The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life

To tell the truth or not: What effortful control, false belief, and sympathy tell us about preschoolers' instrumental lies

This study aimed to examine the predictors of instrumental lies in preschool children, specifically focusing on false belief, effortful control, and sympathy. Instrumental lies are intentional falsehoods used to achieve personal goals such as avoiding punishment and obtaining an undeserved reward. A total of 192 preschool children (age range = 32-73 month-olds), along with their mothers and fathers, participated in the study. The Temptation Resistance Paradigm, an experimental task, was employed to elicit instrumental lies from the children. The children also completed first-order false belief measures, and their parents filled out questionnaires assessing their children's effortful control and sympathy skills. Results revealed a positive association between children's effortful control and their decisions to tell instrumental lies. However, no significant relationship was found between false belief and instrumental lying. Age moderated the link between sympathy and the decision to tell instrumental lies, with sympathy being negatively associated with lie-telling behavior among older children but showing no effect among younger children. The study variables did not predict the maintenance of instrumental lies. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the role of effortful control and sympathy as underlying temperamental and emotional processes influencing children's decisions to engage in instrumental lie-telling.

Predictors of executive function among 2 year olds from a Thai birth cohort

Executive function (EF) is a critical skill for academic achievement. Research on the psychosocial and environmental predictors of EF, particularly among Southeast Asian, agricultural, and low income/rural populations, is limited. Our longitudinal study explored the influence of agricultural environmental, psychosocial, and temperamental factors on children's emerging EF. Three-hundred and nine farm worker women were recruited during the first trimester of pregnancy. We evaluated the effects of prenatal insecticide exposure and psychosocial factors on "cool" (i.e., cognitive: A-not-B task, looking version) and "hot" EF (i.e., affective, response inhibition) measures of emerging EF. Maternal urine samples were collected monthly during pregnancy, composited, and analyzed for dialkylphosphate (DAP) metabolites of organophosphate insecticides. Psychosocial factors included socioeconomic status, maternal psychological factors, and quality of mother-child behavioral interactions. Backward stepwise regressions evaluated predictors of children's EF at 12 (N = 288), 18 (N = 277) and 24 (N = 280) months of age. We observed different predictive models for cool EF, as measured by A-not-B task, vs. hot EF, as measured by response inhibition tasks. Report of housing quality as a surrogate for income was a significant predictor of emerging EF. However, these variables had opposite effects for cool vs. hot EF. More financial resources predicted better cool EF performance but poorer hot EF performance. Qualitative findings indicate that homes with fewer resources were in tribal areas where children must remain close to an adult for safety reasons. This finding suggests that challenging physical environments (e.g., an elevated bamboo home with no electricity or running water), may contribute to development of higher levels of response inhibition through parental socialization methods that emphasize compliance. Children who tended to show more arousal and excitability, and joy reactivity as young infants in the laboratory setting had better cognitive performance. In contrast, maternal emotional availability was a significant predictor of hot EF. As expected, increased maternal exposure to pesticides during pregnancy was associated with worse cognitive performance but was not associated with inhibitory control. Identifying risk factors contributing to the differential developmental pathways of cool and hot EF will inform prevention strategies to promote healthy development in this and other unstudied rural, low income Southeast Asian farming communities.

Inhibitory Control in Young Healthy Adults - a tDCS Study

Inhibitory control plays a role in the behavior selection and detection of conflicts. Defects in inhibitory control are an integral part of many neuropsychiatric disorders and the possibilities of influencing it are the subject of active study. Studies have shown and confirmed the activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during the Stroop task and other tests involving response inhibition. Non-invasive brain stimulation is an emerging and actively developing group of methods used in cognitive research. In the present study, we used non-invasive, painless, and delicate transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS) for the study of inhibitory control, and to explore the effect of impulsivity on response inhibition ability in young healthy participants. We conducted a cross-over study with cross-hemispheric application of 2 mA tDCS with electrodes placed on the right - cathode, and left - anode - DLPFC. Participants performed a classic Stroop test before and after stimulation. Impulsivity was measured via the personal impulsiveness questionnaire. There was no significant difference in interference score alteration between active and sham stimulations, anodal and sham tDCS both induced slight improvement in Stroop test results. Individual impulsivity in healthy participants showed no influence on their results. Our study adds to the picture and helps to deepen knowledge about the impact of different stimulation parameters on cognitive functions.

Pre-pandemic family resources and child self-regulation in children's internalizing problems during COVID-19: a multi-level social-ecological framework for emotional resilience

Introduction

Children's psychological adjustment to adverse events can be determined by multiple risk and resilience factors. This study explored multi-level protective factors against children's internalizing problems and investigated the mechanism regarding how diverse environmental and child-level resources influence children's mental health in the context of COVID-19.

Methods

Our participants included a nationally representative sample of 2,619 young children (48.3% girls) and their primary caregivers (95.1% mothers) in Singapore. They were a subset of the participants in the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG LEADS). Data were collected over two waves-before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Wave 1) when these children aged 3 to 6, and during the second year of the pandemic (Wave 2). Primary caregivers completed measures of verbal cognitive ability, self-control, economic stress, and positive and negative parental control in Wave 1. Children's self-regulation was assessed by the Delay of Gratification task in Wave 1, and their internalizing problems were rated by their primary caregivers in both waves. Other pre-pandemic family and community characteristics were collected as covariates. Structural equation modeling was performed.

Results

Pre-pandemic parental resources (i.e., verbal cognitive ability, self-control, and low economic stress) predicted children's fewer internalizing problems during the pandemic and less aggravation of internalizing problems from before to during the pandemic, through more positive parental control (i.e., limit setting) and less negative parental control (i.e., harsh discipline). Moreover, children's self-regulation during early childhood was predicted by their primary caregivers' verbal cognitive ability and self-control, as well as positive parental control. Early childhood self-regulation further alleviated the aggravation of internalizing problems over time. Among the covariates, parental education, family income, parental psychological well-being, living with both parents, having a live-in domestic helper, and neighborhood quality also longitudinally predicted fewer child internalizing problems.

Discussion

Our findings underscore the importance of nurturing children's emotional resilience under adverse and uncertain circumstances by boosting protective factors in their social-ecological system, including community-, family-, parent-, and child-level resources.

The Interplay between Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Temperament Predicts Inhibitory Control at Two Years of Age

This paper investigates the interplay between environmental factors (socioeconomic status (SES) and parenting) and temperament in the development of inhibitory control (IC) at 2 years of age. We administered to toddlers (n = 59) a delay of gratification task which measures IC in the context of self-regulation. Parents reported their toddlers' temperament, parenting strategies, and SES. We hypothesized that poorer IC would be associated with more reactive temperament, less effortful control, lower SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting practices. Finally, we explored the interaction between temperament, parenting and SES. We found that both coercive parenting and low-SES were negatively correlated to IC at the age of 2 years. Temperamental reactivity was unrelated to IC, whereas temperamental effortful control (EC) was positively associated with IC. Results revealed a moderation effect of EC on the influence of coercive parenting and SES in toddlers' IC. Toddlers from lower SES backgrounds and with lower EC were more affected by inconsistent/coercive parenting practices and showed the poorest IC. In contrast, toddlers exhibiting high and average levels of EC seemed to be protected from the detrimental effect of low-SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting on IC. These results suggest that strengthening toddlers' EC and improving parents' parenting skills might be especially relevant for the development of IC in the context of self-regulation, particularly by preventing self-regulatory problems in children from socioeconomically deprived environments. Future studies with larger samples, focusing on populations from severe socioeconomically deprived environments, or intervention studies will be needed in order to confirm and expand our findings.

Putting things in and taking them out of containers: a young child's interaction with objects

Introduction

How does the behavior of putting things away (putting them in) in a container and using them again (taking them out) develop in young children? Though object interaction is one of the most examined topics in child development, research on organized behavior with various objects and containers at home is lacking. Rather than conducting experiments on young children's interactions with objects, this study focused on natural child-object interaction in the home.

Methods

We conducted a case study on a young child's natural interaction with objects at home, focusing on when the child puts them in or takes them out of a container (the shelf, the cabinet, or the box). The study took place over 2½ years.

Results

The behaviors of putting many objects in a container and taking them out appeared at 9 months old. After acquiring the skill of walking, the child carried the objects using bags. Putting objects in and taking them out was embedded in the locomotion, and the child prepared the containers of toys before play. Pulling as many objects out as possible became rare after 19 months of age. Taking objects out became more appropriate in that context. The child brought out the container before the activity and put things away afterward.

Discussion

Based on these findings, the development of organized object interaction as well as the anticipation and significance of the naturalistic longitudinal observations are discussed.

The role of socio-cultural background and child age for parental regulation strategies and children's self-regulation: A comparison between Germany, Chile, and El Salvador

This study compared parental regulation strategies and children's self-regulation in three different countries (Germany, Chile, El Salvador). N = 300 primary caregivers of 1- to 3-year-olds filled out a parental questionnaire (IMpulse-MAnagement in the caregiver-child dyad, IMMA; Pauen et al., 2019) assessing (a) socio-demographic variables, (b) parental ideas and goals regarding children's self-regulation skills, (c) children's self-regulation strategies in dealing with internal challenges or demands, and (d) caregiver's regulation strategies. Age-group comparisons revealed that (1) children increased compliance and verbal negotiation with their caregivers as they grow older, and (2) parents adapted their regulation strategies to the age of the child. Country-group comparisons further indicated substantial similarities and differences between countries with respect to (3) how parents expected children to deal with requests and prohibitions, as well as with their own needs, feelings, and impulses, (4) how children responded to goal-frustration and parental demands, and (5) which regulatory strategies parents used to support their offspring. These exploratory findings are discussed in the light of current models on cultural learning, parent-child interactions, and child self-regulation development.

When it's not easy to do the right thing: Developmental changes in understanding cost drive evaluations of moral praiseworthiness

Recent work identified a shift in judgments of moral praiseworthiness that occurs late in development: adults recognize the virtue of moral actions that involve resolving an inner conflict between moral desires and selfish desires. Children, in contrast, praise agents who do the right thing in the absence of inner conflict. This finding stands in contrast with other work showing that children incorporate notions of cost and effort into their social reasoning. Using a modified version of Starmans and Bloom's (2016) vignettes, we show that understanding the virtue of costly moral action precedes understanding the virtue of resolving inner conflict. In two studies (N = 192 children, range = 4.00-9.95 years; and N = 193 adults), we contrasted a character who paid a personal cost (psychological in Study 1, physical in Study 2) to perform a moral action with another who acted morally without paying a cost. We found a developmental progression; 8- and 9-year-old children and adults recognized the praiseworthiness of moral actions that are psychologically or physically costly. Six- and 7-year-old children only recognized the praiseworthiness of moral actions that are physically costly, but not actions that are psychologically costly. Moreover, neither adults nor children inferred that paying a cost to act morally required having a moral desire or resolving inner conflict. These results suggest that both adults and children conceptualize obligation as a direct motivational force on actions. They further suggest that costly choice-a hallmark of moral agency-is implicated in judgments of praiseworthiness early in development.

Meaning in life and adolescent self-control: Effect of perceived social support and its gender differences

Purpose

The objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between meaning in life and adolescent self-control, as well as the role of perceived social support and gender in this pathway.

Methods

For this purpose, a total of 936 adolescents from two high schools were selected as subjects in this study. The Meaning in Life Scale, the Self-Control Scale, and the Perceived Social Support Scale were used for the research.

Results

The results obtained in this study have shown that meaning in life is a significant positive predictor of adolescent self-control and perceived social support. In addition, perceived social support partially mediates the relationship between meaning in life and self-control. Further, it has been found that gender moderates the second half of the pathway of the mediation model of meaning in life on self-control, specifically, perceived social support is a stronger predictor of self-control for females than for males.

Conclusion

The results of this study suggest that enhancing perceived social support promotes self-control in adolescents with lower meaning in life, and this process is more pronounced in females.

Advancing Educational Research on Children’s Self-Regulation With Observational Measures

Self-regulation is crucial for children’s development and learning. Almost by convention, it is assumed that self-regulation is a relatively stable skill, and little is known about its dynamic nature and context dependency. Traditional measurement approaches such as single direct assessments and adult reports are not well suited to address questions around variations of self-regulation within individuals and influences from social-contextual factors. Measures relying on child observations are uniquely positioned to address these questions and to advance the field by shedding light on self-regulatory variability and incremental growth. In this paper, we review traditional measurement approaches (direct assessments and adult reports) and recently developed observational measures. We discuss which questions observational measures are best suited to address and why traditional measurement approaches fall short. Finally, we share lessons learned based on our experiences using child observations in educational settings and discuss how measurement approaches should be carefully aligned to the research questions.

Self-regulation in preschool: Are executive function and effortful control overlapping constructs?

The concepts of executive function (EF) and effortful control (EC) are strikingly similar. EF originate from neurocognitive research and are described as an accumulation of cognitive processes that serve the goal-oriented self-regulation (SR) of an individual. EC originates from temperament research and is defined as the efficiency of executive attention, including the ability to inhibit a dominant response, to activate a subdominant response, to proceed in a planned manner and to recognize conflicts or errors. The aim of this article was to examine the association between the constructs of EF and EC at the preschool-age. Eighty-eight children (49 female; M-age = 3.93 years, SD = .78) were tested with a computerized battery designed to assess EF at 3-6 years of age (EF Touch). Children's parents completed questionnaires assessing EF impairments (BRIEF-P) and EC (CBQ). Associations between the constructs and their conceptual overlap were analyzed using correlations and confirmatory factor analyses. We found significant correlations between EF and EC measures. A one-factor confirmatory model fitted the data very well and indicated that EF and EC are indeed overlapping and highly similar constructs. Therefore, our results show that measures of EC and EF have substantial overlap in preschoolers and suggest an integrated model of self-regulation.

Self-regulation in toddlers and the emergence of pre-academic disparities

A growing body of research has examined how children's self-regulation during early and middle childhood mediates SES disparities in academic achievement. Evidence suggests that these self-regulation skills begin developing even earlier, during the toddler years, but more work is needed examining how different measures of self-regulation relate to key constructs such as socioeconomic status (SES) and toddlers' pre-academic skills. In this online study, we examine multiple approaches to measuring self-regulation using confirmatory factor analyses and assess the extent to which self-regulatory skills help explain SES differences in early math and language skills among a sample of 158 two- and three-year-old children. Self-regulation was assessed through a battery of parent- and examiner-ratings. Children's counting, cardinality, and vocabulary skills were measured online through direct assessments and parent surveys. Two self-regulation factors emerged representing parent-reported and observational measures, and only observational measures of self-regulation mediated associations between SES and children's math and language skills. Parent-reported self-regulation was not uniquely related to SES or children's pre-academic skills, underscoring the need for careful consideration of how self-regulation is measured among toddlers when examining its associations with pre-academic skills.

Konzeption einer App mit der Technik des „Entschleunigten Atmens“ zur Selbstregulation für Jugendliche während der Corona-Pandemie

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Belastungen und Stress nahmen bei den Jugendlichen während der COVID-19-Pandemie zu. Das Entschleunigte Atmen (EA) wirkt kurz- wie langfristig stressreduzierend und stabilisierend. Mithilfe einer App, die diese Technik vermittelt, haben Schüler_innen auch während des pandemiebedingten Distanz-Lernens die Möglichkeit, an einem schulbasierten Training teilzunehmen. Fragestellung: Wie hoch ist die Erreichbarkeit und wie werden inhaltliche und nicht-inhaltliche Aspekte der App bewertet? Methode: Eine mehrmodulige App, die das EA erklärt, zum Anwenden und Üben dieser Technik anleitet, wurde konzipiert und entwickelt. Während eines Pilotprojekts in der zweiten Welle der COVID-19-Pandemie wurde das vierwöchige Training von 6. bis 8. Klässler_innen erprobt. Das gesamte Training bewerteten 31 Schüler_innen, das EA sieben. Ergebnisse: Erste Ergebnisse deuten auf eine zufriedenstellende nicht-inhaltliche und eine gute inhaltliche Akzeptanz hin. Die Erreichbarkeit hingegen war gering. Alle Ergebnisse werden deskriptiv vorgestellt. Diskussion und Schlussfolgerung: Die App-Revision soll Präsenzmodule beinhalten, die motivationalen Anreize erhöhen und an einer größeren Stichprobe durchgeführt werden.

Sibling Influences on Trajectories of Maladaptive Behaviors in Autism

Siblings play an important role in the behavioral trajectories of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While having siblings has been associated with positive outcomes in ASD, including stronger adaptive functioning, social and non-verbal communication, and theory of mind, little is known about the impact of siblings on more negative outcomes, such as maladaptive behaviors. To address this gap, the present longitudinal study tested sibling predictors of trajectories of maladaptive behaviors (e.g., teacher- and parent-reported hyperactivity, irritability, and social withdrawal) from childhood through early adulthood among individuals with ASD and non-spectrum delays. Multilevel models revealed that, while the mere presence of a sibling did not impact maladaptive behavior trajectories apart from teacher-reported hyperactivity, the diagnostic profile of the sibling (e.g., emotional/behavioral disorder, ASD, medical condition) emerged as an important predictor. Specifically, although findings varied across teacher and parent reports, more hyperactivity and irritability across time was identified when the sibling had diagnoses of an emotional/behavioral disorder, ASD, and/or a medical condition. Overall, this study provides novel insight into the broader family-level factors that influence the presentation of maladaptive behaviors across time and across contexts.

Age-Related Variance in Performance versus Ratings of Attention and Impulse Regulation in Children: Implications for the Assessment of ADHD

Executive function task (EF) deficits are hypothesized to underlie difficulties with self-regulation. However, tasks assessing EF impairments have only been weakly correlated with rating scales that index self-regulation difficulties. A community sample of children and youth aged between 8 and 20 years old were assessed longitudinally. Growth curve analyses and correlations were conducted to better understand how these two types of measures relate to one another across development, as well as the impact of age-related variance. EF was assessed using the Stroop Task and Trail Making test and behavioral ratings of self-regulation were captured using the SWAN scale. EF task performance improved steeply until age 14–15, whereas the SWAN Scale showed small age-related decreases. EF task performance was moderately correlated with age among 8–13-year-olds and to a lesser extent among 14–20-year-olds. SWAN scores were not significantly related to age in either group. Correlations were similar in an ADHD “at-risk” subgroup. EF task performance and parent ratings of attention regulation have different developmental trajectories, which may partly explain why correlations are low to modest in these samples. In particular, age-related variance is an important methodological consideration with significant implications for the assessment of self-regulation in children and youth with ADHD.

Mutual synergies between reactive and active inhibitory systems of temperament in the development of children's disruptive behavior: Two longitudinal studies

Individual differences in two inhibitory temperament systems have been implicated as key in the development of early disruptive behaviors. The reactive inhibition system, behavioral inhibition (BI) entails fearfulness, shyness, timidity, and caution. The active inhibition system, or effortful control (EC) entails a capacity to deliberately suppress, modify, or regulate a predominant behavior. Lower scores in each system have been associated with more disruptive behaviors. We examined how the two systems interact, and whether one can alleviate or exacerbate risks due to the other. In two community samples (Study 1, N = 112, ages 2.5 to 4, and Study 2, N = 102, ages 2 to 6.5), we assessed early BI and EC, and future disruptive behaviors (observed disregard for rules in Study 1 and parent-rated externalizing problems in Study 2). Robustly replicated interactions revealed that for children with low BI (relatively fearless), better EC was associated with less disruptive behavior; for children with low EC, more BI was associated with less disruptive behavior. This research extends the investigation of Temperament × Temperament interactions in developmental psychology and psychopathology, and it suggests that reactive and active inhibition systems may play mutually compensatory roles. Those effects emerged after age 2.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of associations between self-regulation and morality in preschool and elementary school children

The importance of self-regulatory skills for the socio-emotional competencies of children is being researched and discussed extensively. However, in order to make a clear statement about the impact of self-regulation on children’s morality, a systematic review of the literature is urgently needed. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to analyze associations between self-regulation and morality of preschool and elementary school children. In this context, distinctions among different definitions and operationalizations of self-regulation and morality are considered. Search terms were entered in the bibliographic databases PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Science. To meet the inclusion criterion, studies needed to report empirical associations between self-regulation and morality in children of preschool and elementary school age. Furthermore, the studies should report primary data and be published in English in a peer-reviewed journal. Studies with secondary or summarized data, special populations or with certain designs were excluded. A total of 37 studies were included in the narrative synthesis. 35 of these studies were included in the meta-analysis. The narrative synthesis showed that different definitions and operationalizations were used for both self-regulation and morality. There also seems to be no consensus regarding the association between the constructs. Meta-analysis results revealed a small positive combined effect between self-regulation and morality, especially between temperament-related self-regulation and moral behavior and moral emotions. In order to gain a better understanding of the effects of self-regulation on morality, longitudinal research and further research addressing different forms of these constructs are essential.

Why are some inhibitory tasks easy for preschool children when most are difficult? Testing two hypotheses

Understanding the processes that create inhibitory demands is central to understanding the role of inhibitory control in all aspects of development. The processes that create inhibitory demands on most developmental tasks seem clear and well understood. However, there is one inhibitory task that appears substantially easier than the others: the Reverse Categorization task, in which children are asked to "reverse sort" items (e.g., put large items in a small box and put small items in a large box). This finding is both surprising and problematic because it cannot be explained by any existing account of inhibitory development. Four experiments with 3- and 4-year-olds sought to explain why the Reverse Categorization task is easy. Two experiments (N = 64) investigated the hypothesis that children conceptualize the task in a way that reduces its inhibitory demands; and two experiments (N = 56) tested the hypothesis that the task is easier because children sort items slowly. The data indicate that children spontaneously respond more slowly on the Reverse Categorization task than on other inhibitory tasks and that this slowing reduces the task's cognitive demands. The way in which slowed responding works, and its relation to other inhibition-reducing interventions, is discussed.

In her shoes: Partner reflective functioning promotes family-level resilience to maternal depression

Parental depression has significant implications for family functioning, yet much of the literature does not consider family-level dynamics in investigating individual, parenting and child outcomes. In the current study we apply a new index of couple-level support, partner reflective functioning (RF), or the romantic partner's ability to consider how the partner's mental states can guide behavior, to study familial resiliency in the face of prenatal parental depression among first-time parents. We investigate how partner RF buffers the association between prenatal parental depression and outcomes of postnatal parental depression, parenting style, and child effortful control. Maternal and paternal depression were measured in 91 primiparous couples during the sixth month of pregnancy and parental depression, partner RF, parental RF at 6 months postnatally. Outcomes of parental depression, permissive parenting, and children's effortful control were assessed 24 months postnatally. Results indicate that average and high levels of paternal partner (not parental) RF attenuate risk for maternal postnatal depression, maternal permissive parenting, and deficits in child effortful control. Implications are discussed from a family systems approach.

Development, Construct Validation, and Normalization of a New Early Childhood Self-Regulation Assessment Scale

Although there are many tools for assessing young children's self-regulation according to varied conceptual definitions and purposes, the purpose of this study was to develop, validate, and norm a Self-Regulation Assessment Scale for Early Childhood (SASEC) for directly evaluating observed behaviors of young children in naturalistic play experiences within the normal preschool environment. An exploratory sequential mixed methods research design was used. The 315 participants included 153 parents and 15 educators for the qualitative component and 147 children ages 3-5 years for the quantitative component. The analytical steps of a qualitative grounded theory research design were applied to adult participant interviews and focus group discussions, which culminated in 12 scale items for measuring a child's ability to initiate, modulate, and cease behaviors, tasks, or activities of varied complexities, social configurations, and limiting conditions. Children's SASEC scores were assessed via video recordings of play behaviors in naturalistic settings. Based on factor analysis results, the SASEC items constitute a single construct. According to the results of hierarchical linear modeling and multiple linear regression, preschool children's SASEC scores can be compared to the SASEC mean and standard deviation regardless of various demographic variables. Implications and recommendations for future work include having early childhood educators, child and youth care practitioners, counselors, parents and families, social workers, behavioral sciences researchers, and policy makers use the SASEC to measure young children's self-regulation while developing or monitoring the efficacy of generalized enhancement programs and individualized treatment plans.

A Systematic Scoping Review of Pre-School Self-Regulation Interventions from a Self-Determination Theory Perspective

Self-regulation (SR) is considered foundational in early life, with robust evidence demonstrating a link between early self-regulation and longer-term outcomes. This has been the impetus for a growing body of intervention research into how best to support early SR development, yet approaches and effects are diverse, which complicates an understanding of the critical characteristics for effective early SR intervention. Using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a guiding framework, we present a scoping review of early SR-intervention research to identify the characteristics of pre-school interventions that show significant and strong effects on young children’s SR. Studies from peer-reviewed journal articles were included if they evaluated a SR intervention with pre-school children, were published between 2010 and 2020, written in English, and included a SR outcome measure. This yielded 19 studies, each reporting the efficacy of a different SR intervention. Results showed that content factors (what interventions do) interacted with their implementation (how, when, and by whom interventions are implemented) to discriminate the more versus less efficacious interventions. Through the lens of SDT, results further suggested that targeting competence through encouragement and feedback, and nurturing children’s autonomy distinguished more from less effective interventions. Relatedness was least able to discriminate intervention efficacy.

Play & Grow: prospective observational cohort of toddlers to inform obesity prevention, Columbus, Ohio, USA

PURPOSE

Obesity prevention is increasingly focused on early childhood, but toddlers have not been well-studied, and children born preterm are frequently excluded. The Play & Grow Cohort was established to investigate child growth in relation to parent-child interactions in mealtime and non-mealtime settings.

PARTICIPANTS

Between December 2017 and May 2019, 300 toddlers and primary caregivers were recruited from records of a large paediatric care provider in Columbus, Ohio, USA. This report describes recruitment of the cohort and outlines the data collection protocols for two toddler and two preschool-age visits. The first study visit coincided with enrolment and occurred when children (57% boys) were a mean (SD) calendar age of 18.2 (0.7) months.

FINDINGS TO DATE

Children in the cohort are diverse relative to gestational age at birth (16%, 28-31 completed weeks' gestation; 21%, 32-36 weeks' gestation; 63%, ≥37 weeks' gestation) and race/ethnicity (8%, Hispanic; 35%, non-Hispanic black; 46%, non-Hispanic white). Caregivers enrolled in the cohort are primarily the child's biological mother (93%) and are diverse in age (range 18-54 years), education (23%, high school or less; 20% graduate degree) and annual household income (27%, <US$20 000 24%, ≥US$90 000). Parent-child interactions were video-recorded during play in the laboratory at 18 months (n=299) and during play, reading and mealtime in the home (n=284) at 24 months. The preschool phase of the study was impacted by COVID-19. Parent-child interactions were video-recorded during play and mealtime at home at 36 months (n=141) and during a standardised buffet meal in the laboratory at 42 months (n=50). Caregivers unable to participate in face-to-face visits due to COVID-19 completed questionnaires.

FUTURE PLANS

Assessment during middle childhood is being planned. Future visits will include anthropometric measurements and parent-child interactions at mealtime. School-based outcomes are additionally being considered.

Transactions between Maternal and Child Depressive Symptoms Emerge Early in Life

Maternal depression is a robust risk factor for children's internalizing symptoms; however, the intergenerational transmission of mood disorders is likely more complex than unidirectional parent-directed effects. Theoretical models support transactional associations between maternal and child symptomatology over time but have not been well examined, especially in younger high-risk samples. The present investigation examined predictive transactional relations between maternal depression and children's internalizing in toddlerhood and early childhood using a cross-lagged panel model. Participants were 162 low-income, largely racial/ethnic minority mothers and their offspring (32% African American, 16% White, 52% Other/Multiethnic; 53% female) who were assessed when children were 18 months and 4 years old. There were significant cross-sectional relations between maternal depressive and child internalizing symptoms when children were 18 months but not 4 years of age. Cross-lagged associations were evident such that maternal depression symptoms at 18 months were positively associated with internalizing symptoms among children at 4 years, adjusting for prior maternal symptom levels and the cross-sectional correlations between maternal-child symptoms at 18 months. Within the same model, children's internalizing symptoms at 18 months were also positively associated with maternal depressive symptoms at 4 years, adjusting for prior child symptom levels and cross-sectional correlations. This study is among the first to demonstrate that transactional relations between maternal and child mood symptoms occur as early as toddlerhood/early childhood. Findings highlight the potential utility of inclusive, family-focused interventions that support both parents and children in the treatment of early emotional problems.

Maternal Psychological Problems During Pregnancy and Child Externalizing Problems: Moderated Mediation Model with Child Self-regulated Compliance and Polygenic Risk Scores for Aggression

A potential pathway underlying the association between prenatal exposure to maternal psychological problems and childhood externalizing problems is child self-regulation. This prospective study (N = 687) examined whether self-regulated compliance mediates the relation between maternal affective problems and hostility during pregnancy and childhood externalizing problems, and explored moderation by child polygenic risk scores for aggression and sex. Self-regulated compliance at age 3 was observed in mother-child interactions, and externalizing problems at age 6 were reported by mothers and teachers. Polygenic risk scores were calculated based on a genome-wide association study of aggressive behavior. Self-regulated compliance mediated the associations between maternal psychological problems and externalizing problems. Aggression PRS was associated with higher externalizing problems reported by mothers. No evidence was found of moderation by aggression PRS or sex. These findings support the hypothesis that maternal psychological problems during pregnancy might influence externalizing problems through early self-regulation, regardless of child genetic susceptibility or sex.

Complex nonverbal response inhibition and stopping impulsivity in childhood stuttering

PURPOSE

The primary purpose of this study was to examine complex nonverbal response inhibition and stopping impulsivity in children who do (CWS) and do not stutter (CWNS).

METHOD

A total of 30 CWS and 30 CWNS between the ages of 3;1 and 6;0 (years; months) performed the Peg-Tapping Task (PTT; Diamond & Taylor, 1996; Luria, 1966), in which children were required to tap a dowel once when an examiner taps twice and vice versa. The main dependent variables were the number of practice trials, response accuracy, response latency for accurate responses, and the number of extra taps (i.e., tapping more than two times).

RESULTS

The CWS were less accurate and slower on the PTT than the CWNS, with no differences in the number of practice trials. Furthermore, the CWS, especially boys, produced more extra taps than the CWNS.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings revealed that preschool CWS have weaknesses in complex response inhibition and stopping impulsivity in the nonverbal domain compared to CWNS. Taken together, these findings along with those of previous studies indicate that CWS may have weaknesses in inhibition and impulsivity in the nonverbal domain as well as the verbal domain, suggesting a domain-general weakness.

Calibrating temper loss severity in the transition to toddlerhood: Implications for developmental science

The integration of neurodevelopmental perspectives into clinical science has identified irritability as an early dimensional marker of lifespan mental health risk. Elucidating the developmental patterning of irritable behavior is key to differentiating normative variation from risk markers. Accounting for dysregulation and contextual features of irritability is useful for differentiation at preschool age, laying the groundwork for even earlier characterization. We provide initial evidence for the validity of the Multidimensional Assessment Profile of Disruptive Behavior Temper Loss Scale, Infant-Toddler version in two independent samples of 12-18-month-olds from the US. We calibrated the measure using item response theory in a large representative sample, then validated within an independent sample. We characterized the developmental patterning of irritable behaviors and their dimensional spectrum, and demonstrated test-retest reliability, and convergent validity. The MAP-DB-IT is a standardized, dimensional survey assessing irritability that serves as a tool for characterizing the developmental expression of early mental health risk.

Developmental Traits of Impulse Control Behavior in School Children under Controlled Attention, Motor Function, and Perception

This research surveyed the characteristics of the developmental traits of impulse control behavior in children through parent-report questionnaires. After matching for gender and attention behavior, as well as controlling for variables (motor and perception) which might confound impulse control, 710 participants (355 girls and 355 boys; grade, 1–5; age, 7–12 years) were recruited from a database of 1763 children. Results demonstrated that there was a significant difference between grade 1 and grade 5 in impulse control. Conversely, no significant differences were found when comparing other grades. The present findings indicate that a striking development of impulse control occurs from grade 4 to 5. Moreover, the plateau of impulse control development from grade 1 to 4 implies that a long transition period is needed to prepare children to develop future impulse control. In conclusion, the age-dependent maturation associated with stage-wise development is a critical characteristic of impulse control development in school age children. Further discussions are made regarding this characteristic, such as from the perspective of frontal lobe development.

Mothers' Use of Regulatory Talk with Toddlers in Chile and the US: How Do Cultural Values and Children's Gender Affect Mothers' Regulatory Talk at 12 and 30 Months?

Studies have shown that Chilean and US infants differ in their levels of self-regulation. One of the mechanisms of early socializing is the use of language, particularly mental state language. The current study seeks to deepen our knowledge of the ways in which mental state language is related to socialization processes in early childhood, including the ways both culture and children’s gender influence a mothers’ use of mental state talk. We used a quantitative and descriptive approach with 109 mothers and their children (64 Chilean and 45 US dyads), measured twice, at 12 and 30 months old. Mental state references related to regulation were coded during a story-sharing task, including positive (calm and patient) and negative (messy and impatient) references to regulating behavior. Chilean mothers generally showed more regulatory references than US mothers, especially if the children were at a younger age (12 month). Frequencies of regulatory references increased in US mothers at 30 months but were still less than in Chilean mothers. At the 12-month measuring point, Chilean mothers showed more negative regulatory attributes than positive regulatory attributes. Finally, US mothers mainly used references to secondary emotions (e.g., pride) and positive regulatory attributes (being obedient, mature and patient) at both ages.

Waiting for the better reward: Comparison of delay of gratification in young children across two cultures

Delay of gratification-a form of self-control-is the ability to forsake immediately available rewards in order to obtain larger-valued outcomes in future, which develops throughout the pre-school years. The majority of previous research in this area has been conducted with Western populations, therefore knowledge of Eastern children's performance is scarcer. Here, utilising on a recently published dataset of British children (n = 61), we further tested delay of gratification in 3 to 5-year-old Chinese children (n = 75) using Bramlett et al.'s (2012) delay choice paradigm. The paradigm was previously used in non-human primates and it featured a mechanized rotating tray that sequentially moves rewards within reach. Additionally, we administered 3 inhibitory control tasks and 1 standardised delay choice task to Chinese pre-schoolers (British children were not tested). We aimed to investigate the influence of culture, reward type and reward visibility on pre-schoolers' ability to delay gratification. We found significant age-related improvements in delay of gratification ability in both countries and children performed better when presented with rewards varying in quality than quantity. Consistent with previous cross-cultural literature, Chinese children showed better overall performance than their British peers when reward visibility was manipulated (though reward visibility itself had no significant effect on performance). There were significant correlations in Chinese children's performance in Bramlett et al.'s (2012) delay choice paradigm and performance in some (though not all tested) inhibitory control tasks. We discuss these results in relation to task demands and the broader social orientation of self-control. We concluded that the intuitive comparative assessment of self-control task taps into children's delay of gratification ability. Our results emphasize the importance of testing for socio-cultural influences on children's cognitive development.

Patterns of Infant Amygdala Connectivity Mediate the Impact of High Caregiver Affect on Reducing Infant Smiling: Discovery and Replication

BACKGROUND

Behavioral research indicates that caregiver mood disorders and emotional instability in the early months following childbirth are associated with lower positive emotionality and higher negative emotionality in infants, but the neural mechanisms remain understudied.

METHODS

Using resting-state functional connectivity as a measure of the functional architecture of the early infant brain, we aimed to determine the extent to which connectivity between the amygdala, a key region supporting emotional learning and perception, and large-scale neural networks mediated the association between caregiver affect and anxiety and early infant negative emotionality and positive emotionality. Two samples of infants (first sample: n = 58; second sample: n = 31) 3 months of age underwent magnetic resonance imaging during natural sleep.

RESULTS

During infancy, greater resting-state functional connectivity between the amygdala and the salience network and, to a lesser extent, lower amygdala and executive control network resting-state functional connectivity mediated the effect of greater caregiver postpartum depression and trait anxiety on reducing infant smiling (familywise error-corrected p < .05). Furthermore, results from the first sample were replicated in the second, independent sample, to a greater extent for caregiver depression than for caregiver anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide evidence of early objective neural markers that can help identify infants who are more likely to be at risk from, versus those who might be protected against, the deleterious effects of caregiver depression and anxiety and reduced positive emotionality.

Gene × Environment Interactions in the Development of Preschool Effortful Control, and Its Implications for Childhood Externalizing Behavior

This study examined the role of gene × environment interaction (G × E) in the development of effortful control (EC) and externalizing symptoms (EXT). Participants included 361 adopted children, and their Adoptive Parents (APs) and Birth Mothers (BMs), drawn from the Early Growth and Development Study. The primary adoptive caregivers' (AP1) laxness and overreactivity were assessed when children were 27-months-old, and used as indices of environmental influences on EC. Heritable influences on child EC were assessed by the BMs' personality characteristics (emotion dysregulation, agreeableness). Secondary adoptive caregivers (AP2) reported on children's EC at 54 months, and EXT at 7 years. Interactions between BM characteristics and AP1 laxness were related to EC and indirectly predicted EXT via EC. Parental laxness and EC were positively associated if children had high heritable risk for poor EC (BM high emotion dysregulation or low agreeableness), but negatively associated if children had low heritable risk for poor EC (BM low emotion dysregulation or high agreeableness). BM agreeableness also moderated associations between AP1 overreactivity and effortful control, and yielded a similar pattern of results. Our findings suggest that G × E is an important first step in the development of EXT via its effect on EC. Consistent with "goodness of fit" models, heritable tendencies can affect which parenting practices best support EC development.

Prenatal exposure to opioids: Associations between the caregiving environment and externalizing behaviors

Maternal opioid use during pregnancy is a rapidly growing public health crisis and is associated with a range of adverse developmental outcomes including externalizing behaviors among exposed children. Recent work has highlighted the role of indirect pathways from prenatal opioid exposure to behavioral outcomes through aspects of the caregiving environment, including parenting. This review highlights maternal sensitivity and related aspects of the caregiving environment that may impact the development of externalizing behaviors among children with a history of prenatal exposure to opioids. We conclude by providing suggestions for future directions in research examining development among children with prenatal opioid exposure.

Insight into toddlers' motivation to help: From social participants to prosocial contributors

What drives toddlers' helping behavior? And do toddlers' helping motivations change across time? In line with Dahl and Paulus (2019), we propose that initially, toddlers start helping in ongoing chores driven by their interest in social interactions, and, later on, their helping becomes more concern based, or based on a sense of responsibility. To test this assumption, we used a longitudinal approach to examine the role that social interaction plays in toddlers' motivation to help as they grow older. As such, we investigated whether a disruption to an experimenter during a shared chore task affected toddlers' motivations to continue helping at the ages of 18, 21 and 24 months. Results showed that toddlers at 18 months were less likely to continue helping when the experimenter was disrupted from the shared task, in comparison to toddlers at 21 and at 24 months. These findings support the idea that toddlers develop from socially based participators into more prosocially based contributors.

Intergenerational transmission of appetite self-regulation

Parents and other primary caregivers affect the development of children's self-regulation in myriad ways, including via the parent's own self-regulation abilities. Ample evidence supports the association between mother and child self-regulation, yet this has never been experimentally assessed with regard to appetite self-regulation, the self-regulation of food intake. This study sought to explicitly test the associations between mother and child self-regulation across 3 domains: (1) appetite, (2) attentional control, and (3) inhibitory control. A community sample of 88 mother-preschooler dyads (ages 3-5) participated in this cross-sectional, experimental study. Results demonstrated that maternal self-regulation was significantly positively associated with child self-regulation in the appetite domain, b = 0.52, t(63.54) = 2.39, p = .020, but not for attentional or inhibitory control. These results add to the literature on parental influences on self-regulation development in early childhood and suggest that patterns of mother-child associations may vary across domains of self-regulation.

Mexican-Origin Adolescent Mothers' Economic Contexts, Educational Re-Engagement, and Their Children's School Readiness

Drawing on data from a longitudinal study of 204 Mexican-origin adolescent mothers, their mother figures, and their children, the current investigation examined (a) adolescent mothers' educational re-engagement and attainment beginning during their pregnancy and ending when their child was 5 years old; and (b) the influence of the family economic context on adolescent mothers' educational re-engagement and attainment and their children's academic and social-emotional outcomes. Findings detailed adolescent mothers' re-engagement in school after the birth of their child and revealed that family income during adolescents' pregnancies was directly associated with re-engagement and attainment, and also initiated cascade effects that shaped adolescents' economic contexts, their subsequent re-engagement and attainment, and ultimately their children's academic and social-emotional outcomes at age 5.

Does physical activity moderate the association between screen time and psychosocial development in early childhood? Analysis of a longitudinal infant cohort study in Ireland

The objective of this study was to explore the extent to which the association between screen time and psychosocial development in preschool children differed between the sexes and according to their frequency of engagement in physical activity. Data are based on a prospective cohort of Irish children, collected between 2010 and 2013 when children were ages 3 (n=9786) and 5 years (n=9001). Children's screen time (h/day), psychosocial development (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), and physical activity (bouts/week) were assessed via caregiver report. The magnitude of the association between screen time and changes in behavioural difficulties differed significantly between the sexes. For boys, the association between increased screen time and the onset of behavioural problems coincided directly with a reduction in their frequency of engagement in physical activity. The association between screen time and changes in behavioural difficulties was not moderated by girls' engagement in physical activity, however; and there was no difference in the association between screen time and prosocial behaviours at different frequencies of engagement in physical activity for either boys or girls.Conclusions: Results support recommendations to establish greater balance between physical activity and sedentary behaviours in token economy systems to minimise the negative effects of excessive screen time. What is Known: • Provision of screen time has become normalised as a behavioural reinforcer for use with young children. • Screen viewing above recommended guidelines is associated with behavioural problems that reflect poor self-regulation. What is New: • Boys' levels of engagement in physical activity moderated the relationship between screen time and changes in behavioural difficulties between the ages of 3 and 5 years. • Neither screen time nor physical activity was significantly associated with changes in prosocial behaviours between the ages of 3 and 5 years for either boys or girls.

Self-control in old age: A grounded theory study

Background

Self-control is associated with multiple positive outcomes. There are several studies on self-control, yet no literature describing the mechanism of self-control in old age.

Objective

This study aims to develop a substantive theory on the exercise of self-control in old age.

Methods

Grounded Theory methodology developed by Glaser & Strauss was utilized in the conduct of this study with ten (10) older adults as participants following the set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Individual in-depth interviews of 30-45 minutes were observed to gather the needed verbatim narrative responses from each participant after careful consideration of the ethical procedures approved by the University research ethics board. Major themes with their respective sub-themes were generated after rigorous analysis of the participants' responses following the steps provided by Glasser & Strauss in conducting grounded theory studies.

Results

This study resulted in the formulation of three propositions such as: (1) Older adults exercise self-control differently, (2) several personal motivations are involved in the exercise of self-control, and (3) the exercise of self-control leads to life satisfaction. From the propositions emerged the Theory of Self-control in Old age, which states that the process of self-control encompasses the human capability of exercising self-restraint to overrun different types of desires, passions, and temptations. The theory posits that older adults vary in their exercise of self-control depending upon their personal motivations. The theory also assumes that the exercise of self-control results in life satisfaction as displaying self-control is attributed to a host of positive life outcomes.

Conclusion

The present study has important implications in the field of gerontology and health care services since the older population is growing, and so does the demand for health care services. The need to understand the choices and decisions of older adult clients is fundamental in individualizing the health care services that may be designed and provided for them.

Developmental heatmaps of brain functional connectivity from newborns to 6-year-olds

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Heatmaps quantify degrees of developmental changes in functional connectivity.

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More changes are observed in the first than second postnatal year, driven by girls.

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Most change is observed from ages 2–4 compared with any other age span.

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Limbic and subcortical areas show more changes than primary sensory regions.

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Consistent trajectories of functional connectivity are found across validations.

Different functional networks exhibit distinct longitudinal trajectories throughout development, but the timeline of the dynamics of functional connectivity across the whole brain remains to be elucidated. Here we used resting-state fMRI to investigate the development of voxel-level changes in functional connectivity across the first six years of life. Globally, we found that developmental changes in functional connectivity are nonlinear with more changes during the first postnatal year than the second, followed by most significant changes from ages 2–4 and from ages 4–6. However, the overall global difference observed between the first and second year appears to have been driven by girls. Limbic and subcortical areas consistently demonstrated the most substantial changes, whereas primary sensory areas were the most stable. These patterns were consistent in full-term and preterm subgroups. Validation on randomly divided subsamples as well as in an independent cross-sectional sample revealed global patterns consistent with the main results. Overall, the derived developmental heatmaps reveal novel dynamics underlying functional circuit development during the first 6 years of life.

Interparental Conflict and Korean Children's Inhibitory Control: Testing Emotional Insecurity as a Mediator

This study examined the association between interparental conflict and inhibitory control of Korean children, and it investigated whether this relationship is mediated by the single latent variable of emotional insecurity or by three dimensions of emotional insecurity (i.e., involvement, emotional reactivity, and avoidance). A total of 166 mother–father dyads with Korean children aged 3–5 years participated in a short-term longitudinal survey at two-time points. Both parents completed measures of interparental conflict and emotional insecurity, and, 6 months later, they completed a measure of the inhibitory control of children. The structural equation modeling results suggested that interparental conflict was related to poor inhibitory control in Korean children. Emotional insecurity did not mediate the association between interparental conflict and inhibitory control. Of the three emotional insecurity dimensions, the involvement partially mediated the relationship. Interestingly, although interparental conflict predicted poor inhibitory control, the involvement of children in the conflict, which was associated with a greater interparental conflict, predicted a subsequent increase in inhibitory control 6 months later. These findings were interpreted in terms of sensory processing patterns, the reformulation of emotional security theory, and the influence of Confucianism on Korean culture.

Longitudinal transactional relations among young children's defiance and committed compliance and maternal assertive control

The main goal of this study was to more closely understand the direction of relations between maternal behavior and young children's defiance and committed compliance. We examined 256 mother-child dyads to explore developmental transactional relations between maternal assertive control, children's committed compliance, and children's defiance at 18 (T1), 30 (T2), and 42 (T3) months of age. After controlling for maternal gentle control, SES, and child sex, results showed parent effects for children's committed compliance, such that T1 maternal assertive control negatively predicted T3 committed compliance. Furthermore, toddlers' behavior predicted T3 parenting; that is, toddlers' T1 defiance positively predicted T3 maternal assertive control. Results of the present study indicate relatively long-term prediction (to 42 months) from both parent and child behaviors at 18 months of age, and the findings have implications for understanding the bidirectional and complex processes that account for young children's adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.

Proscriptive Injunctions Can Elicit Greater Reactance and Lower Legitimacy Perceptions Than Prescriptive Injunctions

Based on previous research investigating proscriptive injunctions (requesting that one should not do something) versus prescriptive injunctions (requesting that one should do something), we propose that proscription leads to greater reactance than does prescription for a range of actions, and that this effect is associated with lower perceived legitimacy of the injunction. Across five experimental studies, our student and general population samples received proscriptions or prescriptions and reported their reactance. Proscription led to greater reactance than did prescription in all five studies. This effect was accentuated by an authoritative source (Study 2), was mediated by the perceived legitimacy of the request (Study 3 and Study 4), and was attenuated by a self-affirmation intervention (Study 5). We suggest that proscriptions are viewed as more obligatory than prescriptions, limit the scope of behavioral alternatives, restrict perceived autonomy, and elicit greater reactance. The findings have implications for the design of effective persuasive communications.

Parent Command Use and Child Compliance During Parent-Child Interactions Including Children With Down Syndrome

Purpose This study investigated maternal and paternal command use and child compliance in children with Down syndrome during mother-child and father-child free-play interactions. We also examined child compliance to direct versus indirect commands, and the relationships between maternal command use, paternal command use, child compliance, and child speech and language abilities. Method Fifteen families including a mother, father, and child with Down syndrome participated. Mother-child and father-child dyads participated in free-play interactions. We coded overall parent command use, command type (direct or indirect), and child compliance with the commands. Child language abilities were measured using a standardized assessment as well as during free-play. Results Mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome used a similar number of commands, and children complied similarly across interactions. Children were more likely to comply with direct versus indirect commands. Parent command use was related to child language abilities in different ways for mothers and fathers. Child compliance was not related to receptive or expressive language abilities. Conclusions Mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome use commands in similar ways but may base their command use on different child factors. Using direct commands with children with Down syndrome may be beneficial when increasing compliance during early interactions.

Parental Structuring in Response to Toddler Negative Emotion Predicts Children's Later Use of Distraction as a Self-Regulation Strategy for Waiting

Structuring is a parental response to young children's behavior that may foster children's attempts to use cognitive skills to engage in self-regulation. Using a rural, economically strained sample, parental structuring in response to 127 eighteen-month-olds' negative emotion was observed during a home visit. Children's distraction, a useful cognitive strategy when waiting for a reward, was assessed during a laboratory wait task at 18, 24, 36, and 48 months. More frequent parental structuring at child age 18 months predicted more developmental growth in children's use of distraction between 18 and 48 months, in contrast with parental directives. Consistent with Kopp's (1989) framework, parental structuring may capitalize on children's cognitive development to play a unique role in fostering children's self-regulation of negative emotion.

The dynamics of maternal scaffolding vary by cumulative risk status

Parental scaffolding, or parenting behaviors that support children's independence and competence, can foster children's self-regulation development. Children facing higher cumulative risk may experience less scaffolding and more directives from parents, but it is unclear how cumulative risk affects the dynamics of parent-child interactions in real time. We examined the role of cumulative risk in mothers' moment-to-moment use of scaffolding and directives in response to preschoolers' off- and on-task behaviors (N = 117). Mothers answered questionnaires about cumulative risk at child age 2.5 years and completed a challenging puzzle task with their preschoolers at age 3 years. Continuous-time multilevel survival analyses revealed differences by cumulative risk in the likelihood of mothers' parenting responses following children's off- and on-task behavioral transitions over the course of the interaction. Specifically, when children went off-task, higher cumulative risk was associated with a lower likelihood of maternal scaffolding, but a comparable likelihood of directives, compared to lower risk mothers. When children got on-task, mothers with higher cumulative risk were less likely to respond with scaffolding and more likely to respond with directives than lower risk mothers. These results suggest that parents at higher risk respond with less scaffolding regardless of child behavior and respond with more directive commands when they may be unnecessary. Findings provide novel, real-time descriptive information about how and when parents experiencing cumulative risk use scaffolding and directive strategies, thus informing microlevel targets for intervention. Implications for the development of self-regulation in children at risk are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).