic index and the ASR of PID prevalence and the ASR of EP incidence were observed at the national levels.

CONCLUSION

PID and EP continue to be public health burdens with a strong correlation despite slightly decreasing trends detected in ASRs globally. Effective interventions and strategies should be established according to the local situation by policymakers.

Spontaneous Aberrant Bodies Formation in Human Pneumocytes Infected with Estrella lausannensis

Estrella lausannensis, a Chlamydia-related bacterium isolated from a Spanish river, is considered as a possible emerging human pathogen. Indeed, it was recently demonstrated to multiply in human macrophages, resisting oxidative burst and causing a strong cytopathic effect. In addition, a preliminary study highlighted a correlation between antibody response to E. lausannensis and pneumonia in children. To clarify the pathogenic potential of these bacteria, we infected a human pneumocyte cell line with E. lausannensis and assessed its replication and cytopathic effect using quantitative real-time PCR and immunofluorescence, as well as confocal and electron microscopy. Our results demonstrated that E. lausannensis enters and replicates rapidly in human pneumocytes, and that it causes a prompt lysis of the host cells. Furthermore, we reported the spontaneous formation of aberrant bodies, a form associated with persistence in Chlamydiae, suggesting that E. lausannensis infection could cause chronic disorders in humans.

Endometrial responses to bacterial and viral infection: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

The endometrium is a highly dynamic tissue that undergoes dramatic proliferation and differentiation monthly in order to prepare the uterus for implantation and pregnancy. Intrauterine infection and inflammation are being increasingly recognized as potential causes of implantation failure and miscarriage, as well as obstetric complications later in gestation. However, the mechanisms by which the cells of the endometrium respond to infection remain understudied and recent progress is slowed in part owing to similar overlapping studies being performed in different species.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The aim of this scoping review is to systematically summarize all published studies in humans and laboratory animals that have investigated the innate immune sensing and response of the endometrium to bacteria and viruses, and the signaling mechanisms involved. This will enable gaps in our knowledge to be identified to inform future studies.

SEARCH METHODS

The Cochrane Library, Ovid Embase/Medline, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases were searched using a combination of controlled and free text terms for uterus/endometrium, infections, and fertility to March 2022. All primary research papers that have reported on endometrial responses to bacterial and viral infections in the context of reproduction were included. To focus the scope of the current review, studies in domesticated animals, included bovine, porcine, caprine, feline, and canine species were excluded.

OUTCOMES

This search identified 42 728 studies for screening and 766 full-text studies were assessed for eligibility. Data was extracted from 76 studies. The majority of studies focused on endometrial responses to Escherichia coli and Chlamydia trachomatis, with some studies of Neisseria gonorrhea, Staphylococcus aureus, and the Streptococcus family. Endometrial responses have only been studied in response to three groups of viruses thus far: HIV, Zika virus, and the herpesvirus family. For most infections, both cellular and animal models have been utilized in vitro and in vivo, focusing on endometrial production of cytokines, chemokines, and antiviral/antimicrobial factors, and the expression of innate immune signaling pathway mediators after infection. This review has identified gaps for future research in the field as well as highlighted some recent developments in organoid systems and immune cell co-cultures that offer new avenues for studying endometrial responses to infection in more physiologically relevant models that could accelerate future findings in this area.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

This scoping review provides an overarching summary and benchmark of the current state of research on endometrial innate immune responses to bacterial and viral infection. This review also highlights some exciting recent developments that enable future studies to be designed to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms utilized by the endometrium to respond to infection and their downstream effects on uterine function.

A Nationwide Survey on Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in Health Facilities in China

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the clinical laboratory capacity for the diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) in China to provide recommendations to improve the diagnostic capacity and quality of this clinically important sexually transmitted disease.

METHODS

An electronic questionnaire-based cross-sectional, survey study was conducted by the National Center for STD Control among different types of healthcare facilities in China from July to December 2021.

RESULTS

The surveyed laboratory facilities were located in 332 cities in 31 provinces in China. A total of 4640 records from clinical laboratories were included in the data set for the final analysis. Less than half of the laboratories (41.6% [1931 of 4640]) performed the CT diagnostic test; of these, 721 laboratories (15.5% [721 of 4640]) carried out nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) methods, and 1318 laboratories (28.4% [1318 of 4640]) performed antigen-based immunochromatographic assays. Most laboratories were equipped with biological safety cabinets (93.7% [4348 of 4640]), 49.2% (2283 of 4640) were equipped with fully automated nucleic acid extractors, and 55.2% (2560 of 4640) were equipped with polymerase chain reaction amplification instruments. The laboratories from Southern China or third-class hospitals (i.e., the highest rated hospitals) had the highest proportion using NAATs to diagnose CT among the surveyed health facilities.

CONCLUSIONS

Advancing laboratories to use NAAT to detect CT should be phased step-by-step by different areas and levels of hospitals according to the current situation.

The role of chlamydiales in adverse pregnancy outcome: a community-based nested case-control study

OBJECTIVES

Over the last decades, the Chlamydiales order has expanded and a new group of Chlamydia-related bacteria has emerged, covering species like Waddlia (W.) chondrophila associated with bovine abortion. However, it is unknown whether they compromise human reproduction like Chlamydia (C.) trachomatis. We therefore aimed to investigate the association between vaginal colonisation of selected species of the Chlamydiales order with spontaneous abortion, preterm birth, and, animal exposure.

METHODS

Pregnant women were enrolled at the nuchal translucency scan or when admitted for suspected miscarriage at Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark. Cases were defined as spontaneous abortion <22 weeks and preterm birth <37 weeks. Controls were defined as term birth ≥37 weeks. Vaginal samples from 1203 women were assessed using C.trachomatis, W.chondrophila and pan-Chlamydiales specific real-time PCRs targeting the 16S rRNA gene.

RESULTS

A total of 1120 women of primarily Caucasian ancestry were enrolled, including 193 spontaneous abortions, 88 preterm births, and 839 term births. After sequencing for verification, the prevalence of Chlamydiales was 3/193 (1.6%, 95%CI 0.5-4.8) in women experiencing spontaneous abortion, 2/88 (2.3%, 95%CI 0.6-8.9) in women with preterm birth, and 20/839 (2.4%, 95%CI 1.6-3.7) in women giving birth at term. Thus, Chlamydiales infection was neither significantly associated with spontaneous abortion (OR 0.68, 95%CI 0.15-2.01) nor preterm birth (OR 1.02, 95%CI 0.15-3.60) compared to women giving birth at term. Amplicons from the pan-Chlamydiales assay revealed close sequence homology and were primarily identified as uncultured Chlamydiales bacteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Among Danish pregnant women, the prevalence of Chlamydiales was low and not associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Association between history of miscarriage and autism spectrum disorder

This case-control study was designed to examine the association between different types of miscarriage history and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and determine whether the number of miscarriage history affects the risk of ASD. All of 2274 children with ASD and 1086 healthy controls were recruited. Sociodemographic and prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal characteristics were compared between the two groups. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were applied to investigate association between miscarriage history and ASD. Stratified analyses based on sex and types of miscarriages were similarly performed. History of miscarriage was potential risk factors for ASD ([aOR] = 2.919; 95% [CI] = 2.327-3.517). Stratified analyses revealed that induced ([aOR] = 2.763, 95% [CI] = 2.259-3.379) and spontaneous miscarriage history ([aOR] = 3.341, 95% [CI] = 1.939-4.820) were associated with high risk of ASD, respectively. A sex-biased ratio in the risk of ASD was observed between females ([aOR] = 3.049, 95% [CI] = 2.153-4.137) and males ([aOR] = 2.538, 95% [CI] = 1.978-3.251). Stratified analysis of induced miscarriage history revealed that only iatrogenic miscarriage history was associated with an increased risk ASD ([aOR] = 2.843, 95% [CI] = 1.534-4.268). Also, multiple spontaneous miscarriage histories ([aOR] = 1.836, 95% [CI] = 1.252-2.693) were associated with higher autism risk than one spontaneous miscarriages history ([aOR] = 3.016, 95% [CI] = 1.894-4.174). In conclusion, miscarriage history is related to an increased risk for ASD in offspring, which is affected by the types of miscarriage and sex of the fetus.

First evidence for the existence of Simkania negevensis in the genitalia of human females

INTRODUCTION

Simkania negevensis has been linked to some respiratory and non-respiratory diseases. However, there is still a serious lack of clinical investigations that attempt to determine possible body sites that could be inhabited by this microorganism and evaluate its true pathogenic capacity. The goal of this study was to examine the potential presence of Simkania and its prevalence in the genital tract of human adult females.

METHODS

Lower vaginal swabs from 169 Jordanian adult females who attended Obstetrics and Gynecology clinic were collected and tested for Simkania DNA by PCR method.

RESULTS

The presence of bacterial nucleic acids was confirmed in the genital system of adult females with an overall prevalence of 24.26% (41/169). Interestingly, the positivity of Simkania DNA was significantly higher in women of reproductive age than females of non-reproductive age (28.03% versus 10.81%; p≤0.05). Moreover, the presence of S. negevensis was evident in approximately 43% of females suffering from vaginal itching and/or abnormal discharge, exhibiting about two-fold increase in the positivity rate compared to detection rates assessed for women who attended the clinic for routine checkup or menstruation problems. However, the current work failed to find any link between the bacterial agent and spontaneous abortion (miscarriage).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed for the first time the presence of S. negevensis in the genitalia of human females. These novel data could provide a basis to clarify the exact role of S. negevensis in the female genitalia and its potential involvement in genital system disorders.

Gestationally dependent immune organization at the maternal-fetal interface

The immune system and placenta have a dynamic relationship across gestation to accommodate fetal growth and development. High-resolution characterization of this maternal-fetal interface is necessary to better understand the immunology of pregnancy and its complications. We developed a single-cell framework to simultaneously immuno-phenotype circulating, endovascular, and tissue-resident cells at the maternal-fetal interface throughout gestation, discriminating maternal and fetal contributions. Our data reveal distinct immune profiles across the endovascular and tissue compartments with tractable dynamics throughout gestation that respond to a systemic immune challenge in a gestationally dependent manner. We uncover a significant role for the innate immune system where phagocytes and neutrophils drive temporal organization of the placenta through remarkably diverse populations, including PD-L1⁺ subsets having compartmental and early gestational bias. Our approach and accompanying datasets provide a resource for additional investigations into gestational immunology and evoke a more significant role for the innate immune system in establishing the microenvironment of early pregnancy.

A predicting model of child-bearing-aged women' spontaneous abortion by co-infections of TORCH and reproductive tract

To develop a predicting model of child-bearing-aged women' spontaneous abortion (SA) by co-infections of TORCH and reproductive tract, in order to provide a reference tool for accurately predicting the risk of SA and guide the early prevention, diagnosis and treatment of SA. A prospective cohort study was designed based on 218 958 child-bearing-aged women following up in Hebei province in China from 2010 to 2017. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to select candidate predictive variables. Fisher's discriminant analysis was performed to build a predictive model, and the validity of the model was evaluated. The incidence rate of SA was 2.4%. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that age (OR = 3.507), adverse pregnancy history (OR = 1.509), co-infections status of Candida and HBsAg (OR_{Candida positive×HBsAg negative}  = 4.091, OR_{Candida negative×HBsAg positive}  = 3.327, and OR_{Candida positive×HBsAg positive}  = 13.762), and co-infections status of HBsAg, Rubella (IgG) and CMV (IgG) (OR_{HBs-Ag negative×Rubella (IgG) negative×CMV (IgG) positive}  = 1.789, OR_{HBs-Ag positive×Rubella (IgG) positive×CMV (IgG) negative}  = 3.809, and OR_{HBsAg positive×Rubella (IgG) positive×CMV (IgG) positive}  = 11.919) were the independent predictors of SA. The total discriminant rate reached 91%, with 82% of the sensitivity and 91% of the specificity. The predicting model of child-bearing-aged women' SA by co-infections status has a good performance. The co-infection status of TORCH and reproductive tract are suggested to be considered in pre-pregnancy physical examination.

TORCH, Anti-cardiolepin, and Anti-phospholipids in Women with Repeated Miscarriage in Mosul City

  Abstract   Background and Objective: The present study aimed to identify a connection between common viral infections and women who had repeatedly miscarriages. Material and Methods: This study is a retrospective study which has been carried out on 2010 records in Mosul city/Iraq, and the patients were all women of child-bearing age (20-35 years old). All of the women had suffered from an abortion at least once before. The target viruses in charge for this study include; Toxoplasma gundi, Cytomegalovirus, Rubella virus, and Herpes virus. Results and Conclusion: The analysis is based on the detection of the anti-bodies which confirmed a negative correlation between antibodies level and active viral infection, together with no clear association between the presence of active infectious status and miscarriage. Additionally, only few positive cases for each individual patient were positive for viral infection.  Hence, the outcome confirmed no clear association between presence of infectious agent and repeated miscarriage. Nonetheless, rubella and cytomegalovirus have shown the highest contribution in this regard.

Seroprevalence of antibodies to Chlamydia abortus and risk factors in cattle from Villavicencio, Colombia

Chlamydia abortus is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacterium, responsible for abortions and reproductive problems. The disease has a high zoonotic potential and causes great economic losses in ruminant farmers. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 514 cattle from 24 farms of Villavicencio, Colombia. The blood samples were collected from each individual animal and analyzed by Indirect Elisa for immunoglobulin G (IgG) in blood serum (Idexx Chlamydiosis total Ab test). A serum was considered positive when the optical density (OD) of the sample was ≥30% of that of the positive control serum. Data on potential risk factors associated with the disease were collected through a questionnaire in each farm and analyzed. The individual and herd prevalence was estimated. A risk factors analysis was performed through univariate and multivariable using the software SPSS version 20. The animal level seroprevalence was found to be 47.1% and the herd 91.6%. The prevalence in cattle aged 0-1, 1-3 and >4 years was 23.8%; 31.4% and 51.4% respectively. The risk factors associated with the prevalence of disease were female sex (OR = 2.102 CI: 1.066-4.144), age older than 4 years (OR = 2.707 CI: 1.667-4.394), presence of canines on the farm (OR = 2.556 CI: 1.560-4.189) and retention of placenta (OR = 2.678 CI: 1.670-4.295). A high prevalence was identified, suggesting natural infection where the pathogen could be transmitted to humans at the animal-human interface.

Vaginal Atopobium is Associated with Spontaneous Abortion in the First Trimester: a Prospective Cohort Study in China

Spontaneous abortion (SA) has received more and more attention in light of its increasing incidence. However, the causes and pathogenesis of SA remain largely unknown, especially for those without any pathological features. In this study, we characterized the vaginal microbiota diversity and composition of pregnant women in their first trimester and evaluated the association between the vaginal microbiota and SA before 12 weeks of gestation. Participants' bacterial profiles were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing in the V3-V4 regions at 5-8 weeks of gestation. A total of 48 patients with SA at 12 weeks of gestation were included as the study group, while 116 women with normal pregnancies (NPs) were included as a control group. The results indicated that the richness of the vaginal microbiome in SA patients was higher (Chao1, P < 0.05) and different in composition relative to that of women with NPs (unweighted UniFrac, R = 0.15, P < 0.01; binary Jaccard, R = 0.15, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the genus Apotobium was significantly enriched in SA patients. An extreme gradient-boosting (XGBoost) analysis was able to classify Atopobium-induced SA more reliably (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.69; threshold, 0.01%). Moreover, after adjusting for potential confounders, the results showed a robust association between Apotobium and SA (as a categorical variable [<0.01%]; adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.3 to 6.5; P = 0.01). In conclusion, higher vaginal Apotobium levels were associated with SA in the first trimester. IMPORTANCE Spontaneous abortion (SA) is the most common adverse pregnancy outcome in the first trimester. The causal drivers of SA have become a substantial challenge to reveal and overcome. We hypothesize that vaginal microbial dysbiosis is associated with SA, as it was related to several female reproductive disorders in previous studies. In our study, we characterized the vaginal microbiota of patients with SA at 12 weeks of gestation as the study group, and women with normal pregnancies were enrolled as a control group. Generally, significant differences were discovered in the vaginal microbiota between the two groups. Our study also revealed that Apotobium may play an important role in the pathogenesis of SA. To our knowledge, this study is the first detailed elaboration of the vaginal microbiota composition and vaginal Apotobium in association with SA. We believe that our findings will inspire more researchers to consider dynamic changes in the vaginal microbiota as critical features for further studies of nosogenesis not only for SA but also other reproductive diseases.

Evaluating the diagnosis and treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in pregnant women to prevent adverse neonatal consequences in Gaborone, Botswana: protocol for the Maduo study

BACKGROUND

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) are extremely common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that are associated with adverse birth and neonatal outcomes, and the risk of vertical transmission of CT and NG during delivery is high. The majority of CT and NG infections are asymptomatic and missed by the standard of care in most countries (treatment based on symptoms). Thus, it is likely that missed maternal CT and NG infections contribute to preventable adverse health outcomes among women and children globally. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of CT and NG testing for asymptomatic pregnant women to prevent adverse neonatal outcomes, understand the inflammatory response linking CT and NG infections to adverse neonatal outcomes, and conduct an economic analysis of the CT and NG testing intervention.

METHODS

The Maduo ("results" in Setswana) is a prospective, cluster-controlled trial in Gaborone, Botswana to compare a near point-of-care CT and NG testing and treatment intervention implemented in "study clinics" with standard antenatal care (World Health Organization-endorsed "syndromic management" strategy based on signs and symptoms without laboratory confirmation) implemented in "standard of care clinics" among asymptomatic pregnant women. The primary outcome is vertical transmission of CT/NG infection. Secondary outcomes include preterm birth (delivery < 37 completed weeks of gestation) and/or low birth weight (< 2500 g). The trial will also evaluate immunological and inflammatory markers of adverse neonatal outcomes, as well as the costs and cost-effectiveness of the intervention compared with standard care.

DISCUSSION

The Maduo study will improve our understanding of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of CT and NG testing among asymptomatic pregnant women. It will also increase knowledge about the CT/NG-related immune responses that might drive adverse neonatal outcomes. Further, results from this study could encourage expansion of STI testing during antenatal care in low resource settings and improve maternal and neonatal health globally.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier NCT04955717, First posted: July 9, 2021)).

High Prevalence of Rectal Chlamydia trachomatis Infection With the Same Genotype as Urogenital Infection in Female Outpatients in Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinics in China

Background

Little is known about rectal Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) infection in outpatients attending sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics in China. In this study, we aimed to explore the clinical and epidemiologic features of rectal CT infection in this population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among patients attending STD clinics in Tianjin and Guangxi provinces of China from June 2018 to August 2020. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis were developed to explore the association of different risk factors for urogenital and rectal CT infection.

Results

The prevalence of urogenital and rectal CT was 11.2% (154/1374) and 4.9% (68/1377), respectively. The rectal CT prevalence among female and male patients was 7.8% (60/767) and 1.3% (8/610), respectively. The most common genotype in urogenital CT–positive samples was genotype E (29.9%), while the most common genotype among rectal CT–positive samples was genotype J (23.4%). More than 85% (52/60) of women infected with rectal CT were co-infected with urogenital CT. About 90.0% (36/40) of women shared similar genotypes between rectal and urogenital samples. Females and patients infected with urogenital CT were deemed to be at an increased risk for rectal CT infection. A high proportion of rectal CT infection had concurrent urogenital CT infection, especially in women, and most of the co-infections were shared among the same genotypes.

Conclusions

It would be prudent to encourage awareness and introduce detection tests and treatment strategies for rectal CT infection particularly in female patients visiting STD clinics in China.

Incarceration and Subsequent Pregnancy Loss: Exploration of Sexually Transmitted Infections as Mediating Pathways

Background: Incarceration is linked to risk of sexually transmitted infection (STI) postrelease among women. There has been little examination of incarceration's association with related sexual and reproductive outcomes such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and pregnancy loss, or the role of STI in this relationship and whether these relationships differ between Black and White women. Methods: Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we examined cross-sectional associations between incarceration (Wave IV; 2007-2008; ages 24-34) and history of STI and PID (n = 5,968), and longitudinal associations between incarceration and later pregnancy loss in mid-adulthood (Wave V; 2016-2018; ages 34-43) among women who had ever been pregnant (n = 2,353); we estimated racial differences. Using causal mediation, we explored whether STI mediated associations with pregnancy loss. Results: Incarceration was associated with a history of STI (White adjusted prevalence ratio [APR]: 1.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.14-2.06; Black APR: 1.26, 95% CI 1.02-1.56); the association between incarceration and PID was null among White women (APR: 0.99, 95% CI 0.47-2.09) and elevated among Black women (APR: 2.82, 95% CI 1.36-5.83). Prior incarceration did not appear associated with pregnancy loss among White women (APR: 1.01, 95% CI 0.70-1.45), but was associated among Black women (APR: 1.38, 95% CI: 0.97-1.97), with STI appearing to partially mediate. Conclusions: Pregnancy loss may be elevated among Black women who have been incarcerated, and incarceration-related increases in STI may account for some of this association.

Clinical Performance of the Xpert® CT/NG Test for Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: A Multicenter Evaluation in Chinese Urban Hospitals

Background

We aimed to evaluate the clinical performance of the GeneXpert^® (Xpert) CT/NG assay for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) using urine and cervical swabs collected from patients in China.

Methods

This study was conducted from September 2016 to September 2018 in three Chinese urban hospitals. The results from the Xpert CT/NG test were compared to those from the Roche cobas^® 4800 CT/NG test. Discordant results were confirmed by DNA sequence analysis.

Results

In this study, 619 first void urine (FVU) specimens and 1,042 cervical swab specimens were included in the final dataset. There were no statistical differences between the results of the two tests for the detection of CT/NG in urine samples (p > 0.05), while a statistical difference was found in cervical swabs (p < 0.05). For CT detection, the sensitivity and specificity of the Xpert test were 100.0% (95%CI = 96.8-99.9) and 98.3% (95%CI = 96.6-99.2) for urine samples and 99.4% (95%CI = 96.5-100.0) and 98.6% (95%CI 97.5-99.2) for cervical swabs, respectively. For NG detection, the sensitivity and specificity of the Xpert test were 99.2% (95%CI = 94.9-100.0) and 100.0% (95%CI = 99.0-100.0) for urine and 100% (95%CI = 92.8-100.0) and 99.7% (95%CI = 99.0-99.9) for cervical swabs, respectively.

Conclusion

The Xpert CT/NG test exhibited high sensitivity and specificity in the detection of CT and NG in both urine and cervical samples when compared to the reference results. The 90-min turnaround time for CT and NG detection at the point of care using Xpert may enable patients to receive treatment promptly.

Miscarriage and Abortion Among Women Attending Harm Reduction Services in Philadelphia: Correlations With Individual, Interpersonal, and Structural Factors

Background: Reproductive health research among women who use drugs has focused on pregnancy prevention and perinatal/neonatal outcomes, but there have been few investigations of miscarriage and abortion, including prevalence and associated factors. Methods: Using cross-sectional data from a sample of non-pregnant women receiving harm reduction services in Philadelphia in 2016-2017 we examined lifetime miscarriage and abortion (n = 187). Separately for both outcomes, we used modified Poisson regression to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for associations with each correlate. We also explored correlates of reporting both miscarriage and abortion. Results: Approximately 47% experienced miscarriage, 42% experienced abortion, and 18% experienced both. Miscarriage correlates included: prescription opioid misuse (e.g., OxyContin PR 1.82, 95% CI 1.23, 2.69); 40% increase in prevalence associated with housing instability, 50% increase with survival sex, and two-fold increase with arrest. Abortion correlates included: mental health (e.g., depression PR 2.09, 95% CI 1.18, 3.71), stimulant use (e.g., methamphetamine PR 1.83, 95% CI 1.22, 2.74), and drug injection (PR 1.76, 95% CI 1.03, 3.02); partner controlling access to people/possessions, physical and emotional violence; and a two-fold increase associated with survival sex and arrest. Experiencing both reproductive outcomes was correlated with mental health, opioid and simulant use, housing instability, survival sex, and arrest. Conclusion: Miscarriage and abortion was common among women with history of drug misuse suggesting a need for expanded access to family planning, medication-assisted therapy, and social support services, and for the integration of these with substance use services. Future research in longitudinal data is needed.

First evidence for the existence of Simkania negevensis in the genitalia of human females

INTRODUCTION

Simkania negevensis has been linked to some respiratory and non-respiratory diseases. However, there is still a serious lack of clinical investigations that attempt to determine possible body sites that could be inhabited by this microorganism and evaluate its true pathogenic capacity. The goal of this study was to examine the potential presence of Simkania and its prevalence in the genital tract of human adult females.

METHODS

Lower vaginal swabs from 169 Jordanian adult females who attended Obstetrics and Gynecology clinic were collected and tested for Simkania DNA by PCR method.

RESULTS

The presence of bacterial nucleic acids was confirmed in the genital system of adult females with an overall prevalence of 24.26% (41/169). Interestingly, the positivity of Simkania DNA was significantly higher in women of reproductive age than females of non-reproductive age (28.03% versus 10.81%; p≤0.05). Moreover, the presence of S. negevensis was evident in approximately 43% of females suffering from vaginal itching and/or abnormal discharge, exhibiting about two-fold increase in the positivity rate compared to detection rates assessed for women who attended the clinic for routine checkup or menstruation problems. However, the current work failed to find any link between the bacterial agent and spontaneous abortion (miscarriage).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed for the first time the presence of S. negevensis in the genitalia of human females. These novel data could provide a basis to clarify the exact role of S. negevensis in the female genitalia and its potential involvement in genital system disorders.

Cellular Basis for the Enhanced Efficacy of the Fms-Like Tyrosine Kinase 3 Ligand (FL) Adjuvanted VCG-Based Chlamydia abortus Vaccine

Efficacious vaccines are needed to control genital chlamydial diseases in humans and the veterinary industry. We previously reported a C. abortus (Cab) vaccine comprising recombinant Vibrio cholerae ghosts (rVCG) expressing the conserved and immunogenic N-terminal region of the Cab polymorphic membrane protein D (rVCG-Pmp18.1) protein that protected mice against intravaginal challenge. In this study, we investigated the immunomodulatory effect of the hematopoietic progenitor activator cytokine, Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3-ligand (FL) when co-administered with the rVCG-Pmp18.1 vaccine as a strategy to enhance the protective efficacy and the potential mechanism of immunomodulation. Groups of female C57BL/6J mice were immunized and boosted twice intranasally (IN) with rVCG-PmpD18.1 with and without FL or purified rPmp18.1 or rVCG-gD2 (antigen control) or PBS (medium) per mouse. The results revealed that co-administration of the vaccine with FL enhanced antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses and protected against live Cab genital infection. Comparative analysis of immune cell phenotypes infiltrating mucosal and systemic immune inductive tissue sites following immunization revealed that co-administration of rVCG-Pmp18.1 with FL significantly enhanced the number of macrophages, dendritic and NK cells, γδ and NK T cells in the spleen (systemic) and iliac lymph nodes (ILN) draining the genital tract (mucosal) tissues compared to rVCG-Pmp18.1 alone. Furthermore, FL enhanced monocyte infiltration in the ILN, while CD19+ B cells and CD4+ T cells were enhanced in the spleen. These results indicate that the immunomodulatory effect of FL is associated with its ability to mobilize innate immune cells and subsequent activation of robust antigen-specific immune effectors in mucosal and systemic lymphoid tissues.

Chlamydia trachomatis Screening and Treatment in Pregnancy to Reduce Adverse Pregnancy and Neonatal Outcomes: A Review

Chlamydial trachomatis infection has been associated with adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes such as premature rupture of membranes, preterm birth, low birth weight, conjunctivitis, and pneumonia in infants. This review evaluates existing literature to determine potential benefits of antenatal screening and treatment of C. trachomatis in preventing adverse outcomes. A literature search revealed 1824 studies with 156 full-text articles reviewed. Fifteen studies were selected after fulfilling inclusion criteria. Eight studies focused on chlamydial screening and treatment to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes such as premature rupture of membranes, preterm birth, low birth weight, growth restriction leading to small for gestational age infants, and neonatal death. Seven studies focused on the effects of chlamydial screening and treatment on adverse infant outcomes such as chlamydial infection including positive mucosal cultures, pneumonia, and conjunctivitis. Given the heterogeneity of those studies, this focused review was exclusively qualitative in nature. When viewed collectively, 13 of 15 studies provided some degree of support that antenatal chlamydial screening and treatment interventions may lead to decreased adverse pregnancy and infant outcomes. However, notable limitations of these individual studies also highlight the need for further, updated research in this area, particularly from low and middle-income settings.

Subtractive proteomics approach to Unravel the druggable proteins of the emerging pathogen Waddlia chondrophila and drug repositioning on its MurB protein

Waddlia chondrophila is an emerging pathogen that has been implicated in numerous unpropitious pregnancy events in humans and ruminants. Taking into account its association with abortigenic events, possible modes of transmission, and future risk, immediate clinical measures are required to prevent widespread damage caused by this organism and hence this study. Here, a subtractive proteomics approach was employed to identify druggable proteins of W. chondrophila. Considering the essential genes, antibiotic resistance proteins, and virulence factors, 676 unique important proteins were initially identified for this bacterium. Afterward, NCBI BLASTp performed against human proteome identified 223 proteins that were further pushed into KEGG Automatic Annotation Server (KAAS) for automatic annotation. Using the information from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database 14 Waddlia specific metabolic pathways were identified with respect to humans. Analyzing the data from KAAS and KEGG databases, forty-eight metabolic pathway-dependent, and seventy metabolic pathway independent proteins were identified. Standalone BLAST search against DrugBank FDA approved drug targets revealed eight proteins that are finally considered druggable proteins. Prediction of three-dimensional structures was done for the eight proteins through homology modeling and the Ramachandran plot model showed six models as a valid prediction. Finally, virtual screening against MurB protein was performed using FDA approved drugs to employ the drug repositioning strategy. Three drugs showed promising docking results that can be used for therapeutic purposes against W. chondrophila following the clinical validation of the study.

Detection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections in pregnant women by multiplex recombinase polymerase amplification

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) are the main pathogenic microorganisms causing sexually transmitted infections. In this study, a multiplex thermostable recombinase polymerase amplification-lateral flow detection (RPA-LFD) assay was established, and the reaction conditions such as the ratio of primer concentration, magnesium ion concentration, amplification time and template DNA concentration in the multiplex RPA reaction were optimized. The optimized multiplex RPA-LFD method was used to detect both CT and NG positive control plasmids, and it was found that the LFD could be used to obtain visible results when the plasmid copy number was only 200. The sensitivity of the multiplex RPA-LFD method used for clinical samples was 85.62 (95% CI at 53.66–97.29) for NG detection and 90.90 (95% CI at 57.12–99.52) for CT detection.

Optimizing the Diagnostic Strategy to Identify Genetic Abnormalities in Miscarriage

INTRODUCTION

The single most common cause of miscarriage is genetic abnormality.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a prospective cohort study to compare the performance of conventional karyotyping and chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) using array comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH) and single nucleotide polymorphism array (SNP-array) to identify genetic abnormalities in miscarriage specimens.

METHODS

A total of 63 miscarriage specimens were included. Conventional karyotyping, array-CGH, and SNP-array were performed and the results compared.

RESULTS

Genetic abnormalities were detected in 31 cases (49.2%) by at least one testing modality. Single autosomal trisomy was the most common defect (71.0%), followed by polyploidy (16.1%), multiple aneuploidy (9.7%), and monosomy X (3.2%). Mosaicisms were identified in four cases and confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using appropriate probes. SNP-array had a higher detection rate of genetic abnormalities than array-CGH (93.5 vs. 77.4%), and conventional karyotyping had the lowest detection rate (76.0%). SNP-array enabled the detection of all types of genetic abnormalities, including polyploidy.

CONCLUSIONS

Although conventional karyotyping and FISH are still needed, SNP-array represents the first choice for miscarriage because the technique showed excellent performance in the detection of genetic abnormalities and minimized the probability of testing failure as well as time, costs, and labor.

Conservation of the glycogen metabolism pathway underlines a pivotal function of storage polysaccharides in Chlamydiae

The order Chlamydiales includes obligate intracellular pathogens capable of infecting mammals, fishes and amoeba. Unlike other intracellular bacteria for which intracellular adaptation led to the loss of glycogen metabolism pathway, all chlamydial families maintained the nucleotide-sugar dependent glycogen metabolism pathway i.e. the GlgC-pathway with the notable exception of both Criblamydiaceae and Waddliaceae families. Through detailed genome analysis and biochemical investigations, we have shown that genome rearrangement events have resulted in a defective GlgC-pathway and more importantly we have evidenced a distinct trehalose-dependent GlgE-pathway in both Criblamydiaceae and Waddliaceae families. Altogether, this study strongly indicates that the glycogen metabolism is retained in all Chlamydiales without exception, highlighting the pivotal function of storage polysaccharides, which has been underestimated to date. We propose that glycogen degradation is a mandatory process for fueling essential metabolic pathways that ensure the survival and virulence of extracellular forms i.e. elementary bodies of Chlamydiales.

The Impact of Selected Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases on Pregnancy and Female Fertility

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium are a common cause of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) which can lead to tubal factor infertility (TFI). TFI is one of the most common causes of infertility, accounting for 30% of female fertility problems. STIs can also have an impact on pregnancy, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Escalating antibiotic resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium represents a significant problem and can be therapeutically challenging. We present a comprehensive review of the current treatment options, as well as the molecular approach to this subject. We have given special attention to molecular epidemiology, molecular diagnostics, current and new treatments, and drug resistance.

Genital Chlamydia Trachomatis Infection: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Adverse Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes in Children and Women in sub-Saharan Africa

Genital Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) has adverse health outcomes for women and children. In pregnant women, the infection causes adverse obstetric outcomes including pelvic inflammation, ectopic pregnancy, and miscarriage. In children, it causes adverse birth outcomes such as skin rash, lesions, limb abnormalities, conjunctivitis, neurological damage, and even death. This article discusses genital CT prevalence, risk factors, and adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes among women and children in sub-Saharan Africa as well as challenges associated with the mitigation of the disease. A comprehensive search of databases including PubMed, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar was conducted using keywords such as genital chlamydia trachomatis, adverse pregnancy outcomes, adverse birth outcomes, and sub-Saharan African. We found that genital CT prevalence rates in some sub-Saharan Africa countries were higher than others and that risk factors such as the lack of condom use, having multiple sexual partners, and low educational levels contribute to the transmission of the infection. We also found that negative cultural practices, illiteracy among women, and the lack of access to screening services during pregnancy are some of the challenges associated with CT mitigation in sub-Saharan Africa. To reduce genital CT transmission in sub-Saharan Africa, efforts must be made by country governments to eliminate negative cultural practices, promote female literacy, and provide access to screening services for pregnant women.

Maternal Microbiome and Infections in Pregnancy

Pregnancy induces unique changes in maternal immune responses and metabolism. Drastic physiologic adaptations, in an intricately coordinated fashion, allow the maternal body to support the healthy growth of the fetus. The gut microbiome plays a central role in the regulation of the immune system, metabolism, and resistance to infections. Studies have reported changes in the maternal microbiome in the gut, vagina, and oral cavity during pregnancy; it remains unclear whether/how these changes might be related to maternal immune responses, metabolism, and susceptibility to infections during pregnancy. Our understanding of the concerted adaption of these different aspects of the human physiology to promote a successful pregnant remains limited. Here, we provide a comprehensive documentation and discussion of changes in the maternal microbiome in the gut, oral cavity, and vagina during pregnancy, metabolic changes and complications in the mother and newborn that may be, in part, driven by maternal gut dysbiosis, and, lastly, common infections in pregnancy. This review aims to shed light on how dysregulation of the maternal microbiome may underlie obstetrical metabolic complications and infections.

Presence and diversity of Chlamydiae bacteria in Spinturnix myoti, an ectoparasite of bats

Chlamydia spp. and Chlamydia-like organisms are able to infect vertebrates such as mammals, reptiles and birds, but also arthropods and protozoans. Since they have been detected in bats and bat feces, we expected Chlamydiae bacteria to also be present in the mite Spinturnix myoti, an ectoparasite of mouse-eared bats (Myotis spp.). The prevalence of Chlamydiales in 88 S. myoti was 57.95% and significantly depended on bat host species. In addition, the prevalence was significantly different between bat species living in sympatry or in allopatry. While there was uninterpretable sequencing for 16 samples, eight showed best BLAST hit identities lower than 92.5% and thus corresponded to new family-level lineages according to the established taxonomy cut-off. The four remaining sequences exhibited best BLAST hit identities ranging from 94.2 to 97.4% and were taxonomically assigned to three different family-level lineages, with two of them belonging to the Parachlamydiaceae, one to the Simkaniaceae, and one to the Chlamydiaceae. These results highlighted for the first time the presence of Chlamydia-like organisms and the possible zoonotic origin of Chlamydia sp. in S. myoti ectoparasites of bats, and therefore suggest that these ectoparasites may play a role in maintaining and/or transmitting members of the Chlamydiae phylum within Myotis spp. bat populations. Our results further highlight that the wide diversity of bacteria belonging to the Chlamydiae phylum is largely underestimated.

A systematic review of the maternal and neonatal complications in hepatitis B infection

The association between hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and maternal, obstetric and newborn outcomes remains controversial, as previous studies have reported conflicting and inconsistent results on the matter. The aim was to investigate whether HBV infection increases the risk of maternal, obstetric and newborn complications. We conducted a systematic literature review, according to PRISMA statement guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they were observational cohort, case-control or cross-sectional studies, comparing maternal, obstetric or newborn complications in HBV-infected and uninfected pregnant women. PubMed was searched for published literature in English, with no date restrictions, using combinations of keywords. The titles and abstracts were independently screened for eligibility by three authors. Two authors assessed the quality of each included study and no meta-analysis was performed. We retrieved 275 records and included 15 papers. The methodological and statistical heterogeneity as well as a great variation on the types of maternal, obstetric and newborn complications studied did not allow quantitative analysis of results and conclusions about the level of evidence. Seven studies are of good quality, which makes their results more reliable. Three of them revealed that maternal HBV infection increased the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth, pregnancy-induced hypertension, fetal distress and macrosomia. These three studies were performed in China and the one with the largest number of participants only included women from rural areas. Larger, more robust, well-designed prospective cohort studies are needed. These must include adjusted estimates for confounding factors, such as other possible complications determinants, like the antenatal care quality.

Chlamydia trachomatis Infection, when Treated during Pregnancy, Is Not Associated with Preterm Birth in an Urban Safety-Net Hospital

Preterm birth is a major public health problem, occurring in more than half a million births per year in the United States. A number of maternal conditions have been recognized as risk factors for preterm birth, but for the majority of cases, the etiology is not completely understood. Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted infections in the world. However, its role in adverse pregnancy outcome in women is still debated. In order to determine if genitourinary tract infection with C. trachomatis during pregnancy was associated with preterm birth, we conducted a case-control study on women who delivered at Boston Medical Center, an urban "safety-net" hospital that serves a socioeconomically disadvantaged and racially diverse population. Women with known risk factors for preterm birth or immune suppression were excluded. Variables collected on enrolled subjects included demographics; diagnosis of C. trachomatis during or prior to pregnancy; tobacco, alcohol, and illicit substance use; gestational age; and birthweight and gender of the newborn. We also collected urine for chlamydia testing at the time of delivery and placental biopsies for nucleic acid amplification and histological studies. A total of 305 subjects were enrolled: 100 who delivered preterm and 205 who delivered full term. Among those subjects, we identified 19 cases of pregnancy-associated C. trachomatis infection: 6/100 preterm and 13/205 full term, a difference which was not statistically significant. Only two cases of untreated chlamydia infection were identified postpartum, and both occurred in women who delivered at term. We conclude that genitourinary tract infection with C. trachomatis during pregnancy, when appropriately treated, is not associated with preterm birth.

Pregnancy and fertility-related adverse outcomes associated with Chlamydia trachomatis infection: a global systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Genital chlamydia infection in women is often asymptomatic, but may result in adverse outcomes before and during pregnancy. The purpose of this study was to examine the strength of the relationships between chlamydia infection and different reproductive health outcomes and to assess the certainty of the evidence.

METHODS

This review was registered and followed the Cochrane guidelines. We searched three databases to quantitatively examine adverse outcomes associated with chlamydia infection. We included pregnancy and fertility-related outcomes. We performed meta-analyses on different study designs for various adverse outcomes using unadjusted and adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

We identified 4730 unique citations and included 107 studies reporting 12 pregnancy and fertility-related outcomes. Sixty-eight studies were conducted in high-income countries, 37 studies were conducted in low-income or middle-income countries, and 2 studies were conducted in both high-income and low-income countries. Chlamydia infection was positively associated with almost all of the 12 included pregnancy and fertility-related adverse outcomes in unadjusted analyses, including stillbirth (OR=5.05, 95% CI 2.95 to 8.65 for case-control studies and risk ratio=1.28, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.51 for cohort studies) and spontaneous abortion (OR=1.30, 95% CI 1.14 to 1.49 for case-control studies and risk ratio=1.47, 95% CI 1.16 to 1.85 for cohort studies). However, there were biases in the design and conduct of individual studies, affecting the certainty of the overall body of evidence. The risk of adverse outcomes associated with chlamydia is higher in low-income and middle-income countries compared with high-income countries.

CONCLUSION

Chlamydia is associated with an increased risk of several pregnancy and fertility-related adverse outcomes in unadjusted analyses, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. Further research on how to prevent the sequelae of chlamydia in pregnant women is needed.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42017056818.

Serological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia infection in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) in Shanxi Province, northern China

Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Chlamydia and bluetongue virus (BTV) are four important pathogens which can cause reproductive loss. The present study was conducted to estimate the seroprevalence of T. gondii, N. caninum, Chlamydia and BTV in alpacas in Shanxi Province, northern China. A total of 251 serum samples were collected from alpacas, and antibodies against T. gondii and Chlamydia were examined by the modified agglutination test (MAT) and indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA), respectively. Antibodies to N. caninum and BTV were determined by using the commercially available competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) kits, respectively. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii was 9.16% (95% CI 5.59-12.73) in the three sampled counties, of which, no T. gondii-seropositive samples were detected in alpacas in Fanshi County. Gender differences in the T. gondii seroprevalence were observed. The overall Chlamydia seroprevalence was 13.94% (95% CI: 9.66-18.22), and there was a statistically significant difference in Chlamydia seroprevalence in alpacas between the two counties, Jiexiu and Fanshi. All serum samples tested negative for N. caninum and BTV antibodies, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report of T. gondii and Chlamydia seroprevalence in alpacas in China, which provides baseline information for controlling T. gondii and Chlamydia infection in alpacas in China.

Effect of Chlamydia trachomatis on adverse pregnancy outcomes: a meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To analyze the effect of Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis) on adverse pregnancy outcomes based on the currently available evidence.

METHODS

Multiple databases were comprehensively searched from the available date of inception through December 9, 2019. The effect of C. trachomatis on adverse pregnancy outcomes was assessed using pooled odds rations (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Egger's test was used for publication bias.

RESULTS

Fifty studies involving 502,141 participants were identified. C. trachomatis infection was found to be associated with preterm birth in antibody detection [OR (95% CI): 1.571 (1.112-2.220), P = 0.010] and high-quality assessment [OR (95% CI): 1.734 (1.295-2.321), P < 0.001], preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM) in culture detection [OR (95% CI): 4.339 (1.806-10.424), P = 0.001] and high-quality assessment [OR (95% CI): 2.822 (1.333-5.973), P = 0.007], stillbirth [OR (95% CI): 1.585 (1.219-2.062), P = 0.001], low-birthweight babies [OR (95% CI): 2.205 (1.137-4.274), P = 0.019], and babies small for gestational age [OR (95% CI): 1.193 (1.091-1.305), P < 0.001]. No publication bias was exhibited in miscarriage (P = 0.170), preterm birth (P = 0.303), PPROM (P = 0.341), stillbirth (P = 0.533), and low-birthweight babies (P = 0.535).

CONCLUSIONS

C. trachomatis infection during pregnancy is associated with a higher risk of preterm birth, PPROM, stillbirth, low-birthweight babies, and babies small for gestational age.

Screening of Chlamydia trachomatis and Waddlia chondrophila Antibodies in Women with Tubal Factor Infertility

Waddlia chondrophila is an emerging intracellular pathogen belonging to the order of Chlamydiales, and was previously associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, as well as tubal factor infertility (TFI). In this study, we investigate the link between both W. chondrophila and Chlamydia trachomatis IgG seropositivity and TFI. Antibodies against both bacteria were measured in 890 serum samples of women visiting a fertility clinic. After a hysterosalpingography and/or laparoscopy, they were classified as either TFI-negative (TFI−) or TFI-positive (TFI+). The total seroprevalence was 13.4% for C. trachomatis and 38.8% for W. chondrophila. C. trachomatis antibodies were present significantly more often in the TFI+ group than in the TFI− group, while for W. chondrophila no difference could be observed. In conclusion, our study confirms the association between C. trachomatis seropositivity and TFI, but no association was found between W. chondrophila seropositivity and TFI. The high percentage of W. chondrophila seropositivity in all women attending a fertility clinic does, however, demonstrate the need for further research on this Chlamydia-like bacterium and its possible role in infertility.

Probiotic Enterococcus faecalis Symbioflor 1 ameliorates pathobiont-induced miscarriage through bacterial antagonism and Th1-Th2 modulation in pregnant mice

The bacterium-bacterium interaction between pathogenic and probiotic Enterococcus as well as the bacterium-host interaction between Enterococcus and intestinal epithelium has drawn increasing attentions, but the influence of those interactions on host pregnancy remains largely unexplored. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of probiotic E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 or/and pathogenic E. faecalis OG1RF on the miscarriage of pregnant mice. Using in vitro assays of competition and exclusion and displacement, antagonistic property of E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 against E. faecalis OG1RF was observed, and the former inhibited the translocation of the later in vivo. The rate of miscarriage induced by E. faecalis OG1RF challenge was significantly reduced by 28% with E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 intervention; and the tissue integrity of ileum, colon, uterus, and placenta and placental blood cell density in pregnant mice were drastically improved by such probiotic intervention. Compared with the controls, probiotic intervention significantly upregulated the level of IL-10 and TGF-β, downregulated levels of IFN-γ, and increased progesterone level that reversed the trend of being Th1 predominance state reported for adverse pregnancy outcome at early pregnancy stage. In conclusion, E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 decreased the translocation of E. faecalis OG1RF, prevented pathogen-induced tissue damage, and changed Th1-Th2 homeostasis toward Th2 predominance during early pregnancy resulting in decreased miscarriage. KEY POINTS: •The mechanism of how probiotic E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 improves pregnancy of mice • Influence of interactions of pathogenic and probiotic Enterococcus on host pregnancy • E. faecalis Symbioflor 1 change Th1-Th2 homeostasis toward Th2 predominance.

Eukaryotic Cell Permeabilisation to Identify New Putative Chlamydial Type III Secretion System Effectors Secreted within Host Cell Cytoplasm

Chlamydia trachomatis and Waddlia chondrophila are strict intracellular bacteria belonging to the Chlamydiales order. C. trachomatis is the most frequent bacterial cause of genital and ocular infections whereas W. chondrophila is an opportunistic pathogen associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and respiratory infections. Being strictly intracellular, these bacteria are engaged in a complex interplay with their hosts to modulate their environment and create optimal conditions for completing their life cycle. For this purpose, they possess several secretion pathways and, in particular, a Type III Secretion System (T3SS) devoted to the delivery of effector proteins in the host cell cytosol. Identifying these effectors is a crucial step in understanding the molecular basis of bacterial pathogenesis. Following incubation of infected cells with perfringolysin O, a pore-forming toxin that binds cholesterol present in plasma membranes, we analysed by mass spectrometry the protein content of the host cell cytoplasm. We identified 13 putative effectors secreted by C. trachomatis and 19 secreted by W. chondrophila. Using Y. enterocolitica as a heterologous expression and secretion system, we confirmed that four of these identified proteins are secreted by the T3SS. Two W. chondrophila T3SS effectors (hypothetical proteins Wcw_0499 and Wcw_1706) were further characterised and demonstrated to be early/mid-cycle effectors. In addition, Wcw_1706 is associated with a tetratricopeptide domain-containing protein homologous to C. trachomatis class II chaperone. Furthermore, we identified a novel C. trachomatis effector, CT460 that localises in the eukaryotic nucleus when ectopically expressed in 293 T cells.

The global seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in women who had spontaneous abortion: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an intracellular pathogen that can lead to abortion in pregnant women infected with this parasite. Therefore, the present study aimed to estimate the global seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies in women who had spontaneous abortion based on the results of published articles and evaluate the relationship between seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies and abortion via a systematical review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

Different databases were searched in order to gain access to all studies on the seroprevalence of anti- T. gondii antibodies in women who had spontaneous abortion and association between seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies and abortion published up to April 25th, 2019. Odds ratio (OR) and the pooled rate seroprevalence of T. gondii with a 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated using the random effects model.

RESULTS

In total, 8 cross-sectional studies conducted on 1275 women who had abortion in present pregnancy, 40 cross-sectional studies performed on 9122 women who had a history of abortion, and 60 articles (involving 35 cross-sectional studies including 4436 women who had spontaneous abortion as case and 10398 as control and 25 case-control studies entailing 4656 cases and 3178 controls) were included for the final analyses. The random-effects estimates of the prevalence of anti-T. gondii IgG antibody in women who had abortion in present pregnancy and women who had a history of abortion were 33% (95% CI: 17%-49%) and 43% (95% CI: 27%-60%), respectively. In addition, the pooled OR for anti-T. gondii IgG antibody in cross-sectional and case-control studies among women who had spontaneous abortion were 1.65 (95% CI: 1.31-2.09) and 2.26 (95% CI: 1.56-3.28), respectively. Also, statistical analysis showed that the pooled OR of the risk of anti-T. gondii IgM antibody 1.39 (95% CI: 0.61-3.15) in cross-sectional and 4.33 (95% CI: 2.42-7.76) in case-control studies.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of the current study, T. gondii infection could be considered a potential risk factor for abortion. It is recommended to carry out further and more comprehensive investigations to determine the effect of T. gondii infection on abortion to prevent and control toxoplasmosis among pregnant women around the world.

Waddlia chondrophila and Male Infertility

Waddlia chondrophila, a Chlamydia-like bacterium, has been previously associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Analogously to Chlamydia trachomatis, W. chondrophila also negatively impacts human semen and may be a source of impaired male fertility. In this study, we analyzed W. chondrophila seroprevalence in a population of male patients of infertile couples and the impact of past exposition to this bacterium on semen parameters. Our results show a surprisingly high seroprevalence of W. chondrophila, which contrasts with a previous study focusing on a population of healthy men. Nevertheless, we did not observe any significant association between positive serology and abnormal sperm parameters. This may suggest that a negative impact on semen is observed only during an ongoing infection. Alternatively, W. chondrophila may have an immune impact on male fertility, as previously postulated for women with adverse pregnancy outcomes.