Menangle virus, a pteropid bat paramyxovirus infectious for pigs and humans, exhibits tropism for secondary lymphoid organs and intestinal epithelium in weaned pigs

Paramyxoviruses from bats: changes in receptor specificity and their role in host adaptation

Global metagenomic surveys have revealed that bats host a diverse array of paramyxoviruses, including species from at least five major genera. An essential determinant of successful spillover is the entry of a virus into a new host. We evaluate the role of receptor usage in the zoonotic potential of bat-borne henipaviruses, morbilliviruses, pararubulaviruses, orthorubulaviruses, and jeilongviruses; successful spillover into humans depends upon compatibility of a respective viral attachment protein with its cognate receptor. We also emphasize the importance of postentry restrictions in preventing spillover. Metagenomics and characterization of newly identified paramyxoviruses have greatly improved our understanding of spillover determinants, allowing for better forecasts of which bat-borne viruses may pose the greatest risk for cross-species transmission into humans.

Discovery and characterization of novel paramyxoviruses from bat samples in China

Many paramyxoviruses are responsible for a variety of mild to severe human and animal diseases. Based on the novel discoveries over the past several decades, the family Paramyxoviridae infecting various hosts across the world includes 4 subfamilies, 17 classified genera and 78 species now. However, no systematic surveys of bat paramyxoviruses are available from the Chinese mainland. In this study, 13,064 samples from 54 bat species were collected and a comprehensive paramyxovirus survey was conducted. We obtained 94 new genome sequences distributed across paramyxoviruses from 22 bat species in seven provinces. Bayesian phylodynamic and phylogenetic analyses showed that there were four different lineages in the Jeilongvirus genus. Based on available data, results of host and region switches showed that the bat colony was partial to interior, whereas the rodent colony was exported, and the felines and hedgehogs were most likely the intermediate hosts from Scotophilus spp. rather than rodents. Based on the evolutionary trend, genus Jeilongvirus may have originated from Mus spp. in Australia, then transmitted to bats and rodents in Africa, Asia and Europe, and finally to bats and rodents in America.

Threat, challenges, and preparedness for future pandemics: A descriptive review of phylogenetic analysis based predictions

For centuries the world has been confronted with many infectious diseases, with a potential to turn into a pandemic posing a constant threat to human lives. Some of these pandemics occurred due to the emergence of new disease or re-emergence of previously known diseases with a few mutations. In such scenarios their optimal prevention and control options were not adequately developed. Most of these diseases are highly contagious and for their timely control, knowledge about the pathogens and disease progression is the basic necessity. In this review, we have presented a documented chronology of the earlier pandemics, evolutionary analysis of the infectious disease with pandemic potential, the role of RNA, difficulties in controlling pandemics, and the likely pathogens that could trigger future pandemics. In this study, the evolutionary history of the pathogens was identified by carrying out phylogenetic analysis. The percentage similarity between different infectious diseases is critically analysed for the identification of their correlation using online sequence matcher tools. The Baltimore classification system was used for finding the genomic nature of the viruses. It was observed that most of the infectious pathogens rise from their animal hosts with some mutations in their genome composition. The phylogenetic tree shows that the single-stranded RNA diseases have a common origin and many of them are having high similarity percentage. The outcomes of this study will help in the identification of potential pathogens that can cause future pandemics. This information will be helpful in the development of early detection techniques, devising preventive mechanism to limit their spread, prophylactic measures, Infection control and therapeutic options, thereby, strengthening our approach towards global preparedness against future pandemics.

Zoonotic and reverse zoonotic transmission of viruses between humans and pigs

Humans and pigs share a close contact relationship, similar biological traits, and one of the highest estimated number of viruses compared to other mammalian species. The contribution and directionality of viral exchange between humans and pigs remain unclear for some of these viruses, but their transmission routes are important to characterize in order to prevent outbreaks of disease in both host species. This review collects and assesses the evidence to determine the likely transmission route of 27 viruses between humans and pigs.

Human-Animal Interaction and the Emergence of SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all sectors of society, from health and economics to socialization and travel. The level and extent of this impact are unprecedented. Although the cause of COVID-19 was quickly identified to be a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), the world was poorly prepared for preventing its spread. One important pillar of preparedness is surveillance of the sources of emerging pathogens and responding appropriately to prevent their spread in the human population. The ever-increasing interaction between humans and animals is one leading factor in facilitating the emergence of new pathogens. In this viewpoint, we discuss the possibility of the zoonotic origin of SARS-CoV-2, highlight the importance of understanding human-animal interaction to improve preparedness for future outbreaks, and outline recommendations for prevention.

Characterization of Teviot virus, an Australian bat-borne paramyxovirus

Bats are the reservoir hosts for multiple viruses with zoonotic potential, including coronaviruses, paramyxoviruses and filoviruses. Urine collected from Australian pteropid bats was assessed for the presence of paramyxoviruses. One of the viruses isolated was Teviot virus (TevPV), a novel rubulavirus previously isolated from pteropid bat urine throughout the east coast of Australia. Here, we further characterize TevPV through analysis of whole-genome sequencing, growth kinetics, antigenic relatedness and the experimental infection of ferrets and mice. TevPV is phylogenetically and antigenically most closely related to Tioman virus (TioPV). Unlike many other rubulaviruses, cell receptor attachment by TevPV does not appear to be sialic acid-dependent, with the receptor for host cell entry being unknown. The infection of ferrets and mice suggested that TevPV has a low pathogenic potential in mammals. Infected ferrets seroconverted by 10 days post-infection without clinical signs of disease. Furthermore, infected ferrets did not shed virus in any respiratory secretions, suggesting a low risk of onward transmission of TevPV. No productive infection was observed in the mouse infection study.

Alston Virus, a Novel Paramyxovirus Isolated from Bats Causes Upper Respiratory Tract Infection in Experimentally Challenged Ferrets

Multiple viruses with zoonotic potential have been isolated from bats globally. Here we describe the isolation and characterization of a novel paramyxovirus, Alston virus (AlsPV), isolated from urine collected from an Australian pteropid bat colony in Alstonville, New South Wales. Characterization of AlsPV by whole-genome sequencing and analyzing antigenic relatedness revealed it is a rubulavirus that is closely related to parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5). Intranasal exposure of mice to AlsPV resulted in no clinical signs of disease, although viral RNA was detected in the olfactory bulbs of two mice at 21 days post exposure. Oronasal challenge of ferrets resulted in subclinical upper respiratory tract infection, viral shedding in respiratory secretions, and detection of viral antigen in the olfactory bulb of the brain. These results imply that AlsPV may be similar to PIV5 in its ability to infect multiple mammalian host species. This isolation of a novel paramyxovirus with the potential to transmit from bats to other mammalian species reinforces the importance of continued surveillance of bats as a source of emerging viruses.

Hervey virus: Study on co-circulation with Henipaviruses in Pteropid bats within their distribution range from Australia to Africa

In 2011, an unusually large number of independent Hendra virus outbreaks were recorded on horse properties in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Urine from bat colonies adjacent to the outbreak sites were sampled and screened for Hendra and other viruses. Several novel paramyxoviruses were also isolated at different locations. Here one of the novel viruses, named Hervey virus (HerPV), is fully characterized by genome sequencing, annotation, phylogeny and in vitro host range, and its serological cross-reactivity and neutralization patterns are examined. HerPV may have ecological and spatial and temporal patterns similar to Hendra virus and could serve as a sentinel virus for the surveillance of this highly pathogenic virus. The suitability of HerPV as potential sentinel virus is further assessed by determining the serological prevalence of HerPV antibodies in fruit-eating bats from Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and the Gulf of Guinea, indicating the presence of similar viruses in regions beyond the Australian border.

xMAP Technology: Applications in Detection of Pathogens

xMAP technology is applicable for high-throughput, multiplex and simultaneous detection of different analytes within a single complex sample. xMAP multiplex assays are currently available in various nucleic acid and immunoassay formats, enabling simultaneous detection and typing of pathogenic viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi and also antigen or antibody interception. As an open architecture platform, the xMAP technology is beneficial to end users and therefore it is used in various pharmaceutical, clinical and research laboratories. The main aim of this review is to summarize the latest findings and applications in the field of pathogen detection using microsphere-based multiplex assays.

Bats and bat-borne diseases: a perspective on Australian megabats

Bats are the second most species rich and abundant group of mammals and display an array of unique characteristics but are also among the most poorly studied mammals. They fill an important ecological niche and have diversified into a wide range of habitats. In recent years, bats have been implicated as reservoirs for some of the most highly pathogenic emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases reported to date, including SARS-like coronavirus, Ebola, Hendra and Nipah viruses. The ability of bats to harbour these viruses in the absence of clinical signs of disease has resulted in a resurgence of interest in bat biology and virus–host interactions. Interest in bats, in Australia in particular, has intensified following the identification of several novel bat-borne viruses from flying-foxes, including Hendra virus, which is capable of spillover from bats to horses and subsequently to humans with potentially fatal consequences. As we continue to encroach on the natural habitats of bats, a better understanding of bat biology, ecology and virus–host interactions has never before been so critical. In this review, we focus on the biology of Australian pteropid bats and the pathogens they harbour, summarising current knowledge of bat-borne diseases, bat ecology, ethology and immunology.

Novel paramyxoviruses in free-ranging European bats

The zoonotic potential of paramyxoviruses is particularly demonstrated by their broad host range like the highly pathogenic Hendra and Nipah viruses originating from bats. But while so far all bat-borne paramyxoviruses have been identified in fruit bats across Africa, Australia, South America, and Asia, we describe the detection and characterization of the first paramyxoviruses in free-ranging European bats. Moreover, we examined the possible impact of paramyxovirus infection on individual animals by comparing histo-pathological findings and virological results. Organs from deceased insectivorous bats of various species were sampled in Germany and tested for paramyxovirus RNA in parallel to a histo-pathological examination. Nucleic acids of three novel paramyxoviruses were detected, two viruses in phylogenetic relationship to the recently proposed genus Jeilongvirus and one closely related to the genus Rubulavirus. Two infected animals revealed subclinical pathological changes within their kidneys, suggestive of a similar pathogenesis as the one described in fruit bats experimentally infected with Hendra virus.

Our findings indicate the presence of bat-born paramyxoviruses in geographic areas free of fruit bat species and therefore emphasize a possible virus–host co-evolution in European bats. Since these novel viruses are related to the very distinct genera Rubulavirus and Jeilongvirus, a similarly broad genetic diversity among paramyxoviruses in other Microchiroptera compared to Megachiroptera can be assumed. Given that the infected bats were either found in close proximity to heavily populated human habitation or areas of intensive agricultural use, a potential risk of the emergence of zoonotic paramyxoviruses in Europe needs to be considered.