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Lewis J, Gallichotte EN, Randall J, Glass A, Foy BD, Ebel GD, Kading RC. Intrinsic factors driving mosquito vector competence and viral evolution: a review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1330600. [PMID: 38188633 PMCID: PMC10771300 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1330600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of numerous viruses of global health significance. The term "vector competence" describes the intrinsic ability of an arthropod vector to transmit an infectious agent. Prior to transmission, the mosquito itself presents a complex and hostile environment through which a virus must transit to ensure propagation and transmission to the next host. Viruses imbibed in an infectious blood meal must pass in and out of the mosquito midgut, traffic through the body cavity or hemocoel, invade the salivary glands, and be expelled with the saliva when the vector takes a subsequent blood meal. Viruses encounter physical, cellular, microbial, and immunological barriers, which are influenced by the genetic background of the mosquito vector as well as environmental conditions. Collectively, these factors place significant selective pressure on the virus that impact its evolution and transmission. Here, we provide an overview of the current state of the field in understanding the mosquito-specific factors that underpin vector competence and how each of these mechanisms may influence virus evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Lewis
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Emily N. Gallichotte
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Jenna Randall
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Arielle Glass
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Brian D. Foy
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Gregory D. Ebel
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Rebekah C. Kading
- Center for Vector-borne Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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Liu P, Yang W, Kong L, Zhao S, Xie Z, Zhao Y, Wu Y, Guo Y, Xie Y, Liu T, Jin B, Gu J, Tu ZJ, James AA, Chen XG. A DBHS family member regulates male determination in the filariasis vector Armigeres subalbatus. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2292. [PMID: 37085529 PMCID: PMC10121658 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37983-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The initial signals governing sex determination vary widely among insects. Here we show that Armigeres subalbatus M factor (AsuMf), a male-specific duplication of an autosomal gene of the Drosophila behaviour/human splicing (DBHS) gene family, is the potential primary signal for sex determination in the human filariasis vector mosquito, Ar. subalbatus. Our results show that AsuMf satisfies two fundamental requirements of an M factor: male-specific expression and early embryonic expression. Ablations of AsuMf result in a shift from male- to female-specific splicing of doublesex and fruitless, leading to feminization of males both in morphology and general transcription profile. These data support the conclusion that AsuMf is essential for male development in Ar. subalbatus and reveal a male-determining factor that is derived from duplication and subsequent neofunctionalization of a member of the conserved DBHS family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiwen Liu
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Wenqiang Yang
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Ling Kong
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Siyu Zhao
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Zhensheng Xie
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Yijie Zhao
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Yijia Guo
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Yugu Xie
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Tong Liu
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Binbin Jin
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Jinbao Gu
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China
| | - Zhijian Jake Tu
- Department of Biochemistry and the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
| | - Anthony A James
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
| | - Xiao-Guang Chen
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510515, China.
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Mewara A, Sharma M, Kaura T, Zaman K, Yadav R, Sehgal R. Rapid identification of medically important mosquitoes by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:281. [PMID: 29720246 PMCID: PMC5932809 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2854-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Accurate and rapid identification of dipteran vectors is integral for entomological surveys and is a vital component of control programs for mosquito-borne diseases. Conventionally, morphological features are used for mosquito identification, which suffer from biological and geographical variations and lack of standardization. We used matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for protein profiling of mosquito species from North India with the aim of creating a MALDI-TOF MS database and evaluating it. Methods Mosquito larvae were collected from different rural and urban areas and reared to adult stages. The adult mosquitoes of four medically important genera, Anopheles, Aedes, Culex and Armigerus, were morphologically identified to the species level and confirmed by ITS2-specific PCR sequencing. The cephalothoraces of the adult specimens were subjected to MALDI-TOF analysis and the signature peak spectra were selected for creation of database, which was then evaluated to identify 60 blinded mosquito specimens. Results Reproducible MALDI-TOF MS spectra spanning over 2–14 kDa m/z range were produced for nine mosquito species: Anopheles (An. stephensi, An. culicifacies and An. annularis); Aedes (Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus); Culex (Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. vishnui and Cx. tritaenorhynchus); and Armigerus (Ar. subalbatus). Genus- and species-specific peaks were identified to create the database and a score of > 1.8 was used to denote reliable identification. The average numbers of peaks obtained were 55–60 for Anopheles, 80–100 for Aedes, 30–60 for Culex and 45–50 peaks for Armigeres species. Of the 60 coded samples, 58 (96.67%) were correctly identified by MALDI-TOF MS with a score > 1.8, while there were two unreliable identifications (both Cx. quinquefasciatus with scores < 1.8). Conclusions MALDI-TOF MS appears to be a pragmatic technique for accurate and rapid identification of mosquito species. The database needs to be expanded to include species from different geographical regions and also different life-cycle stages to fully harness the technique for entomological surveillance programs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2854-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Mewara
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India.
| | - Megha Sharma
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India
| | - Taruna Kaura
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India
| | - Kamran Zaman
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India
| | - Rakesh Yadav
- Medical Microbiology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India
| | - Rakesh Sehgal
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Sector 12, Chandigarh, 160012, India
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Hall AB, Timoshevskiy VA, Sharakhova MV, Jiang X, Basu S, Anderson MAE, Hu W, Sharakhov IV, Adelman ZN, Tu Z. Insights into the preservation of the homomorphic sex-determining chromosome of Aedes aegypti from the discovery of a male-biased gene tightly linked to the M-locus. Genome Biol Evol 2014; 6:179-91. [PMID: 24398378 PMCID: PMC3914700 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evu002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The preservation of a homomorphic sex-determining chromosome in some organisms without transformation into a heteromorphic sex chromosome is a long-standing enigma in evolutionary biology. A dominant sex-determining locus (or M-locus) in an undifferentiated homomorphic chromosome confers the male phenotype in the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti. Genetic evidence suggests that the M-locus is in a nonrecombining region. However, the molecular nature of the M-locus has not been characterized. Using a recently developed approach based on Illumina sequencing of male and female genomic DNA, we identified a novel gene, myo-sex, that is present almost exclusively in the male genome but can sporadically be found in the female genome due to recombination. For simplicity, we define sequences that are primarily found in the male genome as male-biased. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) on A. aegypti chromosomes demonstrated that the myo-sex probe localized to region 1q21, the established location of the M-locus. Myo-sex is a duplicated myosin heavy chain gene that is highly expressed in the pupa and adult male. Myo-sex shares 83% nucleotide identity and 97% amino acid identity with its closest autosomal paralog, consistent with ancient duplication followed by strong purifying selection. Compared with males, myo-sex is expressed at very low levels in the females that acquired it, indicating that myo-sex may be sexually antagonistic. This study establishes a framework to discover male-biased sequences within a homomorphic sex-determining chromosome and offers new insights into the evolutionary forces that have impeded the expansion of the nonrecombining M-locus in A. aegypti.
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Lovin DD, Washington KO, deBruyn B, Hemme RR, Mori A, Epstein SR, Harker BW, Streit TG, Severson DW. Genome-based polymorphic microsatellite development and validation in the mosquito Aedes aegypti and application to population genetics in Haiti. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:590. [PMID: 20003193 PMCID: PMC3087561 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microsatellite markers have proven useful in genetic studies in many organisms, yet microsatellite-based studies of the dengue and yellow fever vector mosquito Aedes aegypti have been limited by the number of assayable and polymorphic loci available, despite multiple independent efforts to identify them. Here we present strategies for efficient identification and development of useful microsatellites with broad coverage across the Aedes aegypti genome, development of multiplex-ready PCR groups of microsatellite loci, and validation of their utility for population analysis with field collections from Haiti. Results From 79 putative microsatellite loci representing 31 motifs identified in 42 whole genome sequence supercontig assemblies in the Aedes aegypti genome, 33 microsatellites providing genome-wide coverage amplified as single copy sequences in four lab strains, with a range of 2-6 alleles per locus. The tri-nucleotide motifs represented the majority (51%) of the polymorphic single copy loci, and none of these was located within a putative open reading frame. Seven groups of 4-5 microsatellite loci each were developed for multiplex-ready PCR. Four multiplex-ready groups were used to investigate population genetics of Aedes aegypti populations sampled in Haiti. Of the 23 loci represented in these groups, 20 were polymorphic with a range of 3-24 alleles per locus (mean = 8.75). Allelic polymorphic information content varied from 0.171 to 0.867 (mean = 0.545). Most loci met Hardy-Weinberg expectations across populations and pairwise FST comparisons identified significant genetic differentiation between some populations. No evidence for genetic isolation by distance was observed. Conclusion Despite limited success in previous reports, we demonstrate that the Aedes aegypti genome is well-populated with single copy, polymorphic microsatellite loci that can be uncovered using the strategy developed here for rapid and efficient screening of genome supercontig assemblies. These loci are suitable for genetic and population studies using multiplex-PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane D Lovin
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556-5645 USA.
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Knudson DL, Brown SE, Severson DW. Culicine genomics. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 32:1193-1197. [PMID: 12225910 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(02)00082-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis L Knudson
- Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Severson DW, Meece JK, Lovin DD, Saha G, Morlais I. Linkage map organization of expressed sequence tags and sequence tagged sites in the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 11:371-378. [PMID: 12144703 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2583.2002.00347.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A composite genetic linkage map for the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti was constructed based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) markers. The map consists of 146 marker loci distributed across 205 cM, and includes several morphological mutant marker loci. Most of the genetic markers are derived from random cDNAs or Ae. aegypti genes of known function. A number of markers are derived from random genomic DNAs, including several cloned RAPD-PCR fragments, and also several cDNAs from Drosophila melanogaster. Most of the random cDNAs (80.2%) have high BlastX sequence identities to known genes, with the majority of matches to genes from D. melanogaster. Access to sequence data for all markers will facilitate their continued development for use in high-throughput SNP marker analyses and also provides additional physical anchor points for an anticipated genome sequencing effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Severson
- Center for Tropical Disease Research and Training, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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Abstract
Genomics is the study of the structure and function of the genome: the set of genetic information encoded in the DNA of the nucleus and organelles of an organism. It is a dynamic field that combines traditional paths of inquiry with new approaches that would have been impossible without recent technological developments. Much of the recent focus has been on obtaining the sequence of entire genomes, determining the order and organization of the genes, and developing libraries that provide immediate physical access to any desired DNA fragment. This has enabled functional studies on a genome-wide level, including analysis of the genetic basis of complex traits, quantification of global patterns of gene expression, and systematic gene disruption projects. The successful contribution of genomics to problems in applied entomology requires the cooperation of the private and public sectors to build upon the knowledge derived from the Drosophila genome and effectively develop models for other insect Orders.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Heckel
- Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research, Department of Genetics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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Anderson JR, Grimstad PR, Severson DW. Chromosomal evolution among six mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) based on shared restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2001; 20:316-21. [PMID: 11476640 DOI: 10.1006/mpev.2001.0964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
The future direction of post-genomic nematode parasitology should focus on the function of the genes that are defined by large-scale expressed sequence tag sequencing and on broader questions about the genetic basis of parasitism. Functional characterisation will require the application of high throughput technologies that have been developed in other fields, including genome mapping strategies and DNA microarray analysis. These will be greatly aided by the development and application of appropriate model organisms. It is crucial that the field make the transition from a narrow focus on one or a few genes at a time to a focus on whole genomes in order to fully realise the potential of the expressed sequence tag and other genomic projects currently under way.
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Affiliation(s)
- W N Grant
- School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
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Mori A, Tomita T, Hidoh O, Kono Y, Severson DW. Comparative linkage map development and identification of an autosomal locus for insensitive acetylcholinesterase-mediated insecticide resistance in Culex tritaeniorhynchus. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 10:197-203. [PMID: 11437911 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2583.2001.00255.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A comparative linkage map for Culex tritaeniorhynchus was constructed based on restriction fragment length polymorphism markers using cDNAs from Aedes aegypti. Linear orders of marker loci in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus were identical to Culex pipiens wherein chromosomes 2 and 3 reflect whole-arm rearrangements compared to A. aegypti. However, the sex determination locus in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus maps to chromosome 3, in contrast to Cx. pipiens and Ae. aegypti where it is located on chromosome 1. Our results indicate that insensitive acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-mediated organophosphate resistance is controlled by a single major gene (AChE) on chromosome 2, while the AChE structural gene (Ace) is located on chromosome 1. No evidence for a second Ace gene was observed, even under very low stringency hybridization conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mori
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556-5645, USA.
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Abstract
A great deal of information has been accumulated on chromosome numbers and heterochromatin distribution as well as on genome size and organization in the mosquito family Culicidae. A number of trends in genome evolution emerge when these data are reviewed in light of recent cladistic phylogenies of Culicidae and its sister families. Anophelinae have heteromorphic sex chromosomes and a small genome size, and repetitive elements are distributed in a long-period interspersion pattern. In contrast, Culicinae have homomorphic sex chromosomes, and repetitive DNA is organized in a short-period interspersion pattern. There has been a general increase in genome size during the evolution of culicine tribes. The organization of the ancestral culicid genome remains uncertain awaiting studies on genome organization in Chaoboridae-Corethrellidae taxa. The most parsimonious hypothesis for the evolution of sex chromosomes and genome organization in Culicidae would be that homomorphic sex chromosomes and a long-period interspersion pattern was ancestral in lineages leading to Toxorhynchitinae and Culcinae. Larger genomes developed in subsequent culicine lineages through accumulation of short-period interspersed repetitive elements. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes evolved early in the evolution of Anophelinae, and a long-period interspersion pattern was retained. The alternative scenario proposed by Rao and Rai (1987a) is that Culicidae arose from a chaoborid Mochlonyx-like ancestor with heteromorphic sex chromosomes and possibly short-period interspersion. This scenario would require the loss of heteromorphic sex chromosomes in the lineage leading to Toxorhynchitinae and Culicinae and the "shedding" of repetitive elements in the lineage leading to Anophelinae. Several interesting patterns have emerged from studies of C-banding, and the distribution of heterochromatin in Culicidae and phylogenies derived from these studies are supported by the modern cladistic analyses. Recent intensive multipoint linkage map studies suggest that recombination frequencies per genome have remained relatively constant over the course of culicid evolution such that Anophelinae, with a relatively small genome size, has a linkage map of similar size to Aedini. As a consequence, taxa in Anophelinae have higher amounts of recombination per haploid genome size than Culicinae. Although several key questions have yet to be addressed, the Culicidae remain one of the best-studied systems of genome evolution in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Rai
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA.
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Severson DW, Brown SE, Knudson DL. Genetic and physical mapping in mosquitoes: molecular approaches. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2001; 46:183-219. [PMID: 11112168 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The genetic background of individual mosquito species and populations within those species influences the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens to humans. Technical advances in contemporary genomics are contributing significantly to the detailed genetic analysis of this mosquito-pathogen interaction as well as all other aspects of mosquito biology, ecology, and evolution. A variety of DNA-based marker types are being used to develop genetic maps for a number of mosquito species. Complex phenotypic traits such as vector competence are being dissected into their discrete genetic components, with the intention of eventually using this information to develop new methods to prevent disease transmission. Both genetic- and physical-mapping techniques are being used to define and compare genome architecture among and within mosquito species. The integration of genetic- and physical-map information is providing a sound framework for map-based positional cloning of target genes of interest. This review focuses on advances in genome-based analysis and their specific applications to mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Severson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA.
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Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases are responsible for significant human morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Efforts to control mosquito-borne diseases have been impeded, in part, by the development of drug-resistant parasites, insecticide-resistant mosquitoes, and environmental concerns over the application of insecticides. Therefore, there is a need to develop novel disease control strategies that can complement or replace existing control methods. One such strategy is to generate pathogen-resistant mosquitoes from those that are susceptible. To this end, efforts have focused on isolating and characterizing genes that influence mosquito vector competence. It has been known for over 70 years that there is a genetic basis for the susceptibility of mosquitoes to parasites, but until the advent of powerful molecular biological tools and protocols, it was difficult to assess the interactions of pathogens with their host tissues within the mosquito at a molecular level. Moreover, it has been only recently that the molecular mechanisms responsible for pathogen destruction, such as melanotic encapsulation and immune peptide production, have been investigated. The molecular characterization of genes that influence vector competence is becoming routine, and with the development of the Sindbis virus transducing system, potential antipathogen genes now can be introduced into the mosquito and their effect on parasite development can be assessed in vivo. With the recent successes in the field of mosquito germ line transformation, it seems likely that the generation of a pathogen-resistant mosquito population from a susceptible population soon will become a reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Beerntsen
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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Genetics of mosquitoes. J Genet 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02934462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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