Capsicum annuum(hot pepper): An ancient Latin‐American crop with outstanding bioactive compounds and nutraceutical potential. A review

Characterisation of flavour profiles and microbial communities of fermented peppers with different fermentation years by combining flavouromics and metagenomics

The changes in flavours, volatile aromas and microbial communities of fermented peppers with different fermentation years and their relationships were investigated in this study. Results indicated a gradual increase in organic acids during fermentation, whereas free amino acids and capsaicinoids reached stability after 1 year of fermentation. Overall, the analysis detected 340 volatile compounds in fermented peppers and regarded 69 of them as differential compounds. Peppers fermented for 2 (FY2) and 4 years (FY4) possessed a greater number of differential volatiles with large odour activity values, thus endowing them with more favourable flavours. Hence, metagenomic analysis compared their microbial communities and functional annotations. Results revealed that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii were the dominant bacterium and fungus, and metabolism was the main Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway in FY2. Correlation analysis demonstrated that Hyphopichia, Kazachstania and Clavispora were highly positively correlated with 12 key aroma flavours.

Determination of pesticide residues in varieties of pepper sold at different periods and provinces in Turkey and investigation of their adverse effects on human health and the environment

Pesticides are dangerous chemicals that can harm to people and the environment when applied inappropriately or in excess. In this research, various pesticide residues were investigated in 48 pepper samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All samples were collected randomly in two periods of time (September and December) from markets and greengrocers in four provinces (Siirt, Mardin, Diyarbakir, and Batman). Considering the means of the first and second periods, diclofop-methyl had the highest concentration of 29.4 ± 7.7 µg kg-1, and diazinon had the lowest of 21.1 ± 4.6 µg kg-1. Based on the maximum residue limits (MRLs) of pesticides specified in the Turkish Food Codex, pyrimethanil, bupirimate, and diclofop-methyl were found to be below the maximum acceptable residue limit, while pyridaphention, dinoseb, diazinon, and pirimiphos-methyl were found to be above the limit. Thus, the current study demonstrated the potential of LC-MS/MS as a crucial technique for accurate measurements and confirmations of pesticides in different pepper varieties.

Medicinal plants and natural products for treating overactive bladder

BACKGROUND

Overactive bladder (OAB) presents a high prevalence of 16-18% worldwide. The pathophysiology of OAB is still poorly understood while effective therapy or countermeasure are very limited. On the other hand, medicinal plants and herbal remedies have been utilized for treating lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in both Eastern and Western cultures since ancient times. In recent years, accumulating progress has also been made in OAB treatment research by using medicinal plants.

METHODS

Relevant literature on the studies of medicinal plants and herbs used to treat OAB was reviewed. The medicinal plants were summarized and categorized into two groups, single-herb medications and herbal formulations.

RESULTS

The present review has summarized current understanding of OAB's pathophysiology, its available treatments and new drug targets. Medicinal plants and natural products which have been used or have shown potential for OAB treatment were updated and comprehensively categorized. Studies on a wide variety of medicinal plants showed promising results, although only a few phytochemicals have been isolated and identified. Until now, none of these herbal compounds have been further developed into clinical therapeutics for OAB.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides the basis for discovering and designing new phytopharmaceutical candidates with effective and well-tolerated properties to treat OAB. Increasing evidences indicate new strategies with alternative herbal treatment for OAB have high efficacy and safety, showing great promise for their clinical use. Future studies in a rigorously designed controlled manner will be beneficial to further support the eligibility of herbal treatment as OAB therapeutics.

Insights into the mechanisms driving microbial community succession during pepper fermentation: Roles of microbial interactions and endogenous environmental changes

Elucidating the driving mechanism of microbial community succession during pepper fermentation contributes to establishing efficient fermentation regulation strategies. This study utilized three-generation high-throughput sequencing technology, microbial co-occurrence network analysis, and random forest analysis to reveal microbial community succession processes and driving mechanisms during pepper fermentation. The results showed that more positive correlations than negative correlations were observed among microorganisms, with positive correlation proportions of 60 %, 51.03 %, and 71.43 % between bacteria and bacteria, fungi and fungi, and bacteria and fungi in sipingtou peppers, and 69.23 %, 54.93 %, and 79.44 % in zhudachang peppers, respectively. Microbial interactions, mainly among Weissella hellenica, Lactobacillus plantarum, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, and Kazachstania humillis, could drive bacterial and fungal community succession. Notably, the bacterial community successions during the fermentation of two peppers were similar, showing the transition from Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Lactococcus lactis, Weissella ghanensis to Weissella hellenica and Lactobacillus plantarum. However, the fungal community successions in the two fermented peppers differed significantly, and the differential biomarkers were Dipodascus geotrichum and Kazachstania humillis. Differences in autochthonous microbial composition and inherent constituents brought by pepper varieties resulted in different endogenous environmental changes, mainly in fructose, malic acid, and citric acid. Furthermore, endogenous environmental factors could also drive microbial community succession, with succinic acid, lactic acid, and malic acid being the main potential drivers of bacterial community succession, whereas fructose, glucose, and succinic acid were the main drivers of fungal community succession. These results will provide insights into controlling fermentation processes by raw material combinations, optimization of environmental parameters, and microbial interactions.

Phytochemical Profile, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Potential of Capsicum annuum (L.) Dry Hydro-Ethanolic Extract

Capsicum annuum (L.) is one of the essential spices most frequently used in our daily routine and has remarkable ethnobotanical and pharmacological properties. Its fruits are rich in vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and numerous other phenolic metabolites with a well-known antioxidant activity. Regular consumption of chili fruits may have a positive influence on human health. Therefore, we investigated a commercially available chili fruit powder in the present study, extracting it with 50% ethanol. The dried hydro-ethanolic extract (CAE) was thoroughly analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS), and 79 bioactive phenolic constituents were identified. Then, we quantified the main phenolic compounds and found a polyphenol content of 4.725 ± 1.361 mg Eq tannic acid/100 g extract and a flavonoid amount of 1.154 ± 0.044 mg Eq rutin/100 g extract. Phenolic secondary metabolites are known for their dual redox behavior as antioxidants/pro-oxidants, underlying their numerous benefits in health and disease. Thus, the antioxidant potential of CAE was evaluated using three methods; our results could explain the protective effects of chili fruits: IC50DPPH = 1.669 mg/mL, IC50ABTS = 0.200 mg/mL, and EC50FRAP = 0.561 mg/mL. The pro-oxidant potential of phenolic compounds could be a basis for CAE cytotoxicity, investigated in vitro on tumor cell lines and in vivo on Daphnia sp. Results demonstrated the dose- and time-dependent CAE's cytotoxic activity; the highest antiproliferative activity was recorded on colon (LoVo) and breast (MDA-MB-231) cancer cell lines after 48 h of exposure (IC50 values < 200 µg/mL). In vivo testing on Daphnia sp. reported a potent CAE cytotoxicity after 48 h and embryonic developmental delays. Extensive data analyses support our results, showing a significant correlation between the CAE's concentration, phenolic compound content, antioxidant activity, exposure time, and the viability rate of different tested cell lines.

Solanum pseudocapsicum vs Capsicum annum; comparative phenolics profiling using green ultrasonic extraction and UHPLC analysis

BACKGROUND

Solanum pseudocapsicum (PC) and Capsicum annum (CA) belongs to the family of Solanaceae. CA have been reported a rich source of phenolics whereas, the phenolics content of GA (gallic acid), SC (scopoletin), RA (rosmarinic acid), and RV (resveratrol) are yet to be reported for the PC-fruit. This study comparatively evaluates the phenolics profile for different parts (seeds and skin) and colors (green and red) of the PC- and CA-fruits using the green solvents of ethanol (ET), acetone (AC), water (H2O), and different combinations of these solvents.

METHODOLOGY

Ultrasonics extraction (US) and UHPLC analysis were employed for phenolics evaluation.

RESULTS

The USMD (method development) revealed the highest extract yield of 62 mg/100 mg for the PC-skin in ET:AC (70:30) solvent whereas, more phenolics (ppm) were observed for PC-seeds in ET:AC (50:50) solvent, particularly the SC (29.46) and GA (16.92). The UHPLCMDMV exhibited significant accuracies (100.70-114.14 %) with r2-values (0.9993-0.9997) in the linearity range of 1-200 ppm. The USMV (method validation) in PC- and CA-fruit parts and colors revealed more extract yields for the red skin part of the PC- (180.5 mg) and CA-fruit (126.2 mg). The phenolics were seen more in the green seeds of the PC-fruit (ppm); SC (276), GA (147.36), RV (28.54), and RA (23.87) followed by the green PC-skin, and red/green CA-seeds. The statistical models of mean differences, ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation showed significant differences for the PC-fruit parts (seeds and skin) and colors (red and green) vs extract yield and phenolics content (P = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

PC-and CA-fruits were successfully evaluated where the seeds for the green fruits exhibited more phenolics amount.

Co-encapsulation of Paprika and Cinnamon Oleoresins by Spray Drying in a Mayonnaise Model: Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids Using in vitro Digestion

This study aimed to investigate the digestibility and bioaccessibility of spray-dried microparticles co-encapsulating paprika and cinnamon oleoresins using simulated gastrointestinal conditions. It focused on exploring the potential of these co-encapsulated active compounds, which possess diverse technological and functional properties, particularly within a food matrix, in order to enhance their bioavailability. Mayonnaise was selected as the food matrix for its ability to promote the diffusion of carotenoids, as most hydrophobic compounds are better absorbed in the intestine when accompanied by digestible lipids. Model spice mayonnaise, containing 0.5 wt% paprika and cinnamon microparticles content, was formulated in compliance with Brazilian regulations for spices, seasonings, and sauce formulations. Droplet size distribution, optical microscopy and fluorescence microscopy analyses were conducted on the microparticles, model spice mayonnaise, and standard mayonnaise both before and after in vitro gastric and intestinal digestion. Following digestion, all samples demonstrated droplet aggregation and coalescence. Remarkably, dispersed particles (37.40 ± 2.58%) and model spice mayonnaise (17.76 ± 0.07%) showed the highest release rate of free fatty acids (FFAs), indicating efficient lipid digestion. The study found that using mayonnaise as a delivery system significantly increased bioaccessibility (22.7%). This suggests that particles in an aqueous medium have low solubility, while the high lipid composition of mayonnaise facilitates the delivery of active compounds from carotenoids present in paprika and cinnamon oleoresin after digestion.

Preservation effect of Lactobacillus plantarum O2 fermentation supernatant on postharvest pepper and its induced resistance to Phytophthora capsici

Research of lactic acid bacteria and its metabolites on biological preservatives becomes a hot topic. Lactobacillus plantarum O2, with good inhibition on Phytophthora capsici (P. capsici), was isolated from the pickle. In this study, the effects of L. plantarum O2 fermentation supernatant (FS) on pepper postharvest preservation and its induced resistance to P. capsici were studied. Results showed that weight loss rate, rot index, respiration rate, relative electrical conductivity, loss of chlorophyll content and VC of pepper in FS treatment group were decreased by 18 %, 64 %, 15 %, 26 %, 33 % and 20 % compared with blank control (BC) after 20 d storage. L* and b*-value of pepper in FS group were lower than those in the BC group. In addition, the damage-induced resistance test found that the infection rate in the FS group was reduced by 39 %, compared with CK2 after 12 d storage. Moreover, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity, peroxidase activity, polyphenol oxidase activity, proline content, total phenol content and flavonoid content increased by 14 %, 9 %, 30 %, 8 %, 8 % and 9 %, respectively, while malondialdehyde content decreased by 13 %. These results indicated that FS treatment showed good fresh-keeping effects on postharvest pepper. It could enhance the tolerance of pepper under stress by improving defensive enzyme activities, slowing down the damage caused by P. capsici, and inducing pepper resistance to P. capsici. Therefore, FS can be used as a microbial source bio-preservative for postharvest pepper.

Exploring therapeutic targets and drug candidates for obesity: a combined network pharmacology, bioinformatics approach

The remarkably high prevalence of obesity in Saudi Arabia reflects a global epidemic demanding urgent attention due to its associated health risks. The integration of traditional medicine, a vital cultural aspect, involves the use of medicinal plants to address various diseases, including obesity. This research merges network pharmacology (NP) and bioinformatics to innovate obesity treatment by identifying effective phytochemicals from native plants in the Taif valley. Focusing on six indigenous plants-Senna alexandrina, Capsicum annuum, Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa, Trigonella foenum-graecum, and Foeniculum vulgare-we conducted preliminary screenings for potential bioactive compounds. We systematically compiled compound data from public databases and reviewed literature, revealing active compounds like apigenin, kaempferol, moupinamide, cyclocurcumin, chrysoeriol, isorhamnetin, rheinanthrone, cyclocurcumin, and riboflavin.Constructing a compound-target genes-obesity network unveiled their significant impact on metabolic regulation and fat accumulation, interacting notably with key proteins AKT1 and PTGS2. Molecular docking and 100 ns Molecular Dynamic (MD) simulations demonstrated robust binding affinity and stability at the docking site. Employing adipocytes as a cellular model, we gauged their viability and response to obesity-related stressors post-treatment with these native plant compounds.In conclusion, Saudi Arabia's indigenous plants hold promise as natural solutions for obesity treatment. This research opens new avenues in the battle against this pervasive health crisis by incorporating the potential of native botanicals.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Genomes of cultivated and wild Capsicum species provide insights into pepper domestication and population differentiation

Pepper (Capsicum spp.) is one of the earliest cultivated crops and includes five domesticated species, C. annuum var. annuum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, C. baccatum var. pendulum and C. pubescens. Here, we report a pepper graph pan-genome and a genome variation map of 500 accessions from the five domesticated Capsicum species and close wild relatives. We identify highly differentiated genomic regions among the domesticated peppers that underlie their natural variations in flowering time, characteristic flavors, and unique resistances to biotic and abiotic stresses. Domestication sweeps detected in C. annuum var. annuum and C. baccatum var. pendulum are mostly different, and the common domestication traits, including fruit size, shape and pungency, are achieved mainly through the selection of distinct genomic regions between these two cultivated species. Introgressions from C. baccatum into C. chinense and C. frutescens are detected, including those providing genetic sources for various biotic and abiotic stress tolerances.

The effects of Capsicum annuum supplementation on lipid profiles in adults with metabolic syndrome and related disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

The electiveness of Capsicum annuum supplementation in controlling dyslipidemia in adults has been unclear. Therefore, this meta-analysis focuses on the relationship between C. annuum supplementation and lipid profile in adults with metabolic syndrome (MetS) and related disorders. PubMed, Scopus, ISI Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library were searched up to March 2021. Only randomized controlled trials (RCTs) studying the administration of C. annuum compared to control on lipid markers in adults with MetS and related disorders were examined. Pooled effect sizes were reported as weighted mean differences (WMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The results of four eligible RCTs showed that C. annuum supplementation could significantly reduce total cholesterol (TC) (WMD: -4.98 mg/dL, 95% CI: -7.08 to -2.88, p ≤ 0.001) levels, but did not regulate triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. In summary, the present findings suggest the beneficial effects of C. annuum supplementation on the reduction of plasma levels of TC. However, to draw a firm link between C. annuum supplementation and lipid profile, more trials with adequate sample sizes, specifically in subjects with dyslipidemia are warranted.

A comprehensive review on genomic resources in medicinally and industrially important major spices for future breeding programs: Status, utility and challenges

In the global market, spices possess a high-value but low-volume commodities of commerce. The food industry depends largely on spices for taste, flavor, and therapeutic properties in replacement of cheap synthetic ones. The estimated growth rate for spices demand in the world is ∼3.19%. Since spices grow in limited geographical regions, India is one of the leading producer of spices, contributing 25-30 percent of total world trade. Hitherto, there has been no comprehensive review of the genomic resources of industrially important major medicinal spices to overcome major impediments in varietal improvement and management. This review focuses on currently available genomic resources of 24 commercially significant spices, namely, Ajwain, Allspice, Asafoetida, Black pepper, Cardamom large, Cardamom small, Celery, Chillies, Cinnamon, Clove, Coriander, Cumin, Curry leaf, Dill seed, Fennel, Fenugreek, Garlic, Ginger, Mint, Nutmeg, Saffron, Tamarind, Turmeric and Vanilla. The advent of low-cost sequencing machines has contributed immensely to the voluminous data generation of these spices, cracking the complex genomic architecture, marker discovery, and understanding comparative and functional genomics. This review of spice genomics resources concludes the perspective and way forward to provide footprints by uncovering genome assemblies, sequencing and re-sequencing projects, transcriptome-based studies, non-coding RNA-mediated regulation, organelles-based resources, developed molecular markers, web resources, databases and AI-directed resources in candidate spices for enhanced breeding potential in them. Further, their integration with molecular breeding could be of immense use in formulating a strategy to protect and expand the production of the spices due to increased global demand.

Effect of Sichuan Pepper (Zanthoxylum genus) Addition on Flavor Profile in Fermented Ciba Chili (Capsicum genus) Using GC-IMS Combined with E-Nose and E-Tongue

This study examined the flavor profiles of fermented Ciba chili, comparing samples with Sichuan pepper (HJ) to those without Sichuan pepper (CK), using three analytical techniques: E-tongue, E-nose, and gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS). The results obtained from the E-tongue and E-nose exhibited a clear difference in taste and flavor between CK and HJ. In detail, CK mainly exhibited a sour flavor profile, whereas HJ displayed an intricate and rich flavor. The HS-GC-IMS results identified a total of 60 compounds in the samples, with terpenes, alcohols, and esters being the primary volatile flavor compounds. Additionally, Zanthoxylum was found to significantly enhance the concentration of these compounds in fermented Ciba chili. Through robust principal component analysis (rPCA), 17 distinct flavor compounds were selected. Correlation analysis revealed that most terpenes exhibited positive correlations with LY2/LG, LY2/gCT1, LY2/Gct, LY2/G, LY2/Gh, and terpenes were found in higher concentrations in HJ. This study contributes a theoretical basis and provides data support for optimizing the fermentation process and elucidating the underlying mechanism of characteristic aroma formation in Ciba chili after fermentation.

Development and Application of a Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence Marker (Phyto) Linked to the Pc5.1 Locus Conferring Resistance to Phytophthora capsici in Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

Phytophthora capsici causes destructive disease in several crop species, including pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Resistance in this species is physiologically and genetically complex due to many P. capsici virulence phenotypes and different QTLs and R genes among the identified resistance sources. Several primer pairs were designed to follow an SNP (G/A) within the CA_011264 locus linked to the Pc5.1 locus. All primer pairs were designed on DNA sequences derived from CaDMR1, a homoserine kinase (HSK), which is a gene candidate responsible for the major QTL on chromosome P5 for resistance to P. capsici. A panel of 69 pepper genotypes from the Southern Seed germplasm collection was used to screen the primer pairs designed. Of these, two primers (Phyto_for_2 and Phyto_rev_2) surrounding the SNP proved successful in discriminating susceptible and resistant genotypes when combined with a restriction enzyme (BtgI). This new marker (called Phyto) worked as expected in all genotypes tested, proving to be an excellent candidate for marker-assisted selection in breeding programs aimed at introgressing the resistant locus into pure lines.

Capsaicin improves hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy via SIRT1/NF-κB/MAPKs pathway in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus

BACKGROUND

Hypertension has seriously affected a large part of the adult and elderly population. The complications caused by hypertension are important risk factors for cardiovascular disease accidents. Capsaicin, a pungent component of chili pepper has been revealed to improve hypertension. However, its potential mechanism in improving hypertension remains to be explored.

PURPOSE

In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether capsaicin could attenuate the SIRT1/NF-κB/MAPKs pathway in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN).

METHODS

We used spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHRs) as animal model rats. Micro osmotic pump was used to give capsaicin through PVN for 28 days, starting from age12-week-old.

RESULTS

The results showed that capsaicin significantly reduced blood pressure from the 16th day of infusion onward. At the end of the experimental period, we measured cardiac hypertrophy index and the heart rate (HR), and the results showed that the cardiac hypertrophy and heart rate of rats was significantly improved upon capsaicin chronic infusion. Norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (EPI) in plasma of SHRs treated with capsaicin were also decreased. Additionally, capsaicin increased the protein expression and number of positive cells of SIRT1 and the 67-kDa isoform of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD67), decreased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), number of positive cells of NOX2, those of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) and p-IKKβ, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the gene expression levels of NOX4 and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Capsaicin also decreased the relative protein expressions of protein in MAPKs pathway.

CONCLUSION

Current data indicated that capsaicin within the PVN improves hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy via SIRT1/NF-κB/MAPKs pathway in the PVN of SHRs, supporting its potential as candidate drug for preventing and improving hypertension.

Effects of Storage Temperature at the Early Postharvest Stage on the Firmness, Bioactive Substances, and Amino Acid Compositions of Chili Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

The commercial and nutritional quality of chili peppers deteriorates rapidly after harvest. So far, little is known about the effect of temperature on postharvest chili pepper quality. This study elucidated the effects of two temperatures (20 °C and 30 °C) on chili peppers' postharvest firmness, flavor, and nutritional attributes. We found that compared to 20 °C, 30 °C escalated the decline in fruit firmness, capsaicin content, and dihydrocapsaicin content, while enhancing the increment in water loss and electrical conductivity, as well as total carotenoids and ascorbic acid content. The contents of most amino acids (AAs) decreased significantly during postharvest storage compared to their initial values, whether stored at 20 °C or 30 °C; however, 30 °C had a more substantial impact than 20 °C. Meanwhile, as for soluble protein and amino acid compositions, the effect of storage temperature was genotype-dependent, as reflected by differential changes in total AA contents, single AA contents, essential AA ratio, delicious AA ratio, etc., under the 20 °C or 30 °C treatments. In conclusion, our findings reveal the influence of temperature on pepper quality, showing that the storage temperature of 20 °C was better for maintaining chili quality than 30 °C from the perspective of overall commercial attributes.

H2S-Generating Cytosolic L-Cysteine Desulfhydrase and Mitochondrial D-Cysteine Desulfhydrase from Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Are Regulated During Fruit Ripening and by Nitric Oxide

Aims: Pepper fruit is a horticultural product worldwide consumed that has great nutritional and economic relevance. Besides the phenotypical changes that undergo pepper fruit during ripening, there are many associated modifications at transcriptomic, proteomic, biochemical, and metabolic levels. Nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are recognized signal molecules that can exert regulatory functions in diverse plant processes. This study aims at analyzing the interrelationship between NO and H2S during fruit ripening. Results: Our data indicate that the H2S-generating cytosolic L-cysteine desulfhydrase (LCD) and the mitochondrial D-cysteine desulfhydrase (DCD) activities are downregulated during ripening but this effect was reverted after NO treatment of fruits. Innovation and Conclusion: Using as a model the non-climacteric pepper fruits at different ripening stages and under an NO-enriched atmosphere, the activity of the H2S-generating LCD and DCD was analyzed. LCD and DCD activities were downregulated during ripening, but this effect was reverted after NO treatment of fruits. The analysis of LCD activity by non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) allowed identifying three isozymes designated CaLCD I to CaLCD III, which were differentially modulated by NO and strictly dependent on pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP). In vitro analyses of green fruit samples in the presence of different compounds including NO donors, peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and reducing agents such as reduced glutathione (GSH) and L-cysteine (L-Cys) triggered an almost 100% inhibition of CaLCD II and CaLCD III. This redox adaptation process of both enzymes could be cataloged as a hormesis phenomenon. The protein tyrosine (Tyr) nitration (an NO-promoted post-translational modification) of the recombinant LCD was corroborated by immunoblot and by mass spectrometry (MS) analyses. Among the 11 Tyr residues present in this enzyme, MS of the recombinant LCD enabled us to identify that Tyr82 and Tyr254 were nitrated by ONOO-, this occurring near the active center on the enzyme, where His237 and Lys260 together with the cofactor PLP are involved. These data support the relationship between NO and H2S during pepper fruit ripening, since LCD and DCD are regulated by NO during this physiological event, and this could also be extrapolated to other plant species.

Uncovering Novel Capsaicin Inhibitory Activity towards Human Carbonic Anhydrase Isoforms IX and XII by Combining In Silico and In Vitro Studies

Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum) represents one of the most widespread functional foods of the Mediterranean diet, and is associated with a reduced risk of developing cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mental disorders. In particular, its bioactive spicy molecules, named Capsaicinoids, exhibit polypharmacological properties. Among them, Capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is the most studied and reported in variegated scientific contributions for its beneficial effects, often linked to mechanisms of action unrelated to the activation of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). In this study, we present the application of in silico methods to Capsaicin for evaluating its inhibitory activity against the tumor-associated human (h) expressed CA IX and XII. In vitro assays confirmed Capsaicin inhibitory activity towards the most relevant tumor-related hCA isoforms. In particular, the hCAs IX and XII showed an experimental K_I value of 0.28 μM and 0.064 μM, respectively. Then, an A549 model of non-small cell lung cancer, typically characterized by an elevated expression of hCA IX and XII, was employed to test the inhibitory effects of Capsaicin in vitro under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Finally, the migration assay revealed that Capsaicin [10 µM] inhibits cells from moving in the A549 cells model.

Biocontrol Capabilities of Bacillus subtilis E11 against Aspergillus flavus In Vitro and for Dried Red Chili (Capsicum annuum L.)

As a condiment with extensive nutritional value, chili is easy to be contaminated by Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) during field, transportation, and storage. This study aimed to solve the contamination of dried red chili caused by A. flavus by inhibiting the growth of A. flavus and detoxifying aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). In this study, Bacillus subtilis E11 (B. subtilis) screened from 63 candidate antagonistic bacteria exhibited the strongest antifungal ability, which could not only inhibit 64.27% of A. flavus but could also remove 81.34% of AFB₁ at 24 h. Notably, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that B. subtilis E11 cells could resist a higher concentration of AFB₁, and the fermentation supernatant of B. subtilis E11 could deform the mycelia of A. flavus. After 10 days of coculture with B. subtilis E11 on dried red chili inoculated with A. flavus, the mycelia of A. flavus were almost completely inhibited, and the yield of AFB₁ was significantly reduced. Our study first concentrated on the use of B. subtilis as a biocontrol agent for dried red chili, which could not only enrich the resources of microbial strains for controlling A. flavus but also could provide theoretical guidance to prolong the shelf life of dried red chili.

Widely targeted metabolomic, transcriptomic, and metagenomic profiling reveal microbe-plant-metabolic reprogramming patterns mediated by Streptomyces pactum Act12 enhance the fruit quality of Capsicum annuum L

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, such as Streptomyces pactum Act12, promote crop growth and stress resistance, but their contribution to fruit quality is still poorly understood. Herein we conducted a field experiment to ascertain the effects of S. pactum Act12-mediated metabolic reprogramming and underlying mechanisms in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruit based on widely targeted metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling. We additionally performed metagenomic analysis to elucidate the potential relationship between S. pactum Act12-mediated reshaping of rhizosphere microbial communities and pepper fruit quality. Soil inoculation with S. pactum Act12 considerably increased the accumulation of capsaicinoids, carbohydrates, organic acids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and phenolic acids in pepper fruit samples. Consequently, fruit flavor, taste, and color were modified, accompanied by elevated contents of nutrients and bioactive compounds. Increased microbial diversity and recruitment of potentially beneficial taxa were observed in inoculated soil samples, with crosstalk between microbial gene functions and pepper fruit metabolism. The reformed structure and function of rhizosphere microbial communities were closely associated with pepper fruit quality. Our findings indicate that S. pactum Act12-mediated interactions between rhizosphere microbial communities and pepper plants are responsible for intricate fruit metabolic reprogramming patterns, which enhance not only overall fruit quality but also consumer acceptability.

Capsicum annuum L. and its bioactive constituents: A critical review of a traditional culinary spice in terms of its modern pharmacological potentials with toxicological issues

Capsicum annuum L., commonly known as chili pepper, is used as an important spice globally and as a crude drug in many traditional medicine systems. The fruits of C. annuum have been used as a tonic, antiseptic, and stimulating agent, to treat dyspepsia, appetites, and flatulence, and to improve digestion and circulation. The article aims to critically review the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of C. annuum and its major compounds. Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and some carotenoids are reported as the major active compounds with several pharmacological potentials especially as anticancer and cardioprotectant. The anticancer effect of capsaicinoids is mainly mediated through mechanisms involving the interaction of Ca²⁺ -dependent activation of the MAPK pathway, suppression of NOX-dependent reactive oxygen species generation, and p53-mediated activation of mitochondrial apoptosis in cancer cells. Similarly, the cardioprotective effects of capsaicinoids are mediated through their interaction with cellular transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channel, and restoration of calcitonin gene-related peptide via Ca²⁺ -dependent release of neuropeptides and suppression of bradykinin. In conclusion, this comprehensive review presents detailed information about the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of major bioactive principles of C. annuum with special emphasis on anticancer, cardioprotective effects, and plausible toxic adversities along with food safety.

Graphene-Type Materials for the Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction Step in the QuEChERS Method for the Extraction of Brominated Flame Retardants from Capsicum Cultivars

A new application of graphene-type materials as an alternative cleanup sorbent in a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) procedure combined with GC-ECD/GC-MS/GC-MS/MS detection was successfully used for the simultaneous analysis of 12 brominated flame retardants in Capsicum cultivar samples. The chemical, structural, and morphological properties of the graphene-type materials were evaluated. The materials exhibited good adsorption capability of matrix interferents without compromising the extraction efficiency of target analytes when compared with other cleanups using commercial sorbents. Under optimal conditions, excellent recoveries were obtained, ranging from 90 to 108% with relative standard deviations of <14%. The developed method showed good linearity with a correlation coefficient above 0.9927, and the limits of quantification were in the range of 0.35-0.82 μg/kg. The developed QuEChERS procedure using reduced graphite oxide (rGO) combined with GC/MS was successfully applied in 20 samples, and the pentabromotoluene residues were quantified in two samples.

The capsaicinoid nonivamide suppresses the inflammatory response and attenuates the progression of steatosis in a NAFLD-rat model

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is relatively associated with comorbidities in obesity and metabolic inflammation. Low-grade inflammation following the high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD can promote the development of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) through particularly liver-resident immune cell recruitment and hepatic nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. Therefore, inflammatory intervention may contribute to NASH reduction. Pelargonic acid vanillylamide (PAVA) or nonivamide is one of the pungent capsaicinoids of Capsicum species and has been found in chili peppers. Our previous study demonstrated that PAVA improved hepatic function, decreased oxidative stress and reduced apoptotic cell death but the insight role of PAVA on NAFLD is still unclear. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the underlying anti-inflammatory mechanism of PAVA in an NAFLD-rat model. Male Sprague Dawley rats were fed with normal diet or HFD for 16 weeks. Then high-fat rats were given vehicle or PAVA (1 mg/kg/day) for another 4 weeks. We found that PAVA alleviated hepatic inflammation associated with the reducing toll-like receptor 4/NF-κB pathway, showing significantly lower recruitment of cluster of differentiation 44. PAVA also maintained activity of insulin signaling pathway, and attenuated NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome formation. NAFLD progresses to NASH through transforming growth factor (TGF-β1), and also recovery to simple stage followed by PAVA suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway. Therefore, our findings suggest that PAVA provides a novel therapeutic approach for NAFLD and slows the progression to NASH.

Capsicum Waste as a Sustainable Source of Capsaicinoids for Metabolic Diseases

Capsaicinoids are pungent alkaloid compounds enriched with antioxidants, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, analgesics, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic properties. These compounds are primarily synthesised in the placenta of the fruit and then transported to other vegetative parts. Different varieties of capsicum and chillies contain different capsaicinoid concentrations. As capsicums and chillies are grown extensively throughout the world, their agricultural and horticultural production leads to significant amount of waste generation, in the form of fruits and plant biomass. Fruit wastes (placenta, seeds and unused fruits) and plant biowaste (stems and leaves) can serve as sources of capsaicinoids which can provide opportunities to extract these compounds for development of nutraceutical products using conventional or advanced extraction techniques. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are two most abundantly found pungent compounds. Considering the health benefits of capsaicinoids, these compounds can help in reducing metabolic disease complications. The development of an advanced encapsulation therapy of safe and clinically effective oral capsaicinoid/capsaicin formulation seem to require evaluation of strategies to address challenges related to the dosage, limited half-life and bioavailability, adverse effects and pungency, and the impacts of other ligands antagonising the major capsaicinoid receptor.

Ziziphus spina-christi extract-stabilized novel silver nanoparticle synthesis for combating Fusarium oxysporum-causing pepper wilt disease: in vitro and in vivo studies

The novelty of the present study is studying the ability of aqueous Ziziphus spina-christi leaves' extract (ZSCE) to produce eco-friendly and cost-effective silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) against Fusarium wilt disease. Phytochemical screening of ZSCE by HPLC showed that they contain important antimicrobial substances such as Rutin, Naringin, Myricetin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Hesperidin, Syringeic, Eugenol, Pyrogallol, Gallic and Ferulic. Characterization methods reveal a stable Ag NPs with a crystalline structure, spherical in shape with average particle size about 11.25 nm. ZSCE and Ag NPs showed antifungal potential against F. oxysporum at different concentrations with MIC of Ag NPs as 0.125 mM. Ag NPs treatment was the most effective, as it gave the least disease severity (20.8%) and the highest protection rate (75%). The application of ZSCE or Ag NPs showed a clear recovery, and its effectiveness was not limited for improving growth and metabolic characteristics only, but also inducing substances responsible for defense against pathogens and activating plant immunity (such as increasing phenols and strong expression of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase as well as isozymes). Owing to beneficial properties such as antifungal activity, and the eco-friendly approach of cost and safety, they can be applied in agricultural field as novel therapeutic nutrients.

Strategies for the content determination of capsaicin and the identification of adulterated pepper powder using a hand-held near-infrared spectrometer

To achieve the goals of rapid content determination of capsaicin and adulteration detection of pepper powder. The method based on the hand-held near-infrared spectrometer combined with ensemble preprocessing was proposed. DoE-based ensemble preprocessing technique was utilized to develop the partial least squares regression models of red pepper [Capsicum annuum L. var. conoides (Mill.) Irish] powders. The performance of final models was evaluated using coefficient of determination (R²), root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) and residual predictive deviation (RPD). Model development using selective ensemble preprocessing gave the best prediction of capsaicin in Yanjiao pepper powder (R² = 0.9800, RPD = 7.090, RMSEP = 0.00689) and Tianying pepper powder (R² = 0.8935, RPD = 3.017, RMSEP = 0.06154). Moreover, the potential of grey wolf optimizer-support vector machine (GWO-SVM) to detect adulterated pepper powder was investigated. The samples were composed of two authentic products and three different adulterants with different adulteration levels. The results showed that the classification accuracy of GWO-SVM model for Yanjiao peppers was over 90 %, which realized the adulteration detection of Yanjiao pepper. And GWO-SVM showed better performance in detecting adulterated Tianying pepper compared to hierarchical cluster analysis, orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis and random forest. In summary, the quality control strategy established in this paper can provide a solution for the adulteration detection and quality evaluation of pepper powder in a rapid and on-site way.

Evaluation of a Packaging System in Pallets Under Modified Atmosphere to Extend the Shelf-life of ‘Padrón’ Peppers Stored at Refrigeration Temperature

A modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) system in pallets was developed for ‘Padrón’ peppers as a way to extend their shelf-life while maintaining good fruit quality. Peppers were stored at 6 °C in cardboard boxes arranged on pallets wrapped in micro-perforated low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bags. Physico-chemical (moisture, firmness, color, chlorophylls, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, and total phenolic content) and sensory analysis were carried out after 0, 7, 14, and 21 days of storage. An initial mixture of 11.8% O2–8.5% CO2 prevented anaerobic conditions and kept suitable CO2 levels throughout the entire storage period. Silica gel was tested as a moisture absorbent and considerably reduced water vapor condensation inside packaging bags. The MAP system developed maintained the shelf-life of peppers until the end of the 21-day storage period. The fruit always showed a good appearance and color. No rotting or other types of undesirable alterations were observed. MAP markedly reduced the fraction of peppers with water loss as evidenced by a minimum percentage of fruit with wrinkles (12.5%) as compared to unpackaged samples (75%). Good pigment stability was also observed.

The Beneficial Effect of Cinnamon and Red Capsicum Intake on Postprandial Changes in Plasma Metabolites Evoked by a High-Carbohydrate Meal in Men with Overweight/Obesity

The relationship of high-carbohydrate (HC) meal intake to metabolic syndrome is still not fully explained. Metabolomics has the potential to indicate metabolic pathways altered by HC meals, which may improve our knowledge regarding the mechanisms by which HC meals may contribute to metabolic syndrome development. The fasting and postprandial metabolic response to HC or normo-carbohydrate (NC) meals with/without cinnamon + capsicum intake was evaluated using untargeted metabolomics and compared between normal-weight (NW) and overweight/obese (OW/OB) healthy men. Healthy male participants (age-matched) were divided into two groups (12 subjects per group). One was composed of men with normal weight (NW) and the other of men with overweight/obesity (OW/OB). On separate visits (with 2-3 week intervals), the participants received standardized HC or NC meals (89% or 45% carbohydrates, respectively). Fasting (0 min) and postprandial (30, 60, 120, 180 min) blood were collected for untargeted plasma metabolomics. Based on each metabolic feature's intensity change in time, the area under the curve (AUC) was calculated. Obtained AUCs were analyzed using multivariate statistics. Several metabolic pathways were found dysregulated after an HC meal in people from the OW/OB group but not the NW group. The consumption of HC meals by people with overweight/obesity led to a substantial increase in AUC, mainly for metabolites belonging to phospholipids and fatty acid amides. The opposite was observed for selected sphingolipids. The intake of cinnamon and capsicum normalized the concentration of selected altered metabolites induced by the intake of HC meals. A HC meal may induce an unfavourable postprandial metabolic response in individuals with overweight/obesity, and such persons should avoid HC meals.

Chili pepper extends lifespan in a concentration-dependent manner and confers cold resistance on Drosophila melanogaster cohorts by influencing specific metabolic pathways

Chili powder is a widely used spice with pungent taste, often consumed on a daily basis in several countries. Recent prospective cohort studies showed that the regular use of chili pepper improves healthspan in humans. Indeed, chili pepper fruits contain phenolic substances which are structurally similar to those that show anti-aging properties. The objective of our study was to test whether consumption of chili-supplemented food by the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, would prolong lifespan and in which way this chili-supplemented food affects animal metabolism. Chili powder added to food in concentrations of 0.04%-0.12% significantly extended median lifespan in fruit fly cohorts of both genders by 9% to 13%. However, food supplemented with 3% chili powder shortened lifespan of male cohorts by 9%. Lifespan extension was accompanied by a decrease in age-independent mortality (i.e., death in early ages). The metabolic changes caused by consumption of chili-supplemented food had a pronounced dependence on gender. A characteristic of both fruit fly sexes that ate chili-supplemented food was an increased resistance to cold shock. Flies of both sexes had lower levels of hemolymph glucose when they ate food supplemented with low concentrations of chili powder, as compared with controls. However, males fed on food with 3% chili had lower levels of storage lipids and pyruvate reducing activity of lactate dehydrogenase compared with controls. Females fed on this food showed lower activities of hexokinase and pyruvate kinase, as well as lower ADP/O ratios, compared with control flies.

Intestinal-targeted nanotubes-in-microgels composite carriers for capsaicin delivery and their effect for alleviation of Salmonella induced enteritis

Salmonella is a word-wide food-borne pathogen, which can cause severe enteritis and intestinal microbiota imbalance. Capsaicin (Cap), a food-based bioactive ingredient, has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. However, its low solubility, low bioavailability and the irritation to digestive tract greatly limit its applications. Here, an intestinal responsively "nanotubes-in-microgel" composite carrier was constructed by capturing α-lactalbumin (α-lac) nanotubes in low-methoxy pectin microgels (LMP-NT) (52 μm). Cap was loaded in such system via hydrophobic interaction with a loading capacity of 38.02 mg/g. The LMP microgels remained stable and protected NT/Cap from early releasing in the gastric condition. It showed an excellent mucoadhesive capacity, which can prolong the intestinal retention up to 12 h and control release NT/Cap in intestine. Afterward, NT/Cap could penetrate across the mucus layer deeply and enter the intestinal villi epithelial cells efficiently. LMP-NT microgels achieved a mucoadhesive-to-penetrating transition in response to intestinal pH, improving the epithelium absorption and the in vivo bioavailability of Cap. Oral administration of LMP-NT/Cap could effectively alleviate enteritis caused by Salmonella infection and maintain the homeostasis of gut microbiota. Overall, this work suggested that LMP-NT composite microgels were promising for intestine-targeted and oral delivery of hydrophobic bioactive food compounds.

Database of Potential Promoter Sequences in the Capsicum annuum Genome

In this study, we used a mathematical method for the multiple alignment of highly divergent sequences (MAHDS) to create a database of potential promoter sequences (PPSs) in the Capsicum annuum genome. To search for PPSs, 20 statistically significant classes of sequences located in the range from −499 to +100 nucleotides near the annotated genes were calculated. For each class, a position–weight matrix (PWM) was computed and then used to identify PPSs in the C. annuum genome. In total, 825,136 PPSs were detected, with a false positive rate of 0.13%. The PPSs obtained with the MAHDS method were tested using TSSFinder, which detects transcription start sites. The databank of the found PPSs provides their coordinates in chromosomes, the alignment of each PPS with the PWM, and the level of statistical significance as a normal distribution argument, and can be used in genetic engineering and biotechnology.

Enhanced Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Silibinin and Capsaicin Combination in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced RAW264.7 Cells by Inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK Activation

Silibinin and capsaicin both are natural product molecules with diverse biological activities. In this article, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of silibinin combined with capsaicin in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells. The results showed that silibinin combined with capsaicin strongly inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and COX-2. Moreover, silibinin combined with capsaicin potently inhibited nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. The results of the present study indicate that silibinin combined with capsaicin effectively inhibits inflammation.

Dynamics of Bioactive Compounds during Spontaneous Fermentation of Paste Obtained from Capsicum ssp.-Stage towards a Product with Technological Application

Six cultivars of chili (Cherry, Bulgarian Chilli, Cayenne, Fatalii, Habanero, and Carolina Reaper) from two species (Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinense) have been studied. Anaerobic, spontaneous fermentation of pure chili paste was conducted for 21 days at 20 °C. The unfermented (UCP) and fermented chili pastes (FCP) were both subjected to physicochemical and microbiological characterization consisting of capsaicinoid, ascorbic acid, short-chain organic acids, phenolic compounds, and simple sugars analysis. Cell viability for Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Leuconostoc was determined before and after fermentation. Results indicate that capsaicinoids are very stable compounds, as notable differences between unfermented and fermented samples could not be seen. Carolina Reaper and Fatalii cultivars were amongst the most pungent, whereas Cherry, Cayenne, and Bulgarian types were low to moderate in pungency. Average loss of total ascorbic acid was 19.01%. Total phenolic compounds ranged between 36.89−195.43 mg/100 g for the fresh fruits and 35.60−180.40 mg/100 g for the fermented product. Losses through fermentation were not significant (p < 0.05). Plate counts indicated low initial numbers for LAB in the fresh samples, values ranging between 50−3700 CFU/g (colony-forming units). After fermentation, day 21, concentration of LAB (3.8 × 106−6.2 × 108 CFU/g) was high in all samples. Fermented chilies paste with enhanced biochemical and bacterial properties might further be used in the technology of vegetable (brining) or meat (curing) products, processes that generally involve the fermenting activity of different microorganisms, especially (LAB). Thus, the purpose of this research was the investigation of biochemical and microbial transformations that naturally occur in fermented chilies with a future perspective towards technological applications in cured meat products.

Capsicum Leaves under Stress: Using Multi-Omics Analysis to Detect Abiotic Stress Network of Secondary Metabolism in Two Species

The plant kingdom contains an enormous diversity of bioactive compounds which regulate plant growth and defends against biotic and abiotic stress. Some of these compounds, like flavonoids, have properties which are health supporting and relevant for industrial use. Many of these valuable compounds are synthesized in various pepper (Capsicum sp.) tissues. Further, a huge amount of biomass residual remains from pepper production after harvest, which provides an important opportunity to extract these metabolites and optimize the utilization of crops. Moreover, abiotic stresses induce the synthesis of such metabolites as a defense mechanism. Two different Capsicum species were therefore exposed to chilling temperature (24/18 ℃ vs. 18/12 ℃), to salinity (200 mM NaCl), or a combination thereof for 1, 7 and 14 days to investigate the effect of these stresses on the metabolome and transcriptome profiles of their leaves. Both profiles in both species responded to all stresses with an increase over time. All stresses resulted in repression of photosynthesis genes. Stress involving chilling temperature induced secondary metabolism whereas stresses involving salt repressed cell wall modification and solute transport. The metabolome analysis annotated putatively many health stimulating flavonoids (apigetrin, rutin, kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin) in the Capsicum biomass residuals, which were induced in response to salinity, chilling temperature or a combination thereof, and supported by related structural genes of the secondary metabolism in the network analysis.

Modulated Light Dependence of Growth, Flowering, and the Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in Chilli

Chili is widely used as a food additive and a flavouring and colouring agent and also has great importance in health preservation and therapy due to the abundant presence of many bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and capsaicinoids. Most of these secondary metabolites are strong antioxidants. In the present study, the effect of light intensity and spectral composition was studied on the growth, flowering, and yield of chilli together with the accumulation of secondary metabolites in the fruit. Two light intensities (300 and 500 μmol m-2 s-1) were applied in different spectral compositions. A broad white LED spectrum with and without FR application and with blue LED supplement was compared to blue and red LED lightings in different (80/20 and 95/5%) blue/red ratios. High light intensity increased the harvest index (fruit yield vs. biomass production) and reduced the flowering time of the plants. The amount of secondary metabolites in the fruit varied both by light intensity and spectral compositions; phenolic content and the radical scavenging activity were stimulated, whereas capsaicin accumulation was suppressed by blue light. The red colour of the fruit (provided by carotenoids) was inversely correlated with the absolute amount of blue, green, and far-red light. Based on the results, a schematic model was created, representing light-dependent metabolic changes in chilli. The results indicated that the accumulation of secondary metabolites could be modified by the adjustment of light intensity and spectral composition; however, different types of metabolites required different light environments.

Green Synthesis of Gold and Silver Nanoparticles Using Leaf Extract of Capsicum chinense Plant

So far, several studies have focused on the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles making use of extracts from the fruit of the plants from the genus Capsicum. However, as the fruit is the edible, and highly commercial, part of the plant, in this work we focused on the leaves, a part of the plant that is considered agro-industrial waste. The biological synthesis of gold (AuNPs) and silver (AgNPs) nanoparticles using aqueous extracts of root, stem and leaf of Capsicum chinense was evaluated, obtaining the best results with the leaf extract. Gold and silver nanoparticles synthesized using leaf extract (AuNPs-leaf and AgNPs-leaf, respectively) were characterized by UV-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy with Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Ultra Hight Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled to Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (UHR-SEM-EDX) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and tested for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. In addition, different metabolites involved in the synthesis of nanoparticles were analyzed. We found that by the use of extracts derived from the leaf, we could generate stable and easy to synthesize AuNPs and AgNPs. The AuNPs-leaf were synthesized using microwave radiation, while the AgNPs-leaf were synthesized using UV light radiation. The antioxidant activity of the extract, determined by ABTS, showed a decrease of 44.7% and 60.7% after the synthesis of the AuNPs-leaf and AgNPs-leaf, respectively. After the AgNPs-leaf synthesis, the concentration of polyphenols, reducing sugars and amino acids decreased by 15.4%, 38.7% and 46.8% in the leaf extract, respectively, while after the AuNPs-leaf synthesis only reducing sugars decreased by 67.7%. These results suggest that these groups of molecules are implicated in the reduction/stabilization of the nanoparticles. Although the contribution of these compounds in the synthesis of the AuNPs-leaf and the AgNPs-leaf was different. Finally, the AgNPs-leaf inhibited the growth of S. aureus, E. coli, S. marcescens and E. faecalis. All of them are bacterial strains of clinical importance due to their fast antibiotic resistance development.

Dietary Phytochemicals that Can Extend Longevity by Regulation of Metabolism

Diet provides energy and nutrition for human survival, and also provides various joy of taste. Extensive studies have shown that the major components of diet, such as protein, carbohydrate and fat, play important roles in regulating aging and longevity. Whether other dietary ingredients can help prevent aging and extend longevity is a very interesting question. Here based on recent findings, we discussed dietary plant ingredients that can extend longevity by regulation of metabolism, targeting TRP channels, mitophagy, senescence pathways and circadian rhythms. Better understanding of the detailed effects and mechanisms of dietary ingredients on longevity regulation, would be helpful for developing new intervention tools for preventing aging and aging related diseases.

Capsaicinoid-Glucosides of Fresh Hot Pepper Promotes Stress Resistance and Longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this study, capsaicin-glucoside and dihydro-capsaicin-glucoside derived from fresh hot-red pepper were isolated and identified using UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/PDA. Synchronized worms were treated with capsaicinoid-glucosides (CG), and then lifespan and stress resistance were examined. The 50 µg/ml concentration of CG-intake could effectively protect the Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) against stresses factors including oxidation and heat as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby enhancing the survival of CG-treated worms under stress. Enhancing stress resistance in CG-treated worms could be due to the increased expressions of stress-related genes in C. elegans such as daf-16, skn-1 and their downstream target genes (sod-3, hsp-16.2, gst-4 and gcs-1). Lifespan study of different C. elegans strains and RT-PCR showed that the CG-mediated lifespan extension was dependent on DAF-16/FOXO and SKN-1/Nrf2 transcription factors. The study is a step forward in exploring the stress resistance and anti-aging properties of this beneficial extract. Thus, this study will be useful in formulating remedies for stresses factors and age associated disorders.

Non-destructive prediction of the hotness of fresh pepper with a single scan using portable near infrared spectroscopy and a variable selection strategy

There has been no study on using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to predict the hotness of fresh pepper. This study is aimed at developing a non-destructive and accurate method for determining the hotness of fresh peppers using portable NIRS and the variable selection strategy. Spectra from different locations on samples were obtained non-destructively with a single scan. Quantitative models were established using partial least squares (PLS) with a variable selection method or fusion method. The results showed that near-stalk was the best spectral acquisition location for quantitative analysis. The variable selection strategy allows the selection of targeted characteristic variables and improves the results. A fusion method, namely variable adaptive boosting partial least squares (VABPLS), was selected for optimal prediction of the performance. In the optimized model, the root mean square errors of prediction for the validation set (RMSEPvs) of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and pungency degree were 0.295, 0.143 and 47.770, respectively, while the root mean square errors of prediction for the prediction set (RMSEPps) collected one month later were 0.273, 0.346 and 75.524, respectively.

Agronomic Biofortification of Cayenne Pepper Cultivars with Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria and Chili Residue in a Chinese Solar Greenhouse

Agronomic biofortification of horticultural crops using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) under crop residue incorporation systems remains largely underexploited. Bacillus subtilis (B1), Bacillus laterosporus (B2), or Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B3) was inoculated on soil containing chili residue, while chili residue without PGPR (NP) served as the control. Two hybrid long cayenne peppers, succeeding a leaf mustard crop were used in the intensive cultivation study. Net photosynthesis, leaf stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, photosynthetic water use efficiency, shoot and root biomass, and fruit yield were evaluated. Derivatives of folate, minerals, and nitrate contents in the pepper fruits were also assessed. B1 elicited higher net photosynthesis and photosynthetic water use efficiency, while B2 and B3 had higher transpiration rates than B1 and NP. B1 and B3 resulted in 27–36% increase in pepper fruit yield compared to other treatments, whereas B3 produced 24–27.5% and 21.9–27.2% higher 5-methyltetrahydrofolate and total folate contents, respectively, compared to B1 and NP. However, chili residue without PGPR inoculation improved fruit calcium, magnesium, and potassium contents than the inoculated treatments. ‘Xin Xian La 8 F1’ cultivar had higher yield and plant biomass, fruit potassium, total soluble solids, and total folate contents compared to ‘La Gao F1.’ Agronomic biofortification through the synergy of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and chili residue produced better yield and folate contents with a trade-off in the mineral contents of the greenhouse-grown long cayenne pepper.

Applications of capsaicin in food industry: functionality, utilization and stabilization

As a bioactive component in Capsicum species, capsaicin is a compound of hot chili peppers which is known as the main substance responsible for the spiciness of these fruits. Besides its taste and physiological effects, it exhibits good antioxidant activity in food matrix and antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens and viruses. Considering its low stability and bioaccessibility, and also regarding its irritation, the entrapment methods of capsaicin are fully developed. To compensate the limitations of capsaicin, various encapsulation methods have been used so far, including coacervation, emulsion, spray chilling, and liposomal delivery. Capsaicin has been widely used as a flavoring and preservative agent in food formulations and even as an active compound in packaging film and functional foods. This review provides an overview of the techno-functional properties, stabilization procedures, and burgeoning usages of capsaicin in the latest studies of the food sector. So, it may introduce new windows for the application of this compound.

Chile (Capsicum spp.) as Food-Medicine Continuum in Multiethnic Mexico

Mexico is the center of origin and diversification of domesticated chile (Capsicum annuum L.). Chile is conceived and employed as both food and medicine in Mexico. In this context, the objective of this paper is to describe and analyze the cultural role of chile as food and as medicine for the body and soul in different cultures of Mexico. To write it, we relied on our own fieldwork and literature review. Our findings include a) the first matrix of uses of chile across 67 indigenous and Afrodescendants cultures within Mexican territory and b) the proposal of a new model of diversified uses of chile. Traditional knowledge, uses and management of chile as food and medicine form a continuum (i.e., are not separated into distinct categories). The intermingled uses of Capsicum are diversified, deeply rooted and far-reaching into the past. Most of the knowledge, uses and practices are shared throughout Mexico. On the other hand, there is knowledge and practices that only occur in local or regional cultural contexts. In order to fulfill food, medicinal or spiritual functions, native communities use wild/cultivated chile.

Post-Harvest Quality and Sensory Evaluation of Mini Sweet Peppers

Sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most consumed vegetables in the world, being recognized as a food with high nutritional value. Recently, the market for sweet and colorful mini peppers has increased, especially among the most demanding consumers in the novelties in vegetables and functional foods. In this sense, we evaluated mini sweet peppers genotypes (Akamu, Kaiki, Kalani, Kaolin e Moke from Isla® seeds) regarding the physical-chemical, nutritional and sensory analysis aspects. A wide variability was observed among genotypes, highlighting the Kalani genotype for total carotenoids, and the genotypes Akamu, Kaiki and Kaolin for phenolic totals content and antioxidant activity. Moke and Kaolin showed higher vitamin C content and fruit firmness. Based on sensory analysis, Kalani, Kaiki, Kaolin and Akamu obtained greater global acceptance. The genotypes can be considered an important marketing strategy of mini sweet peppers trade, associating different shapes, colors and nutritional quality.