Antibiotic, pesticide, and microbial contaminants of honey: human health hazards

Environmental pollution effect on honey bees and their derived products: a comprehensive analysis

Several factors, including environmental degradation, air pollution, intense urbanization, excessive agriculture, and climate change, endanger the well-being of animals and plants. One of the major issues with an increasingly negative impact is agricultural contamination with pesticides and antibiotics. Seed coatings with neonicotinoid insecticides used as a protective layer against pests are shown to exceed the permissible limits in most cases. Neonicotinoid compounds bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, therefore affecting the honey bees' brain. Heavy metals in higher concentrations are lethal for honey bees, and the residue in bee products might pose a threat to human health. Highly effective acaricides used to treat Varroa destructor infestations in honey bee colonies have negative effects on honey bee reproduction, olfaction, and honey production. Furthermore, amitraz and fluvalinate are mostly found in the highest amounts and lead to decreased honey production and reduced colony reproduction, along with decreased learning ability and memory. However, scientific studies have shown that honey bees act as a reliable bio-indicator of environmental pollution. In response to the growing demand for bee products, the effects of adulteration and improper storage conditions have gotten worse and represent a new risk factor. In light of the shifting global economy, it is important to analyze consumer expectations and adjust manufacturing accordingly. By ensuring the manufacture of high-quality, traceable products devoid of drug residues, consumers will be better protected from subsequent health problems. This review's objectives are based on the necessity of identifying the risks associated with honey bees and bee products.

Nitroimidazole residues in Egyptian honey using UPLC-Orbitrap-HRMS

Nitroimidazoles are well-known antibacterial and antiprotozoal agents, effective against various infections. However, they may also exhibit genotoxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. This study aimed to develop an analytical method to quantify nitroimidazole residues and their metabolites in honey using Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-Orbitrap-HRMS) and validate it according to Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/808. The method demonstrated limits of detection (LODs) ranging from 0.01 to 0.17 µg L-1 and limits of quantification (LOQs) from 0.020 to 0.29 µg L-1. Recovery rates ranged from 79.8% to 104%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) between 4.2% and 19.6%. Analysis of 96 honey samples revealed nitroimidazole residues in 18.8% of them. These findings could enhance more effectively the Egyptian monitoring programs for these compounds in honey as to improve food safety.

Antibiotics in honey: a comprehensive review on occurrence and analytical methodologies

Honey is a food of great nutritional importance and has always been used for human consumption. The production of honey and other beekeeping products depends on the proper functioning of this extremely important sector, as it has a direct impact on other sectors such as agriculture. The decline in bee colony numbers has been linked, among other factors, to bacterial diseases affecting bees, including American and European foulbrood, and Nosema spp. disease. In this matter, prophylactic or therapeutic use of veterinary drugs in apiculture is common but can lead to their accumulation in bees and in honey. Consumption of contaminated honey can have adverse effects such as allergic or hypersensitivity reactions, carcinogenicity, reproductive effects, and teratogenicity. Commission Regulation (EU) N ⍛ 37/2010 sets MRLs for antibiotics in various foods, but these limits are not set for api-products. The lack of harmonized rules has led some countries to set recommended concentrations and minimum performance limits. Nonetheless, to achieve this goal, development of accurate and precise analytical methodologies is crucial. In recent years, the analysis of antibiotics in honey has led to the development of methods in an extensive range of families, including aminoglycosides, amphenicols, lincosamides, macrolides, nitroimidazoles, quinolones, sulfonamides, tetracyclines and nitrofurans. This review work entails an in-depth exploration of occurrence studies, extraction methodologies, and analytical techniques for the determination of antibiotics in apiculture products. It was found that the most used extraction methods include solid-phase extraction, dispersed solid or liquid phase extraction and QuEChERS. Due to the complexity of the honey matrix, samples are often diluted or acidified using McIlvaine buffer, H 2O, MeOH, acidified ACN and TCA solution. This is usually followed by a purification step using SPE cartridges or PSA. Golden analytical methodologies include high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS/MS) with Orbitrap or Q-ToF detectors.

Honey microbiota, methods for determining the microbiological composition and the antimicrobial effect of honey - A review

Honey is a natural product used since ancient times due to its taste, aroma, and therapeutic properties (antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity). The purpose of this review is to present the species of microorganisms that can survive in honey and the effect they can have on bees and consumers. The techniques for identifying the microorganisms present in honey are also described in this study. Honey contains bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viruses, and some of them may present beneficial properties for humans. The antimicrobial effect of honey is due to its acidity and high viscosity, high sugar concentration, low water content, the presence of hydrogen peroxide and non-peroxidase components, particularly methylglyoxal (MGO), phenolic acids, flavonoids, proteins, peptides, and non-peroxidase glycopeptides. Honey has antibacterial action (it has effectiveness against bacteria, e.g. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Acinetobacter, etc.), antifungal (effectiveness against Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizopus spp., and Penicillium spp.), antiviral (effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2, Herpes simplex virus type 1, Influenza virus A and B, Varicella zoster virus), and antiparasitic action (effectiveness against Plasmodium berghei, Giardia and Trichomonas, Toxoplasma gondii) demonstrated by numerous studies that are comprised and discussed in this review.

Antioxidant activities of Saudi honey samples related to their content of short peptides

This study explored the effect of geographical and floral origins on the antioxidant activities of Saudi honey samples related to their content of short peptides originated from honeybee proteins. The studied antioxidants were the total protein concentration, catalase activity, phenolic acids and flavonoids. The antioxidant activity assays included were the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and Ascorbic acid Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (AEAC). The studied honey samples were obtained from the southwestern region of Saudi Arabia, namely Asir (65) and Jazan (25). The floral origins of the honey samples were Acacia (51), Ziziphus (4) and polyfloral (35). The LC/MS technique was used to detect the short peptides and the mascot database was used to identify the short peptides, their precursor proteins and the protease enzymes that produce them. Jazan honey was characterized by high number of short peptides. The short peptides were originated from honeybee proteins by the action of proteases from the honeybees and bacteria. The antioxidant activity of the honey samples increase with the increase of their content of short peptides and proteins. The amino acids type and sequence of the short peptides qualify them to act as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertension, immunomodulatory and cholesterol lowering peptides.

Comprehensive assessment of mercury contamination in bees, bee products and moss and lichen bags

Twenty-eight beekeepers around Slovakia were included in the research to evaluate the presence of mercury in honeybee bodies and selected bee-related products: bee pollen and honey. The samples were collected in May, June, and July (honeybee bodies only in May and June). During this period, moss and lichen bags for air quality assessment were exposed around the beehives and relative accumulation factor (RAF) was used for its evaluation. Mercury content in evaluated bioindicators was determined using AMA 254 analyser. Percentage of provisional tolerable intake (%PTWI) and target hazard quotient (THQ) were used to determine health risks related to bee pollen and honey consumption. Around the beehives the proportion of landscape structure elements was determined for each sampling locality, using a geographical informational system QGIS. The aim of the study was a comprehensive evaluation of the mercury content in the environment around beehives using several bioindicators and an assessment of the relationship between the presence of mercury pollution and the proportion of landscape structure elements in the vicinity of the beehives. The study also aimed to evaluate the transfer of contaminants between bee bodies and bee-related products and the health risks resulting from their consumption.

Underexplored food safety hazards of beekeeping products: Key knowledge gaps and suggestions for future research

These days, a growing consumer demand and scientific interest can be observed for nutraceuticals of natural origin, including apiculture products. Due to the growing emphasis on environmental protection, extensive research has been conducted on the pesticide and heavy metal contamination of bee products; however, less attention is devoted on other food safety aspects. In our review, scientific information on the less-researched food safety hazards of honey, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, and beeswax are summarized. Bee products originating from certain plants may inherently contain phytotoxins, like pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, matrine alkaloids, grayanotoxins, gelsemium alkaloids, or tutin. Several case studies evidence that bee products can induce allergic responses to sensitive individuals, varying from mild to severe symptoms, including the potentially lethal anaphylaxis. Exposure to high temperature or long storage may lead to the formation of the potentially toxic 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Persistent organic pollutants, radionuclides, and microplastics can potentially be transferred to bee products from contaminated environmental sources. And lastly, inappropriate beekeeping practices can lead to the contamination of beekeeping products with harmful microorganisms and mycotoxins. Our review demonstrates the necessity of applying good beekeeping practices in order to protect honeybees and consumers of their products. An important aim of our work is to identify key knowledge gaps regarding the food safety of apiculture products.

Analyzing antibiotic residues in honey samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

This study aimed to present a sensitive, accurate, and precise analytical method for the determination of 32 antibiotics from 5 groups (sulfonamides, macrolides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, and quinolones) and some individual antibiotics (lincomycin, griseofulvin, and 5-hydroxy-flunixin) in 63 honey samples collected from Tehran market. In the presented method, the samples were hydrolyzed by 1% HFBA (hepta fluoro butyric acid) in water, purified on Strata XL polymeric reversed-phase cartridges, and finally analyzed by reversed-phase ion-pair liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (RP-IP-LC-ESI-MS/MS). Good performance characteristics were gained for recovery, precision, range, and linearity, the limit of detections (LODs), and the limit of quantifications (LOQs). According to the presented results and considering the absence of permissible limits for antibiotics in honey, 74.6% of the tested samples had antibiotic residues more than the LOQ of the method. The results show that the validated method is suitable for simultaneously detecting antibiotic residues in honey.

Integrated assessment of the spatial distribution, sources, degradation, and human risk of tetracyclines in honey in China

Tetracyclines are widely used in Chinese apiculture. However, limited information is available on the presence of tetracycline residues in honey and the sources, degradation patterns, and associated health risks of these compounds. In this study, the presence of tetracyclines in honey samples across China was investigated over a four-year period. Additionally, the risks of dietary intake, as well as the sources and degradation patterns of tetracyclines in honey, were assessed. The three-dimensional spatial distributions (floral region, geographical region and entomological origin) of tetracyclines contamination varied significantly. Tetracycline residues in honey posed a moderate risk to children aged 3-10 years in Northwest China. Source analysis indicated that colony migration serves as the primary source of tetracyclines in honey. Based on the degradation patterns of tetracyclines in honey within colonies and during storage, oxytetracycline is more readily degraded than other tetracyclines. The main degradation products of tetracyclines are epimers and dehydration products, and the effects of these products on human health and the environment should be further evaluated in future studies. This comprehensive investigation provides valuable insights into the safe use and regulation of tetracyclines in Chinese apiculture.

g-C3N4 nanosheet supported NiCo2O4 nanoparticles for boosting degradation of tetracycline under visible light and ultrasonic irradiation

The doping of semiconductor materials through some facile and appropriate methods holds significant promise in enhancing the catalytic performance of catalysts. Herein, NiCo2O4/g-C3N4 composite catalysts were synthesized via a high-energy ball milling method. The microstructure and physicochemical characterization of the as-prepared composites confirmed the successful loading of NiCo2O4 nanoparticles onto the g-C3N4 nanosheets. The NiCo2O4/g-C3N4 composites showed excellent catalytic effect under visible light/ultrasonic irradiation, and the efficiency of tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) degradation reached 90% within 15 min. The optical properties of g-C3N4 nanosheets were improved by doping, and the diffusion of active materials and carrier migration rate were improved by ultrasonic assistance. Possible catalytic mechanisms and potential pathways of the NiCo2O4/g-C3N4 composites for the degradation of TCH triggered by visible light/ultrasonic irradiation were proposed. This study provides a new strategy for energy-assisted photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants.

Dancing with danger-how honeybees are getting affected in the web of microplastics-a review

Anthropogenic activities have negatively impacted the ecosystem dramatically over the last few decades. The environment is becoming more contaminated with heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics (MPs) as a result of the swift rise in industrialization and urbanisation. These contaminants are present everywhere in the ecosystem, affecting every living creature, from aquatic to terrestrial to aerial. Recently, the widespread of microplastics in the environment has raised serious concerns about the contamination of honey bees by these tiny particles of plastic. Honeybees are the major pollinators which contributes in the pollination of about 70% food that we consume. This review summarizes current research findings on the presence, uptake, and possible effects of microplastics on honey bees. Findings revealed the presence of microplastics in various honey bee matrices, such as honey, pollen, beeswax, and bee bodies, highlighting the potential routes of exposure for these vital pollinators. Additionally, evidence suggests that microplastics can accumulate in honey bee tissues (brain, midgut, Malpighian tubules, trachea, and haemolymph) potentially leading to adverse effects on honey bee health, behaviour, and colony dynamics. Additionally, MPs has a synergistic impact on immune system as well. Change in cuticle profile, reduction in body weight, and changes in eating frequency can regulate overall success rate of their survival. However, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding the long-term consequences for honey bee populations and ecosystem health, which cannot unveil the ultimate degree of future threats. Future research efforts should focus on investigating the interactions between microplastics and other stressors, such as pesticides and pathogens, and assessing the broader ecological implications of honey bee contamination with microplastics. Addressing these knowledge gaps is essential for developing effective mitigation strategies to minimize the impact of microplastics on honey bee populations and safeguarding their vital role in ecosystem functioning and food security.

The buzz about honey-based biosurveys

Approximately 1.8 million metric tonnes of honey are produced globally every year. The key source behind this output, the honey bee (Apis mellifera), works tirelessly to create the delicious condiment that is consumed worldwide. The honey that finds its way into jars on store shelves contains a myriad of information about its biogeographical origins, such as the bees that produced it, the botanical constituents, and traces of other organisms or pathogens that have come in contact with the product or its producer. With the ongoing threat of honey bee decline and overall global biodiversity loss, access to ecological information has become an key factor in preventing the loss of species. This review delves into the various molecular techniques developed to characterize the collective DNA harnessed within honey samples, and how it can be used to elucidate the ecological interactions between honey bees and the environment. We also explore how these DNA-based methods can be used for large-scale biogeographical studies through the environmental DNA collected by foraging honey bees. Further development of these techniques can assist in the conservation of biodiversity by detecting ecosystem perturbations, with the potential to be expanded towards other critical flying pollinators.

Seasonal screening of pesticide residues in beehive products collected from different districts in Egypt

Pesticides are of immense importance in agriculture, but they might contaminate bees' products. In this study, samples of honey, pollen, and beeswax were collected, seasonally, from apiaries in Toshka (Aswan), El-Noubariya (El-Beheira), and Ismailia (Ismailia) cities in Egypt. The pesticide residues were analyzed using the GC-MS after being extracted and cleaned using the QuEChERS method. Results showed that samples from El-Noubariya had great content of residues followed by Ismailia, and finally Toshka. Samples collected during fall and winter had the highest pesticide residue contents. Specifically, the phenylconazole fungicide group was repeatedly detected in all the examined samples along with organophosphate insecticides. Beeswax samples had the greatest amounts of pesticide residues followed by pollen and then honey samples. Chlorpyrifos (0.07-39.16 ng/g) and profenofos (1.94-17.00 ng/g) were detected in honey samples and their products. Pyriproxyfen (57.12 ng/g) and chlorpyrifos-methyl (39.16 ng/g) were detected in great amounts in beeswax samples from Ismailia and El-Noubariya, respectively. Yet, according to health hazard and quotient studies, the amounts of pesticides detected in honey do not pose any health threats to humans.

Sensitive immunoenzyme assay for the detection of antibiotic flumequine in honey

Fluoroquinolone antibiotics are used to cure and protect bees and apiaries from infections. Consequently, they may contaminate honey and other products of beekeeping. In this study, a highly sensitive immunoenzyme assay (EIA) was for the first time developed for the determination of a fluoroquinolone flumequine (FLU) in honey. The EIA was carried out in an indirect competitive format with colorimetric detection. The analysis was characterized by a low limit of detection of 30 pg mL-1. The polyclonal antibodies used showed no cross-reactivity with 24 other (fluoro)quinolones; the assay was highly specific only toward FLU. Different coating FLU-protein conjugates were tested to achieve the most sensitive competitive immunodetection. A highly simplified and rapid (3-5 min) sample preparation was proposed based on the 100-300 times dilution of honey by a buffer. The developed EIA has been tested to detect FLU in honey of different origins, namely acacia, flower, buckwheat, chestnut, and linden honey. It has been demonstrated that 76.2-115.9% of FLU could be determined by the assay. The versatility, simplicity, and rapidity of the EIA enable us to propose this method as an effective tool to control the contamination of honey.

Nutritional Value, Therapeutic Effects, Phytochemistry, and Toxicology of Lepisanthes fruticosa: A Review

The multifaceted benefits of Lepisanthes fruticosa position it is not only as a promising agricultural commodity but also as a versatile resource with implications for health, biodiversity, and economic growth. Lepisanthes fruticosa has a rich history of traditional use for treating various ailments such as fever and diarrhea. Beyond its traditional uses, the plant's antioxidant properties suggest potential applications in combating oxidative stress-related conditions. Its antihyperglycemic properties indicate promise in managing elevated blood sugar levels, while its antibacterial and antiviral attributes hint at potential applications in infectious disease control. Furthermore, the plant's anticancer properties add to its appeal as a valuable resource in the realm of medical research. The plant also exhibits considerable potential in addressing a range of health concerns, including non-communicable diseases and infections, antidiarrheal, and antiviral properties. In essence, Lepisanthes fruticose emerges as more than just an agricultural asset. Its unique combination of nutritional richness, health benefits, and economic viability underscores its potential to become a valuable asset both locally and on the global stage. In this current review, we are discussed about the ethnopharmacology, nutritional value, therapeutic effects, phytochemistry, and toxicology of Lepisanthes fruticose.

Knowledge, attitude and practice among mothers on the relationship between honey and botulism in Saudi Arabian infants: a cross-section study

BACKGROUND

Botulism is a rare disease, and infant botulism (IB) even rarer, especially when steering the condition to honey consumption. IB is considered a life-threatening disease as it leads to severe neurological symptoms. Exploring the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) among mothers on the relationship between honey and IB will help public health professionals implement appropriate maternal health education materials targeting infant health and increase the awareness of the paediatric primary care providers, physicians, and nurse practitioners about the risk of IB among their patients.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the knowledge of mothers from Hail city in Saudi Arabia (SA) regarding IB and assess their attitude and practice towards feeding honey to their infants before 12 months of age.

METHODS

Using a comparative cross-sectional study, in February 2022, we broadcasted an online questionnaire through social networking and evaluated the KAP of 385 mothers.

RESULTS

Less than half (48%) of the mothers have heard about IB, 40% of them knew the relation between honey ingestion and IB and only 6.5% acknowledged that they knew the causative agent for IB. The prevalence of feeding honey to infants before 12 months was 52%. Mothers from Hail city were less likely to provide honey to their infants (p = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that mothers from Hail city have relatively low knowledge of IB and that they hold favourable perceptions of using honey as a food supplement and feeding honey to their infants before 12 months. Considering the high prevalence of honey feeding with the known low incidence of IB in SA, Medical professionals should consider IB in their differential diagnosis particularly in the presence of neurological symptoms.

A Comprehensive Review on the Medicinal Benefits of Honey with an Emphasis on Unani Medicine

Background:

Honey has been used medicinally in folk medicine since the dawn of civilization. It is a necessary component of medicine and food in a wide variety of cultures. It has been used in Unani Medicine for centuries to treat a variety of ailments.

Objective:

This review article aims to explore the medicinal characteristics of honey in view of Unani and modern concepts; to highlight its potential in the treatment of the ailments stated in Unani medical literature; and also to explore the relevant evidence-based phytochemistry, pharmacological, and clinical data.

Methods:

The authors searched classical texts exhaustively for information on the temperament (Mizāj), pharmacological activities, mechanism of action, and therapeutic benefits of honey. Additionally, a comprehensive search of internet databases was conducted to compile all available information on the physicochemical, phytochemical, and pharmacological properties of this compound.

Results:

Evidence suggests that honey contains about 180 different types of various compounds including carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, flavonoids, and other chemical substances. In Unani classical literature, it exerts important pharmacological actions besides its immense nutritional significance. Unani physicians advocated many tested/experimented prescriptions and formulations, which still have their relevance in the amelioration of various diseases.

Conclusion:

This analysis concludes that honey has been successfully utilized in Unani medicine for centuries to treat a variety of maladies and is a potential natural source of remedy for a variety of medical disorders. Future research on honey should include a combination of Unani and modern principles.

Exposure to pesticide residues in honey and its potential cancer risk assessment

Honey is the most recognized natural food by-product derived from flower nectar and the upper aero-digestive tract of the honeybees. Significance of honey for its medicinal importance are well-documented in the world's oldest medical literatures. However, the current urbanization, environmental contaminations and changes in agricultural, as well as apiculture practices has led to various types of contaminations in honey. Among all, pesticide contamination has become one of the major issues worldwide. This review focuses on the recent updates concerning pesticides occurrence in honey, as well as how the repeated use and long-term exposure to honey contaminated with pesticide residues could affect the human physiological functions, possibly leading to the development of various cancers. Our findings suggests that uncontrolled use of pesticides in farming and apiculture practices leads to the occurrence of pesticides residues in honey. Therefore, regular consumption of such honey will pose a serious threat to human health, since most of the pesticides has been reported as potential carcinogens. This review will draw the attention of honey consumers, scientific communities, apiculture farmers, as well as governing bodies to strictly monitor the pesticide usage in floriculture, agriculture as well as other related practices.

Evaluation of the polyphenolic profile of native Ecuadorian stingless bee honeys (Tribe: Meliponini) and their antibiofilm activity on susceptible and multidrug-resistant pathogens: An exploratory analysis

Biofilms are associated with infections that are resistant to conventional therapies, contributing to the antimicrobial resistance crisis. The need for alternative approaches against biofilms is well-known. Although natural products like stingless bee honeys (tribe: Meliponini) constitute an alternative treatment, much is still unknown. Our main goal was to evaluate the antibiofilm activity of stingless bee honey samples against multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens through biomass assays, fluorescence (cell count and viability), and scanning electron (structural composition) microscopy. We analyzed thirty-five honey samples at 15% (v/v) produced by ten different stingless bee species (Cephalotrigona sp., Melipona sp., M. cramptoni, M. fuscopilosa, M. grandis, M. indecisa, M. mimetica, M. nigrifacies, Scaptotrigona problanca, and Tetragonisca angustula) from five provinces of Ecuador (Tungurahua, Pastaza, El Oro, Los Ríos, and Loja) against 24-h biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis. The present honey set belonged to our previous study, where the samples were collected in 2018-2019 and their physicochemical parameters, chemical composition, mineral elements, and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) were screened. However, the polyphenolic profile and their antibiofilm activity on susceptible and multidrug-resistant pathogens were still unknown. According to polyphenolic profile of the honey samples, significant differences were observed according to their geographical origin in terms of the qualitative profiles. The five best honey samples (OR24.1, LR34, LO40, LO48, and LO53) belonging to S. problanca, Melipona sp., and M. indecisa were selected for further analysis due to their high biomass reduction values, identification of the stingless bee specimens, and previously reported physicochemical parameters. This subset of honey samples showed a range of 63-80% biofilm inhibition through biomass assays. Fluorescence microscopy (FM) analysis evidenced statistical log reduction in the cell count of honey-treated samples in all pathogens (P <0.05), except for S. aureus ATCC 25923. Concerning cell viability, C. tropicalis, K. pneumoniae ATCC 33495, and K. pneumoniae KPC significantly decreased (P <0.01) by 21.67, 25.69, and 45.62%, respectively. Finally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis demonstrated structural biofilm disruption through cell morphological parameters (such as area, size, and form). In relation to their polyphenolic profile, medioresinol was only found in the honey of Loja, while scopoletin, kaempferol, and quercetin were only identified in honey of Los Rios, and dihydrocaffeic and dihydroxyphenylacetic acids were only detected in honey of El Oro. All the five honey samples showed dihydrocoumaroylhexose, luteolin, and kaempferol rutinoside. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first study to analyze stingless bees honey-treated biofilms of susceptible and/or MDR strains of S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, and Candida species.

Nanomaterial-based fluorescent biosensors for the detection of antibiotics in foodstuffs: A review

Antibiotics are widely used as bacteriostatic or bactericidal agents against various microbial infections in humans and animals. The excessive use of antibiotics has led to an accumulation of their residues in food products, which ultimately poses a threat to human health. In light of the shortcomings of conventional methods for antibiotic detection (primarily cost, proficiency, and time-consuming procedures), the development of robust, accurate, on-site, and sensitive technologies for antibiotic detection in foodstuffs is important. Nanomaterials with amazing optical properties are promising materials for developing the next generation of fluorescent sensors. In this article, advances in detecting antibiotics in food products are discussed with respect to their sensing applications, with a focus on fluorescent nanomaterials such as metallic nanoparticles, upconversion nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon-based nanomaterials, and metal-organic frameworks. Furthermore, their performance is evaluated to promote the continuation of technical advances.

Honey bee larval culture in vitro: gut emptying determines the transition from larva to prepupa and recombinant AccApidaecin improves antibacterial activity

In vitro rearing of honey bee larvae is ideal for bioassay studies; no honey bee stable cell lines are available. Inconsistency of internal development staging of reared larvae and a susceptibility to contamination are common problems encountered. Standardized protocols on rearing larvae in vitro to make the larvae growth and development more similar to that of natural colonies are necessary to ensure the accuracy of experimental results and promote honey bee research as a model organism. Here, we concluded that when larval fasting weight was >160 mg, the time point of gut emptying can be defined as the critical point separating the larval and prepupal stages. In this way, we can conduct precise studies on the prepupal stage, such as organ remodeling during metamorphosis. Simultaneously, we further verified that recombinant AccApidaecin in genetic engineered bacteria added to the larval diet upregulated antibacterial peptide gene expression, and did not stimulate the stress response in larvae, nor did it affect the pupation rate or eclosion rate. This demonstrated that feeding recombinant AccApidaecin can enhance the individual antibacterial ability at the molecular level.

12 Years of honey surveys in northern Italy: How anthropic activities can influence honey quality

Bees and hive products, such as honey, can act as indicators of environmental quality. Our research aimed to evaluate historical data of honey quality in Lombardy (Northern Italy) and consider the possible sources of air contamination that can influence it. We collected analytical data from the local Health Protection Agency on residues of 57 honey samples from 2011 to 2022, comparing a rural area and an industrial area. At the same time, we consulted estimated air emissions in the same areas through the INEMAR database used by the local Environmental Protection Agency. Data revealed antibiotic contamination in one case and, regarding heavy metals, lead contamination in several samples in the industrial area. Pb contamination could derive from multiple sources. The INEMAR database permitted us to hypothesize that combustion in industry and road transportation could have a role in honey contamination, being among the main sources of Pb emission in that area.

Metabarcoding of eDNA for tracking the floral and geographical origins of bee honey

Authentic honey products have a high commercial value and are often falsified via adulteration. Metabarcoding of environmental DNA (eDNA) from bacterial, floral, and entomological sources has recently been proposed as a useful tool for identifying and authenticating floral and geographical origins of bee honey. In this study, eDNA metabarcoding was applied to reveal the bacterial, plant, and honey bee DNA signatures of 48 commercial honey products from six different geographical origins. Bacterial DNA composition in commercial honey showed different relative abundance of Paenibacillus and Bacillus in geographically different samples, and high abundance of Methylobacterium in chestnut honey implying potential use of bacterial DNA composition for honey authentication. Using the chloroplast trnL (UAA) as a DNA marker, floral origins of commercial honey were investigated. Based on floral DNA signatures, 12 monofloral honey samples were identified among the 45 samples tested. Targeted amplicon sequencing of cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene from entomological DNA identified three different Apis mellifera sequence variants, specific to geographic origin of honey, suggesting that COI can be implemented as a DNA marker to trace the origin of honey. Therefore, the current study demonstrated the potential of eDNA based metabarcoding as a robust tool for evaluating commercial bee honey by exploring their floral and geographical origins.

Dynamics of microbial communities during biotransformation of nitrofurantoin

The purpose of this research was to investigate the biodegradation of nitrofurantoin (NFT), a typical nitrofuran antibiotic of potential carcinogenic properties, by two microbial communities derived from distinct environmental niches - mountain stream (NW) and seaport water (SS). The collected environmental samples represent the reserve of the protected area with no human intervention and the contaminated area that concentrates intense human activities. The structure, composition, and diversity of the communities were analyzed at three timepoints during NFT biodegradation. Comamonadaceae (43.2%) and Pseudomonadaceae (19.6%) were the most abundant families in the initial NW sample. The top families in the initial SS sample included Aeromonadaceae (31.4%) and Vibrionaceae (25.3%). The proportion of the most abundant families in both consortia was remarkably reduced in all samples treated with NFT. The biodiversity significantly increased in both consortia treated with NFT suggesting that NFT significantly alters community structure in the aquatic systems. In this study, NFT removal efficiency and transformation products were also studied. The biodegradation rate decreased with the increasing initial NFT concentration. Biodegradation followed similar pathways for both consortia and led to the formation of transformation products: 1-aminohydantoin, semicarbazide (SEM), and hydrazine (HYD). SEM and HYD were detected for the first time as NFT biotransformation products. This study demonstrates that the structure of the microbial community may be directly correlated with the presence of NFT. Enchanced biodiversity of the microbial community does not have to be correlated with increase in functional capacity, such as the ability to biodegradation because higher biodiversity corresponded to lower biodegradation. Our findings provide new insights into the effect of NFT contamination on aquatic microbiomes. The study also increases our understanding of the environmental impact of nitrofuran residues and their biodegradation.

Simultaneous Screening of Nitrofuran Metabolites in Honey Using Biochip Array Technology: Validation Study According to the Decision 2002/657/EC of the European Union

Background

Although no authorization is available for antibiotics to treat bee diseases, some veterinary compounds are used by beekeepers, and each country sets its own thresholds. Inappropriate and excessive use of these drugs can cause allergic reactions and antibiotic resistance in humans who consume the remaining antibiotic residues in honey and its products. It is, therefore, relevant to monitor the presence of antibiotic residues in this matrix.

Objectives

A rapid method for the simultaneous screening of nitrofuran metabolite residues in honey was validated according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC (C.D 657) and the European guideline for the validation of screening methods for veterinary medicines.

Methods

This multi-analytical screening method enables the simultaneous determination of four nitrofuran metabolites [3-amino-2-oxazolidone (AOZ), 3-amino-5-morpholinomethyl-2-oxazolidinone (AMOZ), 1-Aminohydantoin HCl (ADH), and semicarbazide (SEC)] from a single honey sample. Thirty-five honey samples were collected randomly as real samples for screening from Tehran, IR Iran, Germany, and the Netherlands in 2018.

Results

For all four antibiotic residues, the positivity threshold T was higher than the cut-off value Fm, and no false-positive results were obtained for three antibiotics (AOZ, AMOZ, and SEC). Detection capabilities (CCβ) of all compounds were under the minimum required performance limit (MRPL) authorized by the European Commission (currently 1 μg/kg). The screening results of 15 domestic and 20 imported honey samples showed that the levels of AOZ in 6.66% and 10% of the samples, the level of AMOZ in 13.33% and 0% of the samples, and the level of SEC in 33.33% and 40% of the samples were less than the cut-off ([in relative light units (RLUs)], respectively.

Conclusions

This study found that this technique is valid for detecting and quantifying three antibiotic residues in honey samples at the measured validation levels. This method was simple, rapid, and capable of simultaneously screening three nitrofuran metabolites from a single honey sample.

Understanding Italian Consumers' Perception of Safety in Animal Food Products

The concept of food safety is still underexplored among consumers, especially in relationship with the perception of food technology. Through an online survey (n = 489), this study explored: I, how perceived safety is related to products obtained with different technological treatments and described with different commercial information; II, the role of food technology neophobia (FTN) in consumers' safety perception of animal food products. The technological transformation and commercial information significantly affected the perceived safety in all product categories. Milk and eggs were associated with a high number of perceived hazards (with similar patterns), while honey to the lowest. The certification 'organic' positively affected the safety perception of eggs and honey. With the increase of the distance in product origin (local/regional vs. Extra-European) the perceived safety consistently decreased. FTN affected the perceived safety of milk and eggs, depending on the degree of familiarity with the technologies of production. Highly FT neophobic people are perceived as less safe than low FT neophobic people with few familiar products with a higher technological degree of transformation. Results expand the knowledge in people's attitude towards animal products, particularly considering the technology perception. The outputs may interest policy-makers and food companies, in rethinking the communication strategy concerning food safety.

Antagonistic Activity of Potentially Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria against Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Pathogens

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are an essential part of the microbiota of the digestive tract of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). Antagonistic activity of 103 LAB strains (isolates from different environments) against 21 honeybee pathogens/opportunistic pathogens (with agar slab method) was screened. The growth of Paenibacillus genus was inhibited to the most extent. The highest antagonistic activity was demonstrated by Lacticaseibacillus casei 12AN, while the lowest by Apilactobacillus kunkeei DSM 12361, a species naturally inhabiting the honeybee gut. LAB isolated from the honeybee environment demonstrated stronger antagonism against pathogens than collection strains. The antagonistic activity of cell-free supernatants (CFSs) from 24 LAB strains against 7 honeybee pathogens was additionally assessed at physiological pH with the microtitration method. The same was determined for selected CFSs at neutralized pH. CFSs with physiological pH showed significantly stronger antibacterial activity than CFSs with neutralized pH. The results confirmed that the mechanism of antimicrobial activity of LAB is acidification of the environment. The obtained results may, in the future, contribute to a better understanding of the antagonistic properties of LAB and the construction of a probiotic preparation to increase the viability of honeybee colonies.

Lithium salts: assessment of their chronic and acute toxicities to honey bees and their anti-Varroa field efficacy

BACKGROUND

Varroa control is essential for the maintenance of healthy honey bee colonies. Overuse of acaricides has led to the evolution of resistance to those substances. Studies of the short-term acaricidal effects and safety of various lithium (Li) salts recently have been reported. This study examined the long-term in vitro and in vivo bee toxicities, short-term motor toxicity to bees and long-term anti-Varroa field efficacy of several Li salts.

RESULTS

In an in vitro chronic-toxicity assay, lithium citrate (18.8 mm) was the most toxic of the examined salts, followed by lithium lactate (29.5 mm), and lithium formate (32.5 mm). In terms of acute locomotor toxicity to bees, all of the Li salts were well-tolerated and none of the treatment groups differed from the negative control group. In an in vitro survival study, all of the Li treatments significantly reduced bee life spans by a factor of 1.8-7.2, as compared to the control. In terms of life expectancy, lithium citrate was the most toxic salt, with no significant differences noted between lithium formate and lithium lactate. In the bee-mortality field study, none of the examined treatments differed from the negative control. Amitraz and lithium formate exhibited similar acaricide effects, which were significantly different from those observed for lithium lactate and the negative control.

CONCLUSION

In light of lithium formate's honey bee safety and efficacy as an acaricide, additional sublethal toxicity studies in brood, drones and queens, as well as tests aimed at the optimization of administration frequency are warranted. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Determination of diflufenican and azaconazole pesticides in wastewater samples by GC-MS after preconcentration with stearic acid functionalized magnetic nanoparticles-based dispersive solid-phase extraction

This study presents the preconcentration of diflufenican and azaconazole from domestic wastewater samples by using dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) for determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Stearic acid-coated magnetic nanoparticles were used as adsorbents for dSPE method. In order to maximize the efficiency of the extraction process, parameters such as magnetic nanoparticle (MNP) type and amount, eluent type and volume, mixing type, and mixing period were all optimized. The linear range obtained for azaconazole and diflufenican was 7.50-500 ng/mL and 7.50-750 ng/mL, and their limits of detection/quantification (LOD/LOQ) were calculated as 1.3/4.3 ng/mL and 1.4/4.7 ng/mL, respectively. By comparing the LOD values of direct GC-MS and the developed dSPE method, azaconazole and diflufenican recorded approximately 35 and 38 folds enhancement in detection power. Recovery experiments with domestic wastewater were carried out to certify the proposed method's accuracy and applicability. By using the matrix matching calibration strategy, the good percent recovery results between 98 and 105% were obtained.

Concentration levels and an assessment of human health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in honey and pollen

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) accumulate in the food chain due to their physical and chemical properties and adversely affect human health. For this reason, this study aimed to determine the PAH and PCB concentration levels in pollen and honey samples in urban and semi-urban areas and to evaluate the risk of cancer that may occur by ingestion in Bursa, Turkey. The average total concentrations of 14 PAH (∑₁₄PAH) compounds in pollen and honey samples were found to be 304.3 ± 192.3 ng/g (average ± standard deviation) and 650.2 ± 118.1 ng/g for the urban area, and 329.6 ± 160.6 ng/g and 464.3 ± 66.4 ng/g for the semi-urban area, respectively. Similarly, ∑₁₄PCB concentrations in pollen and honey samples were found to be 8.7 ± 3.6 ng/g and 13.0 ± 4.8 ng/g for the urban area and 7.7 ± 2.2 ng/g and 17.4 ± 4.0 ng/g for the semi-urban area, respectively. It was determined that the pollen and honey samples in both sampling areas were affected by local PCB sources. The Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) method determined the relationship between pollen and honey samples. According to the PCC values obtained, it was observed that pollen and honey in both sampling regions exhibited a significant relationship with each other. Finally, while there was no cancer risk for PCBs due to ingestion of honey and pollen in both sampling areas, acceptable cancer risk has been calculated for PAHs.

Honey: An Advanced Antimicrobial and Wound Healing Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering Applications

Honey was used in traditional medicine to treat wounds until the advent of modern medicine. The rising global antibiotic resistance has forced the development of novel therapies as alternatives to combat infections. Consequently, honey is experiencing a resurgence in evaluation for antimicrobial and wound healing applications. A range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant strains and biofilms, are inhibited by honey. Furthermore, susceptibility to antibiotics can be restored when used synergistically with honey. Honey’s antimicrobial activity also includes antifungal and antiviral properties, and in most varieties of honey, its activity is attributed to the enzymatic generation of hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species. Non-peroxide factors include low water activity, acidity, phenolic content, defensin-1, and methylglyoxal (Leptospermum honeys). Honey has also been widely explored as a tissue-regenerative agent. It can contribute to all stages of wound healing, and thus has been used in direct application and in dressings. The difficulty of the sustained delivery of honey’s active ingredients to the wound site has driven the development of tissue engineering approaches (e.g., electrospinning and hydrogels). This review presents the most in-depth and up-to-date comprehensive overview of honey’s antimicrobial and wound healing properties, commercial and medical uses, and its growing experimental use in tissue-engineered scaffolds.

Exploring connections between pollinator health and human health

Despite recent advances in understanding the role of biodiversity in ecosystem-service provision, the links between the health of ecosystem-service providers and human health remain more uncertain. During the past decade, an increasing number of studies have argued for the positive impacts of healthy pollinator communities (defined as functionally and genetically diverse species assemblages that are sustained over time) on human health. Here, we begin with a systematic review of these impacts, finding only two studies that concomitantly quantified aspects of pollinator health and human health. Next, we identify relevant research relating to four pathways linking pollinator health and human health: nutrition, medicine provisioning, mental health and environmental quality. These benefits are obtained through improved pollination of nutritious crops and an estimated approximately 28 000 animal-pollinated medicinal plants; the provisioning of pollinator-derived products such as honey; the maintenance of green spaces and biocultural landscapes that improve mental health; and cleaner air, water and food resulting from pollinator-centred initiatives to reduce agrochemical use. We suggest that pollinator diversity could be a proxy for the benefits that landscapes provide to human health. This article is part of the theme issue 'Natural processes influencing pollinator health: from chemistry to landscapes'.

High Fundamental Frequency (HFF) Monolithic Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation Array for the Simultaneous Detection of Pesticides and Antibiotics in Complex Food

As in the case of the food industry in general, there is a global concern about safety and quality in complex food matrices, such as honey, which is driving the demand for fast, sensitive and affordable analytical techniques across the honey-packaging industry. Although excellent techniques such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) are available, these are located in centralized laboratories and are still lacking in speed, simplicity and cost-effectiveness. Here, a new approach is presented where a competitive immunoassay is combined with a novel High Fundamental Frequency Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation (HFF-QCMD) array biosensor for the simultaneous detection of antibiotics and pesticides in honey. Concretely, thiabendazole and sulfathiazole residues were monitored in spiked honey samples. Results revealed that HFF-QCMD arrays provide a complementary and reliable tool to LC-MS/MS for the analysis of contaminants in these kinds of complex matrices, while avoiding elaborate sample pre-treatment. The good sensitivity achieved (I₅₀ values in the 70–720 µg/kg range) and the short analysis time (60 min for 24 individual assays), together with the ability for multiple analyte detection (24 sensor array) and its cost-effectiveness, pave the way for the implementation of a fast on-line, in situ routine control of potentially hazardous chemical residues in honey.

Double Competitive Immunodetection of Small Analyte: Realization for Highly Sensitive Lateral Flow Immunoassay of Chloramphenicol

A new scheme of reagents interaction for lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is proposed, which combines the features of competitive and sandwich assay and provides highly sensitive detection of low-molecular-weight analytes. Namely, the antigen in the sample interferes with the formation of the antibody (on the membrane)–hapten-protein–antibody (on the nanoparticle-marker) complex, competing with hapten-protein conjugate in both reactions. The proposed scheme was modelled using COPASI software, with a prediction of limit of detection (LOD) decrease by one order of magnitude compared to the standard competitive LFIA. This feature was experimentally confirmed for the detection of chloramphenicol (CAP) in honey. When tested in spiked honey, the visual LOD was 50 ng/mL for the common scheme and 5 ng/mL for the proposed scheme. Instrumental LOD was 300 pg/mL (1.2 µg/kg in conversion per sample weight of honey) in the standard scheme and 20 pg/mL (80 ng/kg in conversion per sample weight of honey) in the proposed scheme.

Assessment of Metal Intake by Selected Food Supplements Based on Beehive Products

The aim of this study was to determine the quantity of particular toxic metals (Pb, Cd, As, Hg) and micronutrients (Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se) in the recommended daily dose of 51 food supplements based on beehive products. Samples taken from the Croatian market were submitted for the identification/quantification of studied metals and micronutrients. It was carried out by means of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Eleven samples (21.57%) showed an increased concentration of total arsenic, three samples (5.88%) contained an increased concentration of total iron, and eight samples (15.68%) had an increased concentration of total nickel. Three samples (5.88%) contained an increased concentration of zinc, while one sample (1.96%) contained an increased concentration of selenium. Increased levels of certain toxic metals and micronutrients do not pose a danger to human health because the amount identified was less than what can cause toxic effects in humans. All other analysed metals and micronutrients fell within the defined literature values. Despite certain increases in particular parameters, all samples met the established toxicity criteria. This study evidenced their safety if consumed in the recommended daily dose.

Recent Advances in the Biocontrol of Nosemosis in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Nosemosis is a disease triggered by the single-celled spore-forming fungi Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae, which can cause extensive colony losses in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). Fumagillin is an effective antibiotic treatment to control nosemosis, but due to its toxicity, it is currently banned in many countries. Accordingly, in the beekeeping sector, there is a strong demand for alternative ecological methods that can be used for the prevention and therapeutic control of nosemosis in honey bee colonies. Numerous studies have shown that plant extracts, RNA interference (RNAi) and beneficial microbes could provide viable non-antibiotic alternatives. In this article, recent scientific advances in the biocontrol of nosemosis are summarized.

Applications of Alginate-Based Nanomaterials in Enhancing the Therapeutic Effects of Bee Products

Since the ancient times, bee products (i.e., honey, propolis, pollen, bee venom, bee bread, and royal jelly) have been considered as natural remedies with therapeutic effects against a number of diseases. The therapeutic pleiotropy of bee products is due to their diverse composition and chemical properties, which is independent on the bee species. This has encouraged researchers to extensively study the therapeutic potentials of these products, especially honey. On the other hand, amid the unprecedented growth in nanotechnology research and applications, nanomaterials with various characteristics have been utilized to improve the therapeutic efficiency of these products. Towards keeping the bee products as natural and non-toxic therapeutics, the green synthesis of nanocarriers loaded with these products or their extracts has received a special attention. Alginate is a naturally produced biopolymer derived from brown algae, the desirable properties of which include biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity. This review presents an overview of alginates, including their properties, nanoformulations, and pharmaceutical applications, placing a particular emphasis on their applications for the enhancement of the therapeutic effects of bee products. Despite the paucity of studies on fabrication of alginate-based nanomaterials loaded with bee products or their extracts, recent advances in the area of utilizing alginate-based nanomaterials and other types of materials to enhance the therapeutic potentials of bee products are summarized in this work. As the most widespread and well-studied bee products, honey and propolis have garnered a special interest; combining them with alginate-based nanomaterials has led to promising findings, especially for wound healing and skin tissue engineering. Furthermore, future directions are proposed and discussed to encourage researchers to develop alginate-based stingless bee product nanomedicines, and to help in selecting suitable methods for devising nanoformulations based on multi-criteria decision making models. Also, the commercialization prospects of nanocomposites based on alginates and bee products are discussed. In conclusion, preserving original characteristics of the bee products is a critical challenge in developing nano-carrier systems. Alginate-based nanomaterials are well suited for this task because they can be fabricated without the use of harsh conditions, such as shear force and freeze-drying, which are often used for other nano-carriers. Further, conjunction of alginates with natural polymers such as honey does not only combine the medicinal properties of alginates and honey, but it could also enhance the mechanical properties and cell adhesion capacity of alginates.

Functional Properties and Antimicrobial Activity from Lactic Acid Bacteria as Resources to Improve the Health and Welfare of Honey Bees

Simple Summary

Honey bees play a pivotal role in the sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity. Many factors including parasites, pathogens, pesticide residues, forage losses, and poor nutrition have been proposed to explain honey bee colony losses. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of honey bees and their role has been consistently reported in the literature. In recent years, there have been numerous scientific evidence that the intestinal microbiota plays an essential role in honey bee health. Management strategies, based on supplementation of the gut microbiota with probiotics, may be important to increase stress tolerance and disease resistance. In this review, recent scientific advances on the use of LABs as microbial supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed.

Abstract

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are agriculturally important pollinators. Over the past decades, significant losses of wild and domestic bees have been reported in many parts of the world. Several biotic and abiotic factors, such as change in land use over time, intensive land management, use of pesticides, climate change, beekeeper’s management practices, lack of forage (nectar and pollen), and infection by parasites and pathogens, negatively affect the honey bee’s well-being and survival. The gut microbiota is important for honey bee growth and development, immune function, protection against pathogen invasion; moreover, a well-balanced microbiota is fundamental to support honey bee health and vigor. In fact, the structure of the bee’s intestinal bacterial community can become an indicator of the honey bee’s health status. Lactic acid bacteria are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of many insects, and their presence in the honey bee intestinal tract has been consistently reported in the literature. In the first section of this review, recent scientific advances in the use of LABs as probiotic supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. The second section discusses some of the mechanisms by which LABs carry out their antimicrobial activity against pathogens. Afterward, individual paragraphs are dedicated to Chalkbrood, American foulbrood, European foulbrood, Nosemosis, and Varroosis as well as to the potentiality of LABs for their biological control.

UV/TiO2 Photocatalysis as an Efficient Livestock Wastewater Quaternary Treatment for Antibiotics Removal

Antibiotics are among the most common pharmaceutical compounds, and they have been extensively used for the prevention and treatment of bacterial diseases for more than 50 years. However, merely a small fraction of antibiotics is metabolized in the body, while the rest is discharged into the environment through excretion, which can cause potential ecological problems and human health risks. In this study, the elimination of seventeen antibiotics from real livestock wastewater effluents was investigated by UV/TiO2 advanced oxidation process. The effect of process parameters, such as TiO2 loadings, solution pHs, and antibiotic concentrations, on the efficiency of the UV/TiO2 process was assessed. The degradation efficiency was affected by the solution pH, and higher removal efficiency was observed at pH 5.8 and 9.9, while the catalyst loading had no significant effect on the degradation efficiency. UV photolysis showed a good removal efficiency of the antibiotics. However, the highest removal efficiency was shown by the UV/photocatalyst system due to their synergistic effects. The results showed that more than 90% of antibiotics were removed by UV/TiO2 system during the 60 min illumination, while the corresponding TOC and COD removal was only 10 and 13%, respectively. The results of the current study indicated that UV/TiO2 advanced oxidation processes is a promising method for the elimination of various types of antibiotics from real livestock wastewater effluents.

Detection of Antibiotic Residues in Blossom Honeys from Different Regions in Turkey by LC-MS/MS Method

In the present study, a total of 80 commercial blossom honey samples were obtained from local markets in Ankara, Turkey. These honeys were analyzed for 35 important and risky antibiotics (sulfonamide, tetracycline, macrolide, cephalosporin, aminoglycoside, quinolone, nitrofuran, chloramphenicol, and anthelmintic groups) by the LC-MS/MS multi-antibiotic method. In addition to these analyses, pH measure, moisture, and electrical conductivity were determined in these honey samples. Finally, seven out of 35 antibiotic residues investigated in the honeys were positive. The most frequently detected antibiotics in the analyzed samples were dihydrostreptomycin, streptomycin, erythromycin, sulfadimidine (sulfamethazine), and enrofloxacin as 58.75%, 22.5%, 13.75%, 10%, and 2.5%, respectively. Tetracycline and doxycycline were detected in only one sample. The pH, moisture, and electrical conductivity values of the honey samples were determined as between pH 3.78 and 5.41, 17.48 and 18.03%, and 0.25 and 0.47 mS/cm, respectively. In terms of food safety and human health, it is very important to monitor the residues of these pharmacologically active substances with analytical methods.

Natural plant toxins in honey: An ignored threat to human health

Consumers often believe that "natural food" is harmless, however naturally occurring toxins in food represent a health risk to humans. Honey as a natural, nutritious sweetener, is one of the most commonly consumed foods throughout the world. However, food safety concerns for honey arise when honeybees collect nectar from poisonous plants such as Rhododendron sp., Coriaria arborea, and Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F. Such honey contains natural plant toxins. Humans may develop intoxication symptoms after consuming toxic honey; in some cases, it can be fatal. As a result, toxic honey poses an often-ignored threat to public health. Typical plant toxins such as grayanotoxins, triptolides, tutin and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, have been identified in toxic honey. Although different toxic honeys elicit similar symptoms, such as vomiting, nausea, and dizziness, the mechanism of toxicity may be different. Thus, it is necessary to determine the exact toxicity mechanism of different toxins to further develop effective antidotes and cures. Another important challenge is preventing toxic honey from entering the food chain. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry has a wide range of applications in the detection of different toxins due to its accuracy and simplicity. More methods, however, are urgently needed to detect multiple plant-derived toxins in honey and its derivatives. Developing uniform international standards for toxin detection during quarantine using advanced techniques is critical for preventing human consumption of toxic honey.

Tolerance of pesticides and antibiotics among beneficial soil microbes recovered from contaminated rhizosphere of edible crops

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Soil bacterial isolates were recovered from contaminated rhizosphere regions.

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Majority of bacterial isolatesshowed multifarious plant growth promoting (PGP) activities.

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Bacterial isolates exhibited a varied level of pesticide tolerance.

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Sensitivity/resistance pattern among isolates was variable

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Pesticides tolerance and antibiotic resistance among soil isolates were variably correlated

A total of 45 beneficial soil bacterial isolates (15 each of Pseudomonas, Azotobacter and phosphate solubilizing bacteria: PSB) recovered from polluted rhizosphere soils were morphologically and biochemically characterized. Bacterial isolates produced indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), phenolate siderophores; SA (salicylic acid) and 2, 3-dihydroxy benzoic acid (2, 3-DHBA), 1-amino cyclopropane 1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, solubilised insoluble phosphate (Pi), secreted exopolysaccharides (EPS) and produced ammonia and cyanogenic compound (HCN). Isolates were tested for their tolerance ability against 12 different agrochemicals (chemical pesticides) and 14 antibiotics. Among Pseudomonas, isolate PS1 showed maximum (2183 µg mL⁻¹) tolerance to all tested agrochemicals. Likewise, among all Azotobacter isolates (n = 15), AZ12 showed maximum (1766 µg mL⁻¹) while AZ7 had lowest (950 µg mL⁻¹) tolerance ability to all tested agrochemicals. Moreover, among phosphate solubilizing bacterial isolates, maximum (1970 µg mL⁻¹) and minimum (1308 µg mL⁻¹) tolerance to agrochemicals was represented by PSB8 and PSB13 isolates, respectively. The antibiotic sensitivity/resistance among isolates varied considerably. As an example, Pseudomonas spp. was susceptible to several antibiotics, and inhibition zone differed between 10 mm (polymyxin B) to 34 mm (nalidixic acid). Also, isolate PS2 showed resistance to erythromycin, ciprofloxacin, methicillin, novobiocin and penicillin. The resistance percentage to multiple antibiotics among Azotobacter isolates varied between 7 and 33%. Among PSB isolates, inhibition zone differed between 10 and 40 mm and maximum and minimum resistance percentage to multiple antibiotics was recorded as 47% and 20%, respectively. The persistence of pesticides in agricultural soil may contribute to an increase in multidrug resistance among soil microorganisms. In conclusion, plant growth promoting (PGP) substances releasing soil microorganisms comprising of inherent/intrinsic properties of pesticides tolerance and antibiotics resistance may provide an attractive, agronomically feasible, and long-term prospective alternative for the augmentation of edible crops. However, in future, more research is needed to uncover the molecular processes behind the development of pesticide tolerance and antibiotic resistance among soil microorganisms.

Suitable Areas for Apiculture Expansion Determined by Antioxidant Power, Chemical Profiles, and Pesticide Residues in Caldcluvia paniculata Honey and Beeswax Samples

Forty-two samples of Tiaca Honey (Caldcluvia paniculata) obtained from beehives belonging to 14 apiaries (three honey samples per apiary) were collected at the end of January near Osorno (40°34′ S, 73°8′ W), Puyehue (40°40′ S, 72°37′ W) and Frutillar 41°7′ S, 72°59′ W) covering an area of 1240 km2. They presented the highest phenol contents (0.36 mg gallic acid equivalent/kg) and antioxidant power (1.27 mM equivalent of Fe+2/g of sample), and were among the highest for antiradical activity. Phenol contents and antioxidant power (r = 0.72, p-value < 0.01) and total phenol contents and antiradical activity (r = 0.69; p-value < 0.01) displayed linear correlations. Only two beeswax samples showed residues of the pesticide fenhexamid. The respective sites (Purranque [40°55′ S, 73°10′ W] and Coligual [40°49′ S, 72°54′ W]) were the only areas located near active farms. Additionally, the m/z value 163.1091 was found as an element to identify honeys. Data were used to construct a mapped suitability index ranking for pesticide-free areas with high biological quality. The provided chemical profiles will aid local beekeepers in obtaining international certifications, particularly for the EU market. In turn, the constructed maps indicate suitable areas for apiculture expansion, while differentiated pesticide detection in honey and beeswax requires further comparative research.