Tools for cellulose analysis in plant cell walls

Sustainable polysaccharide and protein hydrogel-based packaging materials for food products: A review

Sustainable food packaging is a necessary element to ensure the success of a food system, the accomplishment of which is weighed in terms of quality retention and ensured products safety. Irrespective of the raised environmental concerns regarding petroleum-based packaging materials, a sustainable analysis and a lab to land assessment should be a priority to eliminate similar fates of new material. Functionalized bio-based hydrogels are one of the smartest packaging inventions that are expected to revolutionize the food packaging industry. Although in this review, the focus relies on recent developments in the sustainable bio-based hydrogel packaging materials, natural biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides from which hydrogels could be obtained, the challenges encountered in hydrogel-based packaging materials and the future prospects of hydrogel-based food packaging materials are also discussed. Moreover, the need for 'Life Cycle Assessment' (LCA), stress on certifications and a sustainable waste management system is also suggested which can bring both food and packaging into the same recycling bins.

The semi-automated development of plant cell wall finite element models

This study presents a methodology for a high-throughput digitization and quantification process of plant cell walls characterization, including the automated development of two-dimensional finite element models. Custom algorithms based on machine learning can also analyze the cellular microstructure for phenotypes such as cell size, cell wall curvature, and cell wall orientation. To demonstrate the utility of these models, a series of compound microscope images of both herbaceous and woody representatives were observed and processed. In addition, parametric analyses were performed on the resulting finite element models. Sensitivity analyses of the structural stiffness of the resulting tissue based on the cell wall elastic modulus and the cell wall thickness; demonstrated that the cell wall thickness has a three-fold larger impact of tissue stiffness than cell wall elastic modulus.

Cellulose Hollow Annular Nanoparticles Prepared from High-Intensity Ultrasonic Treatment

Cellulose nanomaterials, such as cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), have received enormous attention in various material research fields due to their unique properties and green/sustainable nature, among other qualities. Herein, we report hollow-type annular cellulose nanocrystals (HTA-CNCs), which are generated by following a high-intensity ultrasonic treatment. The advanced aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy results reveal that HTA-CNCs exhibit ring structures with a typical diameter of 10.0-30.0 nm, a width of 3.0-4.0 nm, and a thickness of 2.0-5.0 nm, similar to those of elementary crystallites. The X-ray diffraction measurements show that the as-prepared HTA-CNCs maintain the cellulose I structure. The changes in structure and hydrogen-bonding characteristics of HTA-CNCs are further determined based on the FT-IR results after deconvolution fitting, showing that three types of hydrogen bonds decrease and the content of free OH increases in HTA-CNCs compared with those in the original CNCs. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation is carried out to support the experimental study. The formation of HTA-CNCs might be attributed to the structural change and entropy increase. The hollow-type annular CNCs may have broad value-added applications as cellulose nanomaterials in different fields.

Cell biology of primary cell wall synthesis in plants

Building a complex structure such as the cell wall, with many individual parts that need to be assembled correctly from distinct sources within the cell, is a well-orchestrated process. Additional complexity is required to mediate dynamic responses to environmental and developmental cues. Enzymes, sugars, and other cell wall components are constantly and actively transported to and from the plasma membrane during diffuse growth. Cell wall components are transported in vesicles on cytoskeletal tracks composed of microtubules and actin filaments. Many of these components, and additional proteins, vesicles, and lipids are trafficked to and from the cell plate during cytokinesis. In this review, we first discuss how the cytoskeleton is initially organized to add new cell wall material or to build a new cell wall, focusing on similarities during these processes. Next, we discuss how polysaccharides and enzymes that build the cell wall are trafficked to the correct location by motor proteins and through other interactions with the cytoskeleton. Finally, we discuss some of the special features of newly formed cell walls generated during cytokinesis.

Revealing the Architecture of the Cell Wall in Living Plant Cells by Bioimaging and Enzymatic Degradation

Plant cell walls consist mostly of crystalline cellulose fibrils embedded in a matrix of complex polysaccharides, but information on their morphological features has generally been limited to that obtained from nonliving plant specimens. Here, we characterized the primary cell wall of a living plant cell (from the tobacco BY-2 suspension culture) at nanometer resolution using high-speed atomic force microscopy and at micrometer resolution using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our results showed aligned and disordered cellulose fibrils coexisting in the outermost layer of the cell wall. We investigated the orientation of the aligned cellulose fibrils in the outer lamellae of the cell wall of living plant cells after removing cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin by enzymatic degradation to make the cellulose fibrils more visible and, accordingly, to reveal the structure of the nanoachitecture formed by these fibrils within the cell wall. We observed that the cellulose fibrils in the outermost layer were usually oriented close to the direction of cell growth, whereas the orientation of the cellulose fibrils in the successive lamellae further inward changed randomly. Such organization should be crucial to render the plant cell wall both rigid and flexible. This finding provides insight not only into the structure of the functional plant cell wall but also into its growth mechanism.

Progress and Opportunities in the Characterization of Cellulose - An Important Regulator of Cell Wall Growth and Mechanics

The plant cell wall is a dynamic network of several biopolymers and structural proteins including cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose is one of the main load bearing components of this complex, heterogeneous structure, and in this way, is an important regulator of cell wall growth and mechanics. Glucan chains of cellulose aggregate via hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces to form long thread-like crystalline structures called cellulose microfibrils. The shape, size, and crystallinity of these microfibrils are important structural parameters that influence mechanical properties of the cell wall and these parameters are likely important determinants of cell wall digestibility for biofuel conversion. Cellulose-cellulose and cellulose-matrix interactions also contribute to the regulation of the mechanics and growth of the cell wall. As a consequence, much emphasis has been placed on extracting valuable structural details about cell wall components from several techniques, either individually or in combination, including diffraction/scattering, microscopy, and spectroscopy. In this review, we describe efforts to characterize the organization of cellulose in plant cell walls. X-ray scattering reveals the size and orientation of microfibrils; diffraction reveals unit lattice parameters and crystallinity. The presence of different cell wall components, their physical and chemical states, and their alignment and orientation have been identified by Infrared, Raman, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, and Sum Frequency Generation spectroscopy. Direct visualization of cell wall components, their network-like structure, and interactions between different components has also been made possible through a host of microscopic imaging techniques including scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. This review highlights advantages and limitations of different analytical techniques for characterizing cellulose structure and its interaction with other wall polymers. We also delineate emerging opportunities for future developments of structural characterization tools and multi-modal analyses of cellulose and plant cell walls. Ultimately, elucidation of the structure of plant cell walls across multiple length scales will be imperative for establishing structure-property relationships to link cell wall structure to control of growth and mechanics.

Experimental assessment and validation of quantification methods for cellulose content in municipal wastewater and sludge

Cellulose, mostly in the form of toilet paper, forms a major component of the particulates in raw municipal wastewater, which could lead to significant consequences due to the potential accumulation of cellulosic fibers and slow biodegradability. Despite the sparse reports on cellulose content and degradation in wastewater and sludge, an accurate and validated method for its quantification in such matrices does not exist. In this paper, four different methods were compared including dilute acid hydrolysis, concentrated acid hydrolysis, enzymatic hydrolysis, and the Schweitzer reagent method. The Schweitzer reagent method, applied to municipal wastewater and sludge, was found to be a very robust and reliable quantification method in light of its reproducibility, accuracy, and ideal (100%) recovery. The determination of cellulose content is critical to understand its fate in wastewater treatment plants as well as improve sludge management and enhance resource recovery.

The impact of deuteration on natural and synthetic lipids: A neutron diffraction study

The structural investigation of cellular membranes requires access to model systems where the molecular complexity is representative of the cellular environment and that allow for the exploitation of structural techniques. Neutron scattering, and in particular neutron diffraction can provide unique and detailed information on the structure of lipid membranes. However, deuterated samples are desirable to fully exploit this powerful method. Recently, the extraction of lipids from microorganisms grown in deuterated media was demonstrated to be both an attracting route to obtain complex lipid mixtures resembling the composition of natural membranes, and to producing deuterated molecules in a very convenient way. A full characterization of these deuterated extracts is hence pivotal for their use in building up model membrane systems. Here we report the structural characterization of lipid extracts obtained from Pichia pastoris by means of neutron diffraction measurements. In particular, we compare the structure of membranes extracted from yeast cells grown in a standard culture medium and in a corresponding deuterated culture medium. The results show that the different molecular composition of the deuterated and protiated lipid extracts induce different structural organization of the lipid membranes. In addition, we compare these membranes composed of extracted yeast lipids with stacked bilayers prepared from synthetic lipid mixtures.

Sustainable sources need reliable standards

This review discusses the challenges within the research area of modern biomass fractionation and valorization. The current pulping industry focuses on pulp production and the resulting cellulose fiber. Hemicellulose and lignin are handled as low value streams for process heat and the regeneration of process chemicals. The paper and pulp industry have therefore developed analytical techniques to evaluate the cellulose fiber, while the other fractions are given a low priority. In a strive to also use the hemicellulose and lignin fractions of lignocellulosic biomass, moving towards a biorefining concept, there are severe shortcomings with the current pulping techniques and also in the analysis of the biomass. Lately, new fractionation techniques have emerged which valorize a larger extent of the lignocellulosic biomass. This progress has disclosed the shortcomings in the analysis of mainly the hemicellulose and lignin structure and properties. To move the research field forward, analytical tools for both the raw material, targeting all the wood components, and the generated fractions, as well as standardized methods for evaluating and reporting yields are desired. At the end of this review, a discourse on how such standardizations can be implemented is given.

Proteomic profiling of cellulase-aid-extracted membrane proteins for functional identification of cellulose synthase complexes and their potential associated- components in cotton fibers

Cotton fibers are an excellent model for understanding of cellulose biosynthesis in higher plants. In this study, we determined a high cellulose biosynthesis activity in vitro by optimizing biochemical reaction conditions in cotton fibers. By adding a commercial cellulase enzyme into fibers extraction process, we extracted markedly higher levels of GhCESA1 and GhCESA8 proteins and observed an increase in β-1,4-glucan and β-1,3-glucan products in vitro. LC-MS/MS analysis of anti-GhCESA8-immunoprecipitated proteins showed that 19 proteins could be found in three independent experiments including four CESAs (GhCESA1,2,7,8), five well-known non-CESA proteins, one callose synthase (CALS) and nine novel proteins. Notably, upon the cellulase treatment, four CESAs, one CALS and four novel proteins were measured at relatively higher levels by calculating total peptide counts and distinct peptide numbers, indicating that the cellulase-aid-extracted proteins most likely contribute to the increase in β-glucan products in vitro. These results suggest that the cellulase treatment may aid to release active cellulose synthases complexes from growing glucan chains and make them more amenable to extraction. To our knowledge, it is the first time report about the functional identification of the potential proteins that were associated with plant cellulose and callose synthases complexes by using the cellulase-aided protein extraction.

An evaluation of dilute acid and ammonia fiber explosion pretreatment for cellulosic ethanol production

The challenge associated with cellulosic ethanol production is maximizing sugar yield at low cost. Current research is being focused to develop a pretreatment method to overcome biomass recalcitrance in an efficient way. This review is focused on two major pretreatments: dilute acid (DA) and ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX) pretreatment of corn stover and how these pretreatment cause morphological and chemical changes to corn stover in order to overcome the biomass recalcitrance. This review highlights the key differences of these two pretreatments based on compositional analysis, cellulose and its crystallinity, morphological changes, structural changes to lignin, enzymatic reactivity and enzyme adsorption onto pretreated solids and finally cellulosic ethanol production from the hydrolysate of DA and AFEX treated corn stover. Each stage of the process, AFEX pretreated corn stover was superior to DA treated corn stover.

Catalytic subunit stoichiometry within the cellulose synthase complex

Cellulose synthesis is driven by large plasma membrane-inserted protein complexes, which in plants have 6-fold symmetry. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), functional cellulose synthesis complexes (CSCs) are composed of at least three different cellulose synthase catalytic subunits (CESAs), but the actual ratio of the CESA isoforms within the CSCs remains unresolved. In this work, the stoichiometry of the CESAs in the primary cell wall CSC was determined, after elimination of CESA redundancy in a mutant background, by coimmunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry using label-free quantitative methods. Based on spectral counting, we show that CESA1, CESA3, and CESA6 are present in a 1:1:1 molecular ratio.

Penium margaritaceum: A Unicellular Model Organism for Studying Plant Cell Wall Architecture and Dynamics

Penium margaritaceum is a new and valuable unicellular model organism for studying plant cell wall structure and developmental dynamics. This charophyte has a cell wall composition remarkably similar to the primary cell wall of many higher plants and clearly-defined inclusive zones containing specific polymers. Penium has a simple cylindrical phenotype with a distinct region of focused wall synthesis. Specific polymers, particularly pectins, can be identified using monoclonal antibodies raised against polymers of higher plant cell walls. Immunofluorescence-based labeling is easily performed using live cells that subsequently can be returned to culture and monitored. This feature allows for rapid assessment of wall expansion rates and identification of multiple polymer types in the wall microarchitecture during the cell cycle. Cryofixation by means of spray freezing provides excellent transmission electron microscopy imaging of the cell, including its elaborate endomembrane and cytoskeletal systems, both integral to cell wall development. Penium’s fast growth rate allows for convenient microarray screening of various agents that alter wall biosynthesis and metabolism. Finally, recent successful development of transformed cell lines has allowed for non-invasive imaging of proteins in cells and for RNAi reverse genetics that can be used for cell wall biosynthesis studies.

Cellulose synthesis and its regulation

Cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer synthesized on land, is made of linear chains of ß (1-4) linked D-glucose. As a major structural component of the cell wall, cellulose is important not only for industrial use but also for plant growth and development. Cellulose microfibrils are tethered by other cell wall polysaccharides such as hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin. In higher plants, cellulose is synthesized by plasma membrane-localized rosette cellulose synthase complexes. Despite the recent advances using a combination of molecular genetics, live cell imaging, and spectroscopic tools, many aspects of the cellulose synthesis remain a mystery. In this chapter, we highlight recent research progress towards understanding the mechanism of cellulose synthesis in Arabidopsis.

Measuring the distribution of cellulose microfibril angles in primary cell walls by small angle X-ray scattering

BACKGROUND

X-ray scattering is a well-established method for measuring cellulose microfibril angles in secondary cell walls. However, little data is available on the much thinner primary cell walls. Here, we show that microfibril orientation distributions can be determined by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) even in primary cell walls. The technique offers a number of advantages: samples can be analyzed in the native hydrated state without any preparation which minimizes the risk of artifacts and allows for fast data acquisition. The method provides data averaged over a specimen region, determined by the size of the used X-ray beam and, thus, yields the microfibril orientation distribution within this region.

RESULTS

Cellulose microfibril orientation distributions were obtained for single cells of the alga Chara corallina, as well as for the multicellular hypocotyl of Arabidopsis thaliana. In both, Chara and Arabidopsis, distributions with a broad scattering around mean microfibril angles of approximately 0° and 90° towards the longitudinal axis of the cells were found.

CONCLUSIONS

With SAXS, the structure of primary cell walls can be analysed in their native state and new insights into the cellulose microfibril orientation of primary cell walls can be gained. The data shows that SAXS can serve as a valuable tool for the analysis of cellulose microfibril orientation in primary cell walls and, in consequence, add to the understanding of its mechanical behaviour and the intriguing mechanisms behind cell growth.

Fourier transform mid infrared spectroscopy applications for monitoring the structural plasticity of plant cell walls

Fourier transform mid-infrared (FT-MIR) spectroscopy has been extensively used as a potent, fast and non-destructive procedure for analyzing cell wall architectures, with the capacity to provide abundant information about their polymers, functional groups, and in muro entanglement. In conjunction with multivariate analyses, this method has proved to be a valuable tool for tracking alterations in cell walls. The present review examines recent progress in the use of FT-MIR spectroscopy to monitor cell wall changes occurring in muro as a result of various factors, such as growth and development processes, genetic modifications, exposition or habituation to cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors and responses to other abiotic or biotic stresses, as well as its biotechnological applications.

Manipulating cellulose biosynthesis by expression of mutant Arabidopsis proM24::CESA3(ixr1-2) gene in transgenic tobacco

Manipulation of the cellulose biosynthetic machinery in plants has the potential to provide insight into plant growth, morphogenesis and to create modified cellulose for anthropogenic use. Evidence exists that cellulose microfibril structure and its recalcitrance to enzymatic digestion can ameliorated via mis-sense mutation in the primary cell wall-specific gene AtCELLULOSE SYNTHASE (CESA)3. This mis-sense mutation has been identified based on conferring drug resistance to the cellulose inhibitory herbicide isoxaben. To examine whether it would be possible to introduce mutant CESA alleles via a transgenic approach, we overexpressed a modified version of CESA3, AtCESA3(ixr1-2) derived from Arabidopsis thaliana L. Heynh into a different plant family, the Solanceae dicotyledon tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. variety Samsun NN). Specifically, a chimeric gene construct of CESA3(ixr1-2) , codon optimized for tobacco, was placed between the heterologous M24 promoter and the rbcSE9 gene terminator. The results demonstrated that the tobacco plants expressing M24-CESA3(ixr1-2) displayed isoxaben resistance, consistent with functionality of the mutated AtCESA3(ixr1-2) in tobacco. Secondly, during enzymatic saccharification, transgenic leaf- and stem-derived cellulose is 54%-66% and 40%-51% more efficient, respectively, compared to the wild type, illustrating translational potential of modified CESA loci. Moreover, the introduction of M24-AtCESA3(ixr1-2) caused aberrant spatial distribution of lignified secondary cell wall tissue and a reduction in the zone occupied by parenchyma cells.

Advancements and future directions in enzyme technology for biomass conversion

Enzymatic hydrolysis of pre-treated lignocellulosic biomass is an ideal alternative to acid hydrolysis for bio-ethanol production, limited primarily by pre-treatment requirements and economic considerations arising from enzyme production costs and specific activities. The quest for cheaper and better enzymes has prompted years of bio-prospecting, strain optimization through genetic engineering, enzyme characterization for simple and complex lignocellulosic feedstock, and the development of pre-treatment strategies to mitigate inhibitory effects. The recent shift to systematic characterizations of de novo mixtures of purified proteins is a promising indicator of maturation within this field of study, facilitating progression towards feedstock assay-based rapid enzyme mixture optimization. It is imperative that international standards be developed to enable meaningful comparisons between these studies and the construction of a database of enzymatic activities and kinetics, aspects of which are explored here-in. Complementary efforts to improve the economic viability of enzymatic hydrolysis through process integration and reactor design are also considered, where membrane-confinement shows significant promise despite the associated technological challenges. Significant advancements in enzyme technology towards the economic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass should be expected within the next few years as systematic research in enzyme activities conforms to that of traditional reaction engineering.

Combining polysaccharide biosynthesis and transport in a single enzyme: dual-function cell wall glycan synthases

Extracellular polysaccharides are synthesized by a wide variety of species, from unicellular bacteria and Archaea to the largest multicellular plants and animals in the biosphere. In every case, the biosynthesis of these polymers requires transport across a membrane, from the cytosol to either the lumen of secretory pathway organelles or directly into the extracellular space. Although some polysaccharide biosynthetic substrates are moved across the membrane to sites of polysaccharide synthesis by separate transporter proteins before being incorporated into polymers by glycosyltransferase proteins, many polysaccharide biosynthetic enzymes appear to have both transporter and transferase activities. In these cases, the biosynthetic enzymes utilize substrate on one side of the membrane and deposit the polymer product on the other side. This review discusses structural characteristics of plant cell wall glycan synthases that couple synthesis with transport, drawing on what is known about such dual-function enzymes in other species.

Nanometrology of delignified Populus using mode synthesizing atomic force microscopy

The study of the spatially resolved physical and compositional properties of materials at the nanoscale is increasingly challenging due to the level of complexity of biological specimens such as those of interest in bioenergy production. Mode synthesizing atomic force microscopy (MSAFM) has emerged as a promising metrology tool for such studies. It is shown that, by tuning the mechanical excitation of the probe-sample system, MSAFM can be used to dynamically investigate the multifaceted complexity of plant cells. The results are argued to be of importance both for the characteristics of the invoked synthesized modes and for accessing new features of the samples. As a specific system to investigate, we present images of Populus, before and after a holopulping treatment, a crucial step in the biomass delignification process.

Cellulose synthases and synthesis in Arabidopsis

Plant cell walls are complex structures composed of high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, proteins, and lignins. Among the wall polysaccharides, cellulose, a hydrogen-bonded β-1,4-linked glucan microfibril, is the main load-bearing wall component and a key precursor for industrial applications. Cellulose is synthesized by large multi-meric cellulose synthase (CesA) complexes, tracking along cortical microtubules at the plasma membrane. The only known components of these complexes are the cellulose synthase proteins. Recent studies have identified tentative interaction partners for the CesAs and shown that the migratory patterns of the CesA complexes depend on phosphorylation status. These advances may become good platforms for expanding our knowledge about cellulose synthesis in the near future. In addition, our current understanding of cellulose chain polymerization in the context of the CesA complex is discussed.

Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants

All photosynthetic multicellular Eukaryotes, including land plants and algae, have cells that are surrounded by a dynamic, complex, carbohydrate-rich cell wall. The cell wall exerts considerable biological and biomechanical control over individual cells and organisms, thus playing a key role in their environmental interactions. This has resulted in compositional variation that is dependent on developmental stage, cell type, and season. Further variation is evident that has a phylogenetic basis. Plants and algae have a complex phylogenetic history, including acquisition of genes responsible for carbohydrate synthesis and modification through a series of primary (leading to red algae, green algae, and land plants) and secondary (generating brown algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates) endosymbiotic events. Therefore, organisms that have the shared features of photosynthesis and possession of a cell wall do not form a monophyletic group. Yet they contain some common wall components that can be explained increasingly by genetic and biochemical evidence.

Regulated trafficking of cellulose synthases

New findings reveal that proteins involved in cellulose biosynthesis undergo regulated trafficking between intracellular compartments and the plasma membrane. The coordinated secretion and internalization of these proteins involve both the actin and cortical microtubule cytoskeletons. This regulated trafficking allows the dynamic remodeling of cellulose synthase complex (CSC) secretion during cell expansion and differentiation. Several new actors of the cellulose synthesis machinery have been recently identified.