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Gravitte A, Kintner J, Brown S, Cobble A, Kennard B, Hall JV. The hormonal environment and estrogen receptor signaling alters Chlamydia muridarum infection in vivo. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:939944. [PMID: 36636722 PMCID: PMC9831676 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.939944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Genital Chlamydia is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the United States and worldwide. Previous studies indicate that the progression of chlamydial infection is influenced by various factors, including the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. Sex hormone levels naturally fluctuate in women throughout their menstrual cycle. Varying concentrations of estrogen and progesterone may impact the progression of chlamydial infection and the host's immune response to Chlamydia. Estrogen signals through estrogen receptors (ERs), ERα and ERβ. These receptors are similar in structure and function, but are differentially expressed in tissues throughout the body, including the genital tract and on cells of the immune system. In this study, we used ovariectomized (OVT) BALB/c mice to investigate the impact of long-term administration of physiologically relevant concentrations of estrogen (E2), progesterone (P4), or a combination of E2/P4 on the progression of and immune response to C. muridarum infection. Additionally, we used ERα and ERβ knockout C57/BL6 mice to determine the how ERs affect chlamydial infection and the resulting immune response. Estrogen exposure prevented C. muridarum infection in vaginally infected OVT mice exposed to E2 alone or in combination with P4, while OVT or Sham mice exposed to hormone free, P4 or depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate shed similar amounts of chlamydiae. The hormonal environment also altered T cell recruitment and IFNϵ production the genital tracts of infected OVT and Sham mice on day 10 post infection. The absence of ERα, but not ERβ, in ER knockout mouse strains significantly changed the timing of C. muridarum infection. ERαKO mice shed significantly more chlamydiae at day 3 post infection and resolved the infection faster than WT or ERβKO animals. At day 9 post infection, flow cytometry showed that ERαKO mice had more T cells present and targeted RNA sequencing revealed increased expression of CD4 and FOXP3, suggesting that ERαKO mice had increased numbers of regulatory T cells compared to ERβKO and WT mice. Mock and chlamydia-infected ERαKO mice also expressed more IFNϵ early during infection. Overall, the data from these studies indicate that sex hormones and their receptors, particularly ERα and ERβ, differentially affect C. muridarum infection in murine models of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Gravitte
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States,Center of Excellence for Inflammation, Infection Disease, and Immunity, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Jennifer Kintner
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Stacy Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Allison Cobble
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Benjamin Kennard
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Jennifer V. Hall
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States,Center of Excellence for Inflammation, Infection Disease, and Immunity, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States,*Correspondence: Jennifer V. Hall,
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Pal S, Sheff S, Al-Kuhlani M, Ojcius DM, de la Maza LM. Role of TRAIL-R in Primary and Secondary Genital and Respiratory Chlamydia muridarum Infections in Mice. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0161722. [PMID: 35876584 PMCID: PMC9431660 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01617-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor (TRAIL-R) suppresses inflammation and could therefore affect the course of Chlamydia infections and their long-term sequelae. Wild-type (WT) and TRAIL-R-/- C57BL/6 mice were inoculated vaginally with Chlamydia muridarum; the course of the infection was followed with vaginal cultures and the presence of hydrosalpinx determined. To evaluate the role of TRAIL-R following a secondary infection, the mice were vaginally reinfected. WT and TRAIL-R-/- male mice were also infected and reinfected in the respiratory tract, and the course of the diseases and the infections were followed. Following the primary and secondary vaginal infection, no significant differences in vaginal shedding or hydrosalpinx formation were observed between the WT and TRAIL-R-/- mice. The WT and TRAIL-R-/- mice mounted antibody responses in serum and vaginal washes that were not significantly different. After the primary and secondary intranasal infections of the male mice, changes in body weight were determined, and no significant differences were observed between the WT and TRAIL-R-/- mice. Ten days after the primary and the secondary infections, the weight of the lungs and number of C. muridarum inclusion forming units (IFU) were determined. The lungs of the WT mice weighed less compared with the TRAIL-R-/- mice following a primary infection but not after a secondary infection. No differences in the number of C. muridarum IFU in the lungs were observed between the two groups of mice. In conclusion, despite playing a role in inflammation cell-signaling pathways in vitro, TRAIL-R does not appear to play a major role in the susceptibility, clinical outcomes, or long-term sequelae of C. muridarum infections in vivo. IMPORTANCE TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor (TRAIL-R) is involved in suppressing inflammatory responses. Bacterial pathogens such as Chlamydia spp. elicit inflammatory responses in humans following genital, ocular, and respiratory infections. The inflammatory responses are important to control the spread of Chlamydia. However, in certain instances, these inflammatory responses can produce long-term sequelae, including fibrosis. Fibrosis, or scarring, in the genital tract, eye, and respiratory system results in functional deficiencies, including infertility, blindness, and chronic obstructive lung disease, respectively. The goal of this study was to determine if mice deficient in TRAIL-R infected in the genital and respiratory tracts with Chlamydia spp. suffer more or less severe infections, infertility, or lung diseases than wild-type mice. Our results show no differences between the immune responses, infection severity, and long-term sequelae between TRAIL-R knockout and wild-type animals following a genital or a respiratory infection with Chlamydia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukumar Pal
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Sciences I, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Sydni Sheff
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Sciences I, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Mufadhal Al-Kuhlani
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Arthur Dugoni School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific, San Francisco, California, USA
- Life Science Department, Fresno City College, Fresno, California, USA
| | - David M. Ojcius
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Arthur Dugoni School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Luis M. de la Maza
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Sciences I, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
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Codon-Dependent Transcriptional Changes in Response to Tryptophan Limitation in the Tryptophan Auxotrophic Pathogens Chlamydia trachomatis and Streptococcus pyogenes. mSystems 2021; 6:e0126921. [PMID: 34904862 PMCID: PMC8670374 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.01269-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis and Streptococcus pyogenes are among the most prevalent bacterial pathogens of humans. Interestingly, both pathogens are tryptophan (Trp) auxotrophs and must acquire this essential amino acid from their environment. For Chlamydia, an obligate intracellular bacterium, this means scavenging Trp from the host cell in which they reside. For Streptococcus, a primarily extracellular bacterium, this means scavenging Trp from the local environment. In the course of a natural immune response, both pathogens can be exposed to Trp-limiting conditions through the action of the interferon gamma-inducible IDO1 enzyme, which catabolizes Trp to N-formylkynurenine. How these pathogens respond to Trp starvation is incompletely understood. However, we have previously demonstrated that genes enriched in Trp codons were preferentially transcribed in C. pneumoniae during Trp limitation. Chlamydia, but not Streptococcus, lacks a stringent response, which is a global regulon activated by uncharged tRNAs binding in the A site of the ribosome. We hypothesized that the chlamydial response to Trp limitation is a consequence of lacking a stringent response. To test this, we compared global transcription profiles of C. trachomatis to both wild-type and stringent response mutant strains of Streptococcus during Trp starvation. We observed that both Trp auxotrophs respond with codon-dependent changes in their transcriptional profiles that correlate with Trp codon content but not transcript stability. Importantly, the stringent response had no impact on these transcriptional changes, suggesting an evolutionarily conserved adaptation to Trp starvation. Therefore, we have revealed a novel response of Trp auxotrophic pathogens in response to Trp starvation. IMPORTANCEChlamydia trachomatis and Streptococcus pyogenes are important pathogens of humans. Interestingly, both are auxotrophic for tryptophan and acquire this essential amino acid from the host environment. However, part of the host defense against pathogens includes the degradation of tryptophan pools. Therefore, Chlamydia and Streptococcus are particularly susceptible to tryptophan starvation. Most model bacteria respond to amino acid starvation by using a global regulon called the stringent response. However, Chlamydia lacks a stringent response. Here, we investigated the chlamydial response to tryptophan starvation and compared it to both wild-type and stringent response mutant strains of S. pyogenes to determine what role a functional stringent response plays during tryptophan starvation in these pathogens. We determined that both of these pathogens respond to tryptophan starvation by increasing transcription of tryptophan codon-rich genes. This effect was not dependent on the stringent response and highlights a previously unrecognized and potentially evolutionarily conserved mechanism for surviving tryptophan starvation.
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Vrbanac A, Riestra AM, Coady A, Knight R, Nizet V, Patras KA. The murine vaginal microbiota and its perturbation by the human pathogen group B Streptococcus. BMC Microbiol 2018; 18:197. [PMID: 30477439 PMCID: PMC6260558 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1341-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Composition of the vaginal microbiota has significant influence on female urogenital health and control of infectious disease. Murine models are widely utilized to characterize host-pathogen interactions within the vaginal tract, however, the composition of endogenous vaginal flora remains largely undefined with modern microbiome analyses. Here, we employ 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to establish the native microbial composition of the vaginal tract in adult C57Bl/6 J mice. We further interrogate the impact of estrous cycle and introduction of the human vaginal pathobiont, group B Streptococcus (GBS) on community state type and stability, and conversely, the impact of the vaginal microbiota on GBS persistence. RESULTS Sequencing analysis revealed five distinctive community states of the vaginal microbiota dominated largely by Staphylococcus and/or Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, or a mixed population. Stage of estrus did not impact microbial composition. Introduction of GBS decreased community stability at early timepoints; and in some mice, GBS became the dominant bacterium by day 21. Endogenous Staphylococcus abundance correlated with GBS ascension into the uterus, and increased community stability in GBS-challenged mice. CONCLUSIONS The murine vaginal flora is diverse and fluctuates independently of the estrous cycle. Endogenous flora may impact pathogen colonization and dissemination and should be considered in urogenital infection models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Vrbanac
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
| | - Angelica M. Riestra
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
| | - Alison Coady
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
| | - Rob Knight
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
- Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Victor Nizet
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Kathryn A. Patras
- Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760 USA
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Last A, Burr S, Alexander N, Harding-Esch E, Roberts CH, Nabicassa M, Cassama ETDS, Mabey D, Holland M, Bailey R. Spatial clustering of high load ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection in trachoma: a cross-sectional population-based study. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:3791466. [PMID: 28472466 PMCID: PMC5808645 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) is the most common cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infection and infectious cause of blindness (trachoma) worldwide. Understanding the spatial distribution of Ct infection may enable us to identify populations at risk and improve our understanding of Ct transmission. In this study, we sought to investigate the spatial distribution of Ct infection and the clinical features associated with high Ct load in trachoma-endemic communities on the Bijagós Archipelago (Guinea Bissau). We collected 1507 conjunctival samples and corresponding detailed clinical data during a cross-sectional population-based geospatially representative trachoma survey. We used droplet digital PCR to estimate Ct load on conjunctival swabs. Geostatistical tools were used to investigate clustering of ocular Ct infections. Spatial clusters (independent of age and gender) of individuals with high Ct loads were identified using local indicators of spatial association. We did not detect clustering of individuals with low load infections. These data suggest that infections with high bacterial load may be important in Ct transmission. These geospatial tools may be useful in the study of ocular Ct transmission dynamics and as part of trachoma surveillance post-treatment, to identify clusters of infection and thresholds of Ct load that may be important foci of re-emergent infection in communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Last
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Sarah Burr
- Disease Control and Elimination Theme, Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia, PO Box 273 Banjul, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, The Gambia
| | - Neal Alexander
- MRC Tropical Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Emma Harding-Esch
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Chrissy H Roberts
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Meno Nabicassa
- Programa Nacional de Saúde de Visão, Ministério de Saúde Publica, PO Box 50, Avenida de Unidade Africana, Bisssau, Guiné Bissau
| | | | - David Mabey
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Martin Holland
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Robin Bailey
- Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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Molecular Pathogenesis of Chlamydia Disease Complications: Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Fibrosis. Infect Immun 2017; 86:IAI.00585-17. [PMID: 29084894 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00585-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The reproductive system complications of genital chlamydial infection include fallopian tube fibrosis and tubal factor infertility. However, the molecular pathogenesis of these complications remains poorly understood. The induction of pathogenic epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through microRNA (miRNA) dysregulation was recently proposed as the pathogenic basis of chlamydial complications. Focusing on fibrogenesis, we investigated the hypothesis that chlamydia-induced fibrosis is caused by EMT-driven generation of myofibroblasts, the effector cells of fibrosis that produce excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. The results revealed that the targets of a major category of altered miRNAs during chlamydial infection are key components of the pathophysiological process of fibrogenesis; these target molecules include collagen types I, III, and IV, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), TGF-β receptor 1 (TGF-βR1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), E-cadherin, SRY-box 7 (SOX7), and NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) kinase dual-specificity tyrosine (Y) phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1a (Dyrk1a). Chlamydial induction of EMT resulted in the generation of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)-positive myofibroblasts that produced ECM proteins, including collagen types I and III and fibronectin. Furthermore, the inhibition of EMT prevented the generation of myofibroblasts and production of ECM proteins during chlamydial infection. These findings may provide useful avenues for targeting EMT or specific components of the EMT pathways as a therapeutic intervention strategy to prevent chlamydia-related complications.
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Olsen AW, Lorenzen EK, Rosenkrands I, Follmann F, Andersen P. Protective Effect of Vaccine Promoted Neutralizing Antibodies against the Intracellular Pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1652. [PMID: 29312283 PMCID: PMC5732375 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an unmet need for a vaccine to control Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) infections. We have recently designed a multivalent heterologous immuno-repeat 1 (Hirep1) vaccine construct based on major outer membrane protein variable domain (VD) 4 regions from C.t. serovars (Svs) D–F. Hirep1 administered in the Cationic Adjuvant Formulation no. 1 (CAF01) promoted neutralizing antibodies in concert with CD4+ T cells and protected against genital infection. In the current study, we examined the protective role of the antibody (Ab) response in detail. Mice were vaccinated with either Hirep1 or a vaccine construct based on a homologous multivalent construct of extended VD4’s from SvF (extVD4F*4), adjuvanted in CAF01. Hirep1 and extVD4F*4 induced similar levels of Ab and cell-mediated immune responses but differed in the fine specificity of the B cell epitopes targeted in the VD4 region. Hirep1 induced a strong response toward a neutralizing epitope (LNPTIAG) and the importance of this epitope for neutralization was demonstrated by competitive inhibition with the corresponding peptide. Immunization with extVD4F*4 skewed the response to a non-neutralizing epitope slightly upstream in the sequence. Vaccination with Hirep1 as opposed to extVD4F*4 induced significant protection against infection in mice both in short- and long-term vaccination experiments, signifying a key role for Hirep1 neutralizing antibodies during protection against C.t. Finally, we show that passive immunization of Rag1 knockout mice with Hirep1 antibodies completely prevented the establishment of infection in 48% of the mice, demonstrating an isolated role for neutralizing antibodies in controlling infection. Our data emphasize the role of antibodies in early protection against C.t. and support the inclusion of neutralizing targets in chlamydia vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Weinreich Olsen
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Emma Kathrine Lorenzen
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ida Rosenkrands
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Frank Follmann
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Andersen
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Belay T, Woart A, Graffeo V. Effect of cold water-induced stress on immune response, pathology and fertility in mice during Chlamydia muridarum genital infection. Pathog Dis 2017; 75:3738188. [PMID: 28431099 PMCID: PMC5808652 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Genital infection by Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide. It causes serious reproductive health complications, including pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility. Stress is implicated as a risk factor for various infections; however, its effect on chlamydia genital infection is unknown. We previously showed that repeated exposure of mice to cold water results in increased severity of chlamydia genital infection. In this study, cold water-induced stress resulted in (i) elevated levels of norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine in the spleen and genital tract of stressed mice; (ii) elevated IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 and nitric oxide production in macrophage-rich peritoneal cells of mice; (iii) supplement of NE in vitro exerts an immunosuppressive effect on splenic T-cell production of cytokines; (iv) decreased C. muridarum shedding in the genital tract of β1Adr/β2Adr receptor KO mice; and (v) a higher rate of infertility in infected mice. These results suggest that cold water stress induces the production of catecholamines, which may play a critical role in the modulation of the immune system leading to increased intensity of C. muridarum genital infection.
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Update on Chlamydia trachomatis Vaccinology. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2017; 24:CVI.00543-16. [PMID: 28228394 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00543-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Attempts to produce a vaccine to protect against Chlamydia trachomatis-induced trachoma were initiated more than 100 years ago and continued for several decades. Using whole organisms, protective responses were obtained. However, upon exposure to C. trachomatis, disease exacerbation developed in some immunized individuals, precluding the implementation of the vaccine. Evidence of the role of C. trachomatis as a sexually transmitted pathogen started to emerge in the 1960s, and it soon became evident that it can cause acute infections and long-term sequelae in women, men, and newborns. The main focus of this minireview is to summarize recent findings and discuss formulations, including antigens, adjuvants, routes, and delivery systems for immunization, primarily explored in the female mouse model, with the goal of implementing a vaccine against C. trachomatis genital infections.
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Bhandari P, Prabha V. Evaluation of profertility effect of probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum 2621 in a murine model. Indian J Med Res 2016; 142:79-84. [PMID: 26261170 PMCID: PMC4557255 DOI: 10.4103/0971-5916.162127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives: Urogenital infections of bacterial origin have a high incidence among the female population at reproductive age, affecting the fertility. Strains of Escherichia coli can colonize the vagina and replace natural microflora. Lactobacillus the predominant vaginal microorganism in healthy women, maintains the acidic vaginal pH which inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Studies on Lactobacillus have shown that these can inhibit E. coli growth and vaginal colonization. An alternative therapeutic approach to antimicrobial therapy is to re-establish Lactobacillus in this microbiome through probiotic administration to resurge fertility. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the capability of L. plantarum 2621 strain with probiotic properties, to prevent the vaginal colonization of E. coli causing agglutination of sperms and to evaluate its profertility effect in a murine model. Methods: Screened mice were divided into five groups i.e. control group, E. coli group, Lactobacillus group, prophylactic and therapeutic groups. The control group was infused with 20 µl PBS, E.coli group was administered with 106 cfu/20 µl E. coli, and probiotic group was administered with Lactobacillus (108 cfu/20 µl) for 10 consecutive days. In prophylactic group, the vagina was colonized with 10 consecutive doses of Lactobacillus (108 cfu/20 µl). After 24 h, it was followed by 10 day intravaginal infection with E. coli (106 cfu/20 µl) whereas for the therapeutic group vagina was colonized with (106 cfu/20 µl) E. coli for 10 consecutive days, followed by 10 day intravaginal administration with Lactobacillus after 24 h. Results: Upon mating and completion of gestation period, control, probiotic and the therapeutic groups had litters in contrast to the prophylactic group and the group administered with E. coli. Interpretation & conclusions: Results indicated that Lactobacillus intermitted colonization of pathogenic strains that resulted in reinforcement of natural microflora and resurge fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vijay Prabha
- Department of Microbiology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
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Role of Epithelial-Mesenchyme Transition in Chlamydia Pathogenesis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145198. [PMID: 26681200 PMCID: PMC4683008 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection in women causes serious adverse reproductive complications, and is a strong co-factor for human papilloma virus (HPV)-associated cervical epithelial carcinoma. We tested the hypothesis that Chlamydia induces epithelial-mesenchyme transition (EMT) involving T cell-derived TNF-alpha signaling, caspase activation, cleavage inactivation of dicer and dysregulation of micro-RNA (miRNA) in the reproductive epithelium; the pathologic process of EMT causes fibrosis and fertility-related epithelial dysfunction, and also provides the co-factor function for HPV-related cervical epithelial carcinoma. Using a combination of microarrays, immunohistochemistry and proteomics, we showed that chlamydia altered the expression of crucial miRNAs that control EMT, fibrosis and tumorigenesis; specifically, miR-15a, miR-29b, miR-382 and MiR-429 that maintain epithelial integrity were down-regulated, while miR-9, mi-R-19a, miR-22 and miR-205 that promote EMT, fibrosis and tumorigenesis were up-regulated. Chlamydia induced EMT in vitro and in vivo, marked by the suppression of normal epithelial cell markers especially E-cadherin but up-regulation of mesenchymal markers of pathological EMT, including T-cadherin, MMP9, and fibronectin. Also, Chlamydia upregulated pro-EMT regulators, including the zinc finger E-box binding homeobox protein, ZEB1, Snail1/2, and thrombospondin1 (Thbs1), but down-regulated anti-EMT and fertility promoting proteins (i.e., the major gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx43), Mets1, Add1Scarb1 and MARCKSL1). T cell-derived TNF-alpha signaling was required for chlamydial-induced infertility and caspase inhibitors prevented both infertility and EMT. Thus, chlamydial-induced T cell-derived TNF-alpha activated caspases that inactivated dicer, causing alteration in the expression of reproductive epithelial miRNAs and induction of EMT. EMT causes epithelial malfunction, fibrosis, infertility, and the enhancement of tumorigenesis of HPV oncogene-transformed epithelial cells. These findings provide a novel understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of chlamydia-associated diseases, which may guide a rational prevention strategy.
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Microbiological Characteristics of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infections in South African Women. J Clin Microbiol 2015; 54:200-3. [PMID: 26511740 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02848-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We analyzed data of 263 women with at least one genital or anorectal sexually transmitted infection from a cross-sectional study conducted in rural South Africa. We provide new insights concerning the concurrence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Trichomonas vaginalis infections as well as the characteristics of bacterial loads.
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Gupta R, Wali S, Yu JJ, Chambers JP, Zhong G, Murthy AK, Bakar SA, Guentzel MN, Arulanandam BP. In vivo whole animal body imaging reveals colonization of Chlamydia muridarum to the lower genital tract at early stages of infection. Mol Imaging Biol 2015; 16:635-41. [PMID: 24723309 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-014-0732-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The leading cause of sexually transmitted bacterial infection is Chlamydia trachomatis. The aim of this study is to investigate the early events in colonization of this bacterium within the murine genital tract. PROCEDURES An in vivo animal body imaging technology was used to track fluorophore labeled C. muridarum elementary bodies (EBs) inoculated intravaginally in C57BL/6 mice during the first 24 h of infection. RESULTS Ascension of viable EBs was observed (1) to be localized to the lower regions of the murine genital tract within the first 24 h post challenge and (2) was dose independent during this early exposure period. Molecular detection revealed enhanced bacterial load in lower regions of the genital tract with increasing bacterial load in the upper region beginning 12 h post inoculation. CONCLUSION This study provides additional insight into chlamydial colonization in the murine genital tract during the first 12-24 h following inoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishein Gupta
- South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Disease and Center of Excellence in Infection Genomics, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA
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Burton JC, Wang S, Stewart CA, Behringer RR, Larina IV. High-resolution three-dimensional in vivo imaging of mouse oviduct using optical coherence tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 6:2713-2723. [PMID: 26203393 PMCID: PMC4505721 DOI: 10.1364/boe.6.002713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of the reproductive events and the molecular mechanisms regulating fertility and infertility in humans relies heavily on the analysis of the corresponding phenotypes in mouse models. While molecular genetic approaches provide significant insight into the molecular regulation of these processes, the lack of live imaging methods that allow for detailed visualization of the mouse reproductive organs limits our investigations of dynamic events taking place during the ovulation, the fertilization and the pre-implantation stages of embryonic development. Here we introduce an in vivo three-dimensional imaging approach for visualizing the mouse oviduct and reproductive events with micro-scale spatial resolution using optical coherence tomography (OCT). This method relies on the natural tissue optical contrast and does not require the application of any contrast agents. For the first time, we present live high-resolution images of the internal structural features of the oviduct, as well as other reproductive organs and the oocytes surrounded by cumulus cells. These results provide the basis for a wide range of live dynamic studies focused on understanding fertility and infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason C. Burton
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
- Equal Contribution
| | - Shang Wang
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
- Equal Contribution
| | - C. Allison Stewart
- Department of Genetics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Richard R. Behringer
- Department of Genetics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Irina V. Larina
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
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15
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Sun X, Yang Z, Zhang H, Dai J, Chen J, Tang L, Rippentrop S, Xue M, Zhong G, Wu G. Chlamydia muridarum induction of glandular duct dilation in mice. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2327-37. [PMID: 25824829 PMCID: PMC4432733 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00154-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although Chlamydia-induced hydrosalpinx in women and mice has been used as a surrogate marker for tubal infertility, the medical relevance of nontubal pathologies, such as uterine horn dilation, developed in mice following chlamydial infection remains unclear. We now report that the uterine horn dilation correlates with glandular duct dilation detected microscopically following Chlamydia muridarum infection. The dilated glandular ducts pushed the uterine horn lumen to closure or dilation and even broke through the myometrium to develop extrusion outside the uterine horn. The severity scores of uterine horn dilation observed macroscopically correlated well with the number of cross sections of the dilated glandular ducts counted under microscopy. Chlamydial infection was detected in the glandular epithelial cells, potentially leading to inflammation and dilation of the glandular ducts. Direct delivery of C. muridarum into the mouse uterus increased both uterine horn/glandular duct dilation and hydrosalpinx. However, the chlamydial plasmid, which is essential for the induction of hydrosalpinx, was not required for the induction of uterine horn/glandular duct dilation. Screening 12 strains of mice for uterine horn dilation following C. muridarum infection revealed that B10.D2, C57BL/10J, and C57BL/6J mice were most susceptible, followed by BALB/cJ and A/J mice. Deficiency in host genes involved in immune responses failed to significantly alter the C. muridarum induction of uterine horn dilation. Nevertheless, the chlamydial induction of uterine horn/glandular duct dilation may be used to evaluate plasmid-independent pathogenicity of Chlamydia in susceptible mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 3rd Xiangya Hospital, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhangsheng Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Department of Pathology, 2nd Xiangya Hospital, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Dai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Jianlin Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd Xiangya Hospital, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingli Tang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Department of Clinical Diagnosis, 2nd Xiangya Hospital, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Sheena Rippentrop
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Min Xue
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 3rd Xiangya Hospital, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangming Zhong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Ganqiu Wu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Department of Histology and Embryology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University of China, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
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16
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Vander H, Prabha V. Evaluation of fertility outcome as a consequence of intravaginal inoculation with sperm-impairing micro-organisms in a mouse model. J Med Microbiol 2015; 64:344-347. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Harpreet Vander
- Department of Microbiology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Vijay Prabha
- Department of Microbiology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
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17
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Dirks JAMC, Wolffs PFG, Dukers-Muijrers NHTM, Brink AATP, Speksnijder AGCL, Hoebe CJPA. Chlamydia trachomatis load in population-based screening and STI-clinics: implications for screening policy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121433. [PMID: 25826298 PMCID: PMC4380475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives If the Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) bacterial load is higher in high-risk populations than in the general population, this negatively affects the efficacy of CT screening incentives. In the largest retrospective study to date, we investigated the CT load in specimens collected from 2 cohorts: (1) attendants of a sexually transmitted infection (STI)-clinic and (2) participants of the Dutch population-based screening (PBS). Methods CT load was determined using quantitative PCR in CT-positive male urine and female cervicovaginal swabs. CT loads were converted into tertiles. Using multinominal logistic regression, independent association of cohort, symptoms, risk behaviour and human cell count on load were assessed. Results CT loads were determined in 889 CT-positives from PBS (n = 529; 71.8% female) and STI-clinics (n = 360; 61.7% female). In men, STI-clinic-cohort, human cell count and urethral discharge were positively associated with CT load. In women, PBS-cohort and cell count were positively associated with CT load. Both cohorts had the same range in CT load. Conclusions The general population has a similar range of bacterial CT load as a high-risk population, but a different distribution for cohort and gender, highlighting the relevance of population-based CT-screening. When CT loads are similar, possibly the chances of transmission and sequelae are too.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne A. M. C. Dirks
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Petra F. G. Wolffs
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Nicole H. T. M. Dukers-Muijrers
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Antoinette A. T. P. Brink
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Christian J. P. A. Hoebe
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Sexual Health, Infectious Diseases and Environmental Health, Public Health Service South Limburg, Geleen, The Netherlands
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18
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Kaur K, Prabha V. Spermagglutinating Escherichia coli and its role in infertility: In vivo study. Microb Pathog 2014; 69-70:33-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2014.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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Cheng C, Jain P, Pal S, Tifrea D, Sun G, Teng AA, Liang X, Felgner PL, de la Maza LM. Assessment of the role in protection and pathogenesis of the Chlamydia muridarum V-type ATP synthase subunit A (AtpA) (TC0582). Microbes Infect 2013; 16:123-133. [PMID: 24161793 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A novel Chlamydia muridarum antigen (TC0582) was used to vaccinate BALB/c mice. Mice were also immunized with other components of the ATP synthase complex (TC0580, TC0581, and TC0584), or with the major outer membrane protein (MOMP). TC0582 was also formulated in combination with TC0580, TC0581 or MOMP. TC0582 alone, or in combination with the other antigens, elicited strong Chlamydia-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Vaccinated animals were challenged intranasally and the course of the infection was followed for 10 days. Based on percentage change in body weight, lung weight, and number of Chlamydia inclusion forming units recovered from the lungs, mice immunized with TC0582, TC0581 or MOMP, as single antigens, showed significant protection. Mice immunized with combinations of two antigens were also protected but the level of protection was not additive. TC0582 has sequence homology with the eukaryotic ATP synthase subunit A (AtpA). Therefore, to determine if immunization with TC0582, or with Chlamydia, elicited antibodies that cross-reacted with the mouse AtpA, the two proteins were printed on a microarray. Sera from mice immunized with TC0582 and/or live Chlamydia, strongly reacted with TC0582 but did not recognize the mouse AtpA. In conclusion, TC0582 may be considered as a Chlamydia vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmei Cheng
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
| | - Pooja Jain
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
| | - Sukumar Pal
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
| | - Delia Tifrea
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
| | - Guifeng Sun
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
| | - Andy A Teng
- ImmPORT Therapeutics, Inc./Antigen Discovery Inc. 1 Technology Dr., Suite E309 Irvine, CA 92618
| | - Xiaowu Liang
- ImmPORT Therapeutics, Inc./Antigen Discovery Inc. 1 Technology Dr., Suite E309 Irvine, CA 92618
| | - Philip L Felgner
- ImmPORT Therapeutics, Inc./Antigen Discovery Inc. 1 Technology Dr., Suite E309 Irvine, CA 92618.,Department of Medicine 3052 Hewitt Hall University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4068
| | - Luis M de la Maza
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical Sciences I, Room D440 University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697-4800
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20
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Hafner LM, Cunningham K, Beagley KW. Ovarian steroid hormones: effects on immune responses and Chlamydia trachomatis infections of the female genital tract. Mucosal Immunol 2013; 6:859-75. [PMID: 23860476 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2013.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2011] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Female sex hormones are known to regulate the adaptive and innate immune functions of the female reproductive tract. This review aims to update our current knowledge of the effects of the sex hormones estradiol and progesterone in the female reproductive tract on innate immunity, antigen presentation, specific immune responses, antibody secretion, genital tract infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, and vaccine-induced immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Hafner
- Infectious Diseases Program, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia.
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21
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Sperling R, Kraus TA, Ding J, Veretennikova A, Lorde-Rollins E, Singh T, Lo Y, Quayle AJ, Chang TL. Differential profiles of immune mediators and in vitro HIV infectivity between endocervical and vaginal secretions from women with Chlamydia trachomatis infection: a pilot study. J Reprod Immunol 2013; 99:80-7. [PMID: 23993451 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2013.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis infection is one of the most prevalent bacterial STIs in the USA and worldwide, and women with C. trachomatis infection are at increased risk of acquiring HIV. Because immune activation at the genital mucosa facilitates HIV/SIV infection, C. trachomatis-mediated cytokine induction may contribute to increased HIV transmission in asymptomatic women. To begin to elucidate the mechanisms, we longitudinally analyzed profiles of innate immune factors and HIV infectivity in genital secretions from anatomically specific sites in asymptomatic women during C. trachomatis infection and post-antibiotic treatment. We found higher levels of cytokines and chemokines in endocervical secretions than vaginal secretions. Compared with the convalescent state, G-CSF, IL-1α, and RANTES were elevated in endocervical secretions, IFN-γ and TNF-α were elevated in vaginal secretions, and IFNγ, IL-1β, and MIP1-α were elevated in cervicolavage fluid (CVL), before adjustment of multiple comparisons. Elevated endocervical levels of IP-10 and MCP-1 were associated with the use of hormonal contraception in infected women after successful treatment, suggesting the role of hormonal contraception in inflammation independent of STIs. Importantly, soluble factors found in endocervical secretions during infection enhanced HIV infectivity while no difference in HIV infectivity was found with vaginal secretions or CVL during infection or at convalescence. Taken together, the profiles of immune mediators and in vitro HIV infectivity indicate that the endocervical and vaginal mucosa are immunologically distinct. Our results underscore the importance of considering anatomical site and local sampling methodology when measuring mucosal responses, particularly in the presence of C. trachomatis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhoda Sperling
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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22
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Animal models for studying female genital tract infection with Chlamydia trachomatis. Infect Immun 2013; 81:3060-7. [PMID: 23836817 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00357-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen. It is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease in the world, with more than 100 million new cases of genital tract infections with C. trachomatis occurring each year. Animal models are indispensable for the study of C. trachomatis infections and the development and evaluation of candidate vaccines. In this paper, the most commonly used animal models to study female genital tract infections with C. trachomatis will be reviewed, namely, the mouse, guinea pig, and nonhuman primate models. Additionally, we will focus on the more recently developed pig model.
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23
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Igietseme JU, Omosun Y, Partin J, Goldstein J, He Q, Joseph K, Ellerson D, Ansari U, Eko FO, Bandea C, Zhong G, Black CM. Prevention of Chlamydia-induced infertility by inhibition of local caspase activity. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:1095-104. [PMID: 23303804 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tubal factor infertility (TFI) represents 36% of female infertility and genital infection by Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis) is a major cause. Although TFI is associated with host inflammatory responses to bacterial components, the molecular pathogenesis of Chlamydia-induced infertility remains poorly understood. We investigated the hypothesis that activation of specific cysteine proteases, the caspases, during C. trachomatis genital infection causes the disruption of key fertility-promoting molecules required for embryo development and implantation. We analyzed the effect of caspase inhibition on infertility and the integrity of Dicer, a caspase-sensitive, fertility-promoting ribonuclease III enzyme, and key micro-RNAs in the reproductive system. Genital infection with the inflammation- and caspase-inducing, wild-type C. trachomatis serovar L2 led to infertility, but the noninflammation-inducing, plasmid-free strain did not. We confirmed that caspase-mediated apoptotic tissue destruction may contribute to chlamydial pathogenesis. Caspase-1 or -3 deficiency, or local administration of the pan caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-FMK into normal mice protected against Chlamydia-induced infertility. Finally, the oviducts of infected infertile mice showed evidence of caspase-mediated cleavage inactivation of Dicer and alteration in critical miRNAs that regulate growth, differentiation, and development, including mir-21. These results provide new insight into the molecular pathogenesis of TFI with significant implications for new strategies for treatment and prevention of chlamydial complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph U Igietseme
- National Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Carmichael JR, Tifrea D, Pal S, de la Maza LM. Differences in infectivity and induction of infertility: a comparative study of Chlamydia trachomatis strains in the murine model. Microbes Infect 2012; 15:219-29. [PMID: 23287699 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis, although commonly asymptomatic in women, can result in chronic sequelae, such as pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. However, a clear relationship has not been determined between specific serovars and the ability to lead to upper genital tract infection or infertility. Thus, in order to investigate differences in pathogenicity, C3H/HeN mice were infected in the ovarian bursa with the C. trachomatis strains D (UW-3/Cx), F (N.I.1), F (IC-Cal-3) and E (Bour). Differences both in the amount of vaginal shedding as well as subsequent fertility rates were observed between D (UW-3/Cx) and F (N.I.1) compared to F (IC-Cal-3) and E (Bour). Approximately 50% of the mice infected with the D (UW-3/Cx) and F (N.I.1) strains had vaginal shedding for up to 3-4 weeks after infection and fertility rates of less than 25%. Furthermore, mice inoculated with D (UW-3/Cx) and F (N.I.1) showed infertility even in the absence of medroxy progesterone acetate (MPA) treatment. In contrast, both MPA and non-MPA treated mice infected with F (IC-Cal-3) or E (Bour) did not show vaginal shedding and had fertility rates between 45 and 88%. Mutations in the CT135 open reading frame have been associated with virulence. However, no nucleotide differences were found among the four isolates for CT135. This murine model of infection with C. trachomatis may help with the understanding of disease pathology in humans and ultimately vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Carmichael
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Sciences, Room D440, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4800, USA
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25
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Proteomic identification of immunodominant chlamydial antigens in a mouse model. J Proteomics 2012; 77:176-86. [PMID: 22959960 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Revised: 08/04/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted pathogen in the world. To identify new vaccine candidates a protein microarray was constructed by expressing the open reading frames (ORFs) from Chlamydia mouse pneumonitis (MoPn). C57BL/6, C3H/HeN and BALB/c mice were immunized either intranasally or intravaginally with live MoPn elementary bodies (EB). Two additional groups were immunized by the intramuscular plus subcutaneous routes with UV-treated EB, using CpG and Montanide as adjuvants to favor a Th1 response, or Alum, to elicit a Th2 response. Serum samples collected from the three strains of mice were tested in the microarray. The array included the expression of 909 proteins from the 921 ORFs of the MoPn genome and plasmid. A total of 530 ORFs were recognized by at least one serum sample. Of these, 36 reacted with sera from the three strains of mice immunized with live EB. These antigens included proteins that were previously described as immunogenic such as MOMP and HSP60. In addition, we uncovered new immunogens, including 11 hypothetical proteins. In summary, we have identified new immunodominant chlamydial proteins that can be tested for their ability to induce protection in animal models and subsequently in humans.
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Herzog SA, Althaus CL, Heijne JC, Oakeshott P, Kerry S, Hay P, Low N. Timing of progression from Chlamydia trachomatis infection to pelvic inflammatory disease: a mathematical modelling study. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12:187. [PMID: 22883325 PMCID: PMC3505463 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) results from the ascending spread of microorganisms from the vagina and endocervix to the upper genital tract. PID can lead to infertility, ectopic pregnancy and chronic pelvic pain. The timing of development of PID after the sexually transmitted bacterial infection Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia) might affect the impact of screening interventions, but is currently unknown. This study investigates three hypothetical processes for the timing of progression: at the start, at the end, or throughout the duration of chlamydia infection. METHODS We develop a compartmental model that describes the trial structure of a published randomised controlled trial (RCT) and allows each of the three processes to be examined using the same model structure. The RCT estimated the effect of a single chlamydia screening test on the cumulative incidence of PID up to one year later. The fraction of chlamydia infected women who progress to PID is obtained for each hypothetical process by the maximum likelihood method using the results of the RCT. RESULTS The predicted cumulative incidence of PID cases from all causes after one year depends on the fraction of chlamydia infected women that progresses to PID and on the type of progression. Progression at a constant rate from a chlamydia infection to PID or at the end of the infection was compatible with the findings of the RCT. The corresponding estimated fraction of chlamydia infected women that develops PID is 10% (95% confidence interval 7-13%) in both processes. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this study suggest that clinical PID can occur throughout the course of a chlamydia infection, which will leave a window of opportunity for screening to prevent PID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sereina A Herzog
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern CH-3012, Switzerland.
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Describing the Progression From Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae to Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. Sex Transm Dis 2012; 39:628-37. [DOI: 10.1097/olq.0b013e31825159ff] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Identification of immunodominant antigens by probing a whole Chlamydia trachomatis open reading frame proteome microarray using sera from immunized mice. Infect Immun 2010; 79:246-57. [PMID: 20956570 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00626-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis infections can lead to severe chronic complications, including trachoma, ectopic pregnancy, and infertility. The only effective approach to disease control is vaccination. The goal of this work was to identify new potential vaccine candidates through a proteomics approach. We constructed a protein chip array (Antigen Discovery, Inc.) by expressing the open reading frames (ORFs) from C. trachomatis mouse pneumonitis (MoPn) genomic and plasmid DNA and tested it with serum samples from MoPn-immunized mice. Two groups of BALB/c female mice were immunized either intranasally or intravaginally with live elementary bodies (EB). Another two groups were immunized by a combination of the intramuscular and subcutaneous routes with UV-treated EB (UV-EB), using either CpG and Montanide as adjuvants to favor a Th1 response or alum to elicit a Th2 response. Serum samples collected at regular intervals postimmunization were tested in the proteome array. The microarray included the expression products of 909 proteins from a total of 921 ORFs of the Chlamydia MoPn genome and plasmid. A total of 185 immunodominant proteins elicited an early and sustained antibody response in the mice immunized with live EB, and of these, 71 were also recognized by the sera from mice immunized with UV-EB. The reactive antigens included some proteins that were previously described as immunogenic, such as the major outer membrane protein, OmpB, Hsp60, and IncA and proteins from the type III secretion system. In addition, we identified in mice several new immunogens, including 75 hypothetical proteins. In summary, we have identified a new group of immunodominant chlamydial proteins that can be tested for their ability to induce protection.
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Agrawal T, Vats V, Salhan S, Mittal A. The mucosal immune response to Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the reproductive tract in women. J Reprod Immunol 2009; 83:173-8. [PMID: 19896206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2009.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 07/17/2009] [Accepted: 07/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis infection is an important public health concern with major adverse effects on female reproductive tract health and function. The magnitude of reproductive morbidity associated with sexually transmitted C. trachomatis infection is enormous, however to date no prophylactic vaccine is available. In part this is due to the lack of information on the mucosal immunobiology of the host-pathogen interaction and correlates of protective immunity during genital C. trachomatis infection. In this review, we focus on current knowledge of mucosal innate and adaptive immune responses in the female genital tract during C. trachomatis infection, which will eventually help in the development of a vaccine for prevention of chlamydial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvi Agrawal
- Institute of Pathology - ICMR, Safdarjung Hospital Campus, New Delhi, India
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Igietseme JU, He Q, Joseph K, Eko FO, Lyn D, Ananaba G, Campbell A, Bandea C, Black CM. Role of T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of Chlamydia disease. J Infect Dis 2009; 200:926-34. [PMID: 19656067 DOI: 10.1086/605411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are needed to prevent the oculogenital diseases of Chlamydia trachomatis. Infected hosts develop immunity, although temporary, and experimental vaccines have yielded significant protective immunity in animal models, fueling the impetus for a vaccine. Because infections cause sequelae, the functional relationship between infection- and vaccine-induced immunity is unclear. We hypothesized that infection- and vaccine-induced immunity are functionally distinct, particularly in the ability to prevent sequelae. Chlamydia-immune mice, with immunity generated by either a previous infection or vaccination, exhibited a significant degree of protective immunity, marked by a lower-intensity, abbreviated course of infection. However, vaccinated mice were protected from infertility, whereas preinfected mice were not. Thus, infection-induced immunity does not prevent the pathologic process leading to infertility. Furthermore, T cell subsets, especially CD8 T cells, play a major role in Chlamydia-induced infertility. The results have important implications for the immunopathogenesis of chlamydial disease and new vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph U Igietseme
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Persistently elevated level of IL-8 in Chlamydia trachomatis infected HeLa 229 cells is dependent on intracellular available iron. Mediators Inflamm 2009; 2009:417658. [PMID: 19503841 PMCID: PMC2686236 DOI: 10.1155/2009/417658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2009] [Accepted: 04/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is a leading cause of sexually transmitted infection worldwide and responsible for myriad of immunopathological changes associated with reproductive health. Delayed secretion of proinflammatory chemokine interleukin (IL)-8 is a hallmark of chlamydial infection and is dependent on chlamydial growth. We examined the effect of iron chelators on IL-8 production in HeLa 229 (cervix epitheloid cell, CCL2) cells infected with C. trachomatis. IL-8 production was induced by Iron chelator DFO and Mimosine, however, synergy with chlamydial infection was obtained with DFO only. Temporal expression of proinflammatory secreted cytokines IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-8 did not show synchrony in Chlamydia trachomatis infected cells. Secretion of IL-8 from Hela cells infected with C. trachomatis was not dependent on IL-1 beta and TNF- alpha induction. These results indicate towards involvement of iron in chlamydia induced IL-8 production.
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Peters J, Hess S, Endlich K, Thalmann J, Holzberg D, Kracht M, Schaefer M, Bartling G, Klos A. Silencing or permanent activation: host-cell responses in models of persistent Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Cell Microbiol 2005; 7:1099-108. [PMID: 16008577 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00534.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae causes respiratory infections. In chronic diseases associated with Chlamydia, such as arteriosclerosis, C. pneumoniae is present in a persistent form, which might participate in pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory disease. To elucidate how these intracellular bacteria modulate host-cells during persistence, we compared the expression pattern of a range of host genes after short (24 h) and long (up to 7 days) times of chlamydia infection in HeLa-cells. One day post infection, in three cell-culture models of persistence, namely treatment with penicillin or IFN-gamma, or iron-depletion, infection induced the genes of CTGF, IL-6, IL-8, IL-11, LIF, EGR-1 and ETV4 in a similar fashion. However, after a longer time, two modes of host-cell reaction emerged that were dependent on the persistence model used. After IFN-gamma and penicillin treatment chlamydia-induced host-cell gene expression was inhibited, while it stayed upregulated in iron-depletion. Human monocytes/macrophages, in which persistence naturally occurs, were additionally investigated: for several genes, UV-inactivated and viable chlamydia caused long-lasting upregulation. Thus, this study reveals (i) the ability of C. pneumoniae to participate in two putative pathomechanisms of persistence, silencing and permanent activation, which might represent different in vivo situations and (ii) a strong dependence on the mode of persistence induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Peters
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical School Hannover, D-30623 Hannover, Germany
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Maxion HK, Liu W, Chang MH, Kelly KA. The infecting dose of Chlamydia muridarum modulates the innate immune response and ascending infection. Infect Immun 2004; 72:6330-40. [PMID: 15501762 PMCID: PMC523032 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.11.6330-6340.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine vaginal infection with the obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia muridarum is commonly used as a model for ascending Chlamydia infections of the human female genital tract. Gamma interferon-producing Th1 cells, in concert with other mononuclear infiltrates, primarily mediate antichlamydial immunity. However, many factors modify this response, including the bacterial load. To investigate the manner in which the inoculating dose of C. muridarum modulates a genital infection, we measured innate and adaptive cell numbers, CD4+ lymphocyte cytokine profile, chemokine expression, course of infection, and pathological sequelae in genital tracts of BALB/c mice infected with doses of C. muridarum ranging from 10(4) to 10(7) inclusion-forming units. We found that the influx of both innate and adaptive immune cells responded similarly in the lower genital tract (cervical-vaginal tissues) and upper genital tract (oviduct tissues) to increasing inoculating doses. However, cells expressing the innate markers Gr-1 and CD11c were affected to a greater degree by increasing dose than lymphocytes of the adaptive immune response (Th1, CD4+, CD8+, CD19+), resulting in a change in the balance of innate and adaptive cell numbers to favor innate cells at higher infecting doses. Surprisingly, we detected greater numbers of viable chlamydiae in the oviducts at lower inoculating doses, and the number of organisms appeared to directly correlate with hydrosalpinx formation after both primary infection and repeat infection. Taken together, these data suggest that innate immune cells contribute to control of ascending infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather K Maxion
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1732, USA
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Reddy BS, Rastogi S, Das B, Salhan S, Verma S, Mittal A. Cytokine expression pattern in the genital tract of Chlamydia trachomatis positive infertile women - implication for T-cell responses. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 137:552-8. [PMID: 15320905 PMCID: PMC1809142 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02564.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human genital infection caused by Chlamydia trachomatis is thought to be immunologically mediated, resulting in local recruitment of lymphocyte subsets and inducing the production of cytokines. Little information is available about the role of lymphocyte recruitment and the regulation of cytokine production in the genital tract of C. trachomatis positive infertile women. We have evaluated the recruitment of lymphocyte subsets in the genital tract and production of Th1/Th2 cytokines in cervical secretions and laparoscopic specimens from the fallopian tubes of C. trachomatis positive infertile women (n = 17) and compared them with controls, viz. C. trachomatis negative infertile women (n = 20) using ELISA and flow cytometry. None of these patients were found to be infected either with Candida sps., bacterial vaginosis, Trichomonas vaginalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma hominis or Ureaplasma urealyticum in the cervix. Flow cytometric analysis of cervical secretions in Chlamydia positive women revealed recruitment of both CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes to the genital tract was up-regulated and a variation in the production rates of different cytokines in cervical secretions and fallopian tube was observed. We found that the immune responses in cervical secretions were of Th0 type, since all the analysed cytokines, viz. IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-10 and IL-12 were up-regulated. As, both CD4 and CD8 cells contribute to the production of IFN-gamma and IL-10, these results suggest that along with CD4 cells, CD8 lymphocytes also may be important for local regulation of Th1/Th2 responses in the genital tract during C. trachomatis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- B S Reddy
- Institute of Pathology-ICMR, Safdarjang Hospotal, New Delhi, India
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Debattista J, Timms P, Allan J, Allan J. Immunopathogenesis of chlamydia trachomatis infections in women. Fertil Steril 2003; 79:1273-87. [PMID: 12798871 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-0282(03)00396-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To develop a model of pathogenesis by which Chlamydia trachomatis progresses from acute to chronic infection, and finally serious disease (salpingitis, tubal occlusion). DESIGN Review of current literature located through web-based Medline searches using key words: Chlamydia trachomatis, immunology, cytokines, heat shock protein, infertility. RESULT(S) Cell-mediated immune mechanisms appear to be critical in determining whether acute infection is resolved or progresses into chronicity with pathological outcome. What determines the particular immune pathway depends on a range of determinants-HLA subtype and human genetics, cytokine profile, infectious load, route of infection, and endocrinology. A clearer picture of the natural history of chlamydial pathology may assist in providing better predictors of those women who may go on to develop significant sequelae after infection. CONCLUSION(S) Predicting those who may develop serious disease, including infertility, may contribute to improved management of such persons during earlier stages of infection and assist in prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Debattista
- Centre for Molecular Biotechnology, Queensland University of Technology, Queensland, Australia.
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Pal S, Peterson EM, de la Maza LM. Susceptibility of mice to vaginal infection with Chlamydia trachomatis mouse pneumonitis is dependent on the age of the animal. Infect Immun 2001; 69:5203-6. [PMID: 11447208 PMCID: PMC98622 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.8.5203-5206.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice from three strains, BALB/c (H-2(d)), C3H (H-2(k)), and C57BL/6 (H-2(b)), ranging from 5 to 14 weeks of age, were inoculated intravaginally with different doses of the Chlamydia trachomatis mouse pneumonitis serovar. Vaginal swabs taken at weekly intervals showed that the percentage of animals with positive cultures and the number of inclusion-forming units recovered per mouse were higher in the younger animals. Furthermore, vaginal shedding lasted longer in the young mice than in the older mice. In addition, following mating higher rates of infertility and a decrease in the number of embryos were observed in the infected young mice. In conclusion, susceptibility to a chlamydial vaginal infection is dependent on the age of the mice, with the older animals being more resistant.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pal
- Department of Pathology, Medical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-4800, USA
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Kelly KA, Walker JC, Jameel SH, Gray HL, Rank RG. Differential regulation of CD4 lymphocyte recruitment between the upper and lower regions of the genital tract during Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Infect Immun 2000; 68:1519-28. [PMID: 10678969 PMCID: PMC97310 DOI: 10.1128/iai.68.3.1519-1528.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genital infection with Chlamydia trachomatis results in both the local recruitment of protective immune responses and an inflammatory infiltrate that may also participate in tubal pathology. As a beginning to understanding the etiology of immune system-mediated tubal pathology, we evaluated the regional recruitment of lymphocyte subsets to different areas of the female genital tract (GT) over the course of a murine infection with the mouse pneumonitis agent of Chlamydia trachomatis (MoPn). Using flow cytometric techniques we found that the CD4 lymphocyte subset was preferentially recruited to the upper GT (oviduct and uterine horn) over the lower GT (cervical-vaginal region) throughout the course of MoPn infection. The influx of CD4 cells also correlated with the expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules (ECAMs) and in vitro lymphocyte adherence in the upper GT. Interestingly, the expression of ECAMs in the lower GT was not maintained longer than 7 days after infection, even in the presence of viable chlamydiae. Taken together, these data suggest that regulatory mechanisms of lymphocyte recruitment differ between the upper and lower regions of the GT and may influence the clearance of chlamydiae and the development of tubal pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Kelly
- Department of Pathology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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Igietseme JU, Ananaba GA, Bolier J, Bowers S, Moore T, Belay T, Lyn D, Black CM. The intercellular adhesion molecule type-1 is required for rapid activation of T helper type 1 lymphocytes that control early acute phase of genital chlamydial infection in mice. Immunology 1999; 98:510-9. [PMID: 10594682 PMCID: PMC2326957 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1999.00926.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies in animal models of genital chlamydial disease revealed that early recruitment of dendritic cells and specific T helper type-1 (Th1) cells into the genital mucosae is crucial for reducing the severity of the acute phase of a cervico-vaginal infection and arresting ascending disease. These immune effectors are therefore important for preventing major complications of genital chlamydial infection. Other in vitro studies showed that intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) plays a role in the antichlamydial action of specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. In the present study, we investigated the clinicopathological consequences of ICAM-1 deficiency during chlamydial genital infection in ICAM-1 knockout (ICAM-1KO) mice, and analysed the cellular and molecular immunological bases for any observed pathology or complication. Following a primary genital infection of female ICAM-l-/- and ICAM-1+/+ mice, the intensity of the disease during the first 3 weeks (as assessed by shedding of chlamydiae in the genital tract) was significantly greater in ICAM-1KO mice than in ICAM-1+/+ mice (P < 0.0001), although both ICAM-l-/- and ICAM-1+/+ mice subsequently cleared the primary infection. There was greater ascending disease during the initial stage of the infection, and a higher incidence of tubal disease (hydrosalpinx formation) after multiple infections in ICAM-l-/- mice. Analysis of the cellular and molecular bases for the increased acute and ascending disease in ICAM-l-/- mice revealed that the high affinity of ICAM-1 for leucocyte function antigen type-1 is a property that promotes rapid activation of specific Th1 cells, as well as their early recruitment into the genital mucosa. Moreover, ICAM-1 was more important for naive T-cell activation than primed Th1 cells, although its absence delayed or suppressed immune T-cell activation by at least 50%. Taken together, these results indicated that ICAM-1 is crucial for rapid T-cell activation, early recruitment and control of genitally acquired Chlamydia trachomatis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J U Igietseme
- Department of Microbiology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Spelman College, Atlanta, GA, USA
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