Traps and hyper inflammation - new ways that neutrophils promote or hinder survival

ComplexEye: a multi-lens array microscope for high-throughput embedded immune cell migration analysis

Autonomous migration is essential for the function of immune cells such as neutrophils and plays an important role in numerous diseases. The ability to routinely measure or target it would offer a wealth of clinical applications. Video microscopy of live cells is ideal for migration analysis, but cannot be performed at sufficiently high-throughput (HT). Here we introduce ComplexEye, an array microscope with 16 independent aberration-corrected glass lenses spaced at the pitch of a 96-well plate to produce high-resolution movies of migrating cells. With the system, we enable HT migration analysis of immune cells in 96- and 384-well plates with very energy-efficient performance. We demonstrate that the system can measure multiple clinical samples simultaneously. Furthermore, we screen 1000 compounds and identify 17 modifiers of migration in human neutrophils in just 4 days, a task that requires 60-times longer with a conventional video microscope. ComplexEye thus opens the field of phenotypic HT migration screens and enables routine migration analysis for the clinical setting.

Inflammation driven metabolic regulation and adaptation in macrophages

Macrophages are a diverse population of phagocytic immune cells involved in the host defense mechanisms and regulation of homeostasis. Usually, macrophages maintain healthy functioning at the cellular level, but external perturbation in their balanced functions can lead to acute and chronic disease conditions. By sensing the cues from the tissue microenvironment, these phagocytes adopt a plethora of phenotypes, such as inflammatory or M1 to anti-inflammatory (immunosuppressive) or M2 subtypes, to fulfill their spectral range of functions. The existing evidence in the literature supports that in macrophages, regulation of metabolic switches and metabolic adaptations are associated with their functional behaviors under various physiological and pathological conditions. Since these macrophages play a crucial role in many disorders, therefore it is necessary to understand their heterogeneity and metabolic reprogramming. Consequently, these macrophages have also emerged as a promising target for diseases in which their role is crucial in driving the disease pathology and outcome (e.g., Cancers). In this review, we discuss the recent findings that link many metabolites with macrophage functions and highlight how this metabolic reprogramming can improve our understanding of cellular malfunction in the macrophages during inflammatory disorders. A systematic analysis of the interconnecting crosstalk between metabolic pathways with macrophages should inform the selection of immunomodulatory therapies for inflammatory diseases.

Role of macrophage extracellular traps in innate immunity and inflammatory disease

Macrophages play an integral role in initiating innate immune defences and regulating inflammation. They are also involved in maintaining homeostasis and the resolution of inflammation, by promoting tissue repair and wound healing. There is evidence that like neutrophils, macrophages can release extracellular traps following exposure to a range of pathogenic and pro-inflammatory stimuli. Extracellular traps are released by a specialised cell death pathway termed 'ETosis', and consist of a backbone of DNA and histones decorated with a range of other proteins. The composition of extracellular trap proteins can be influenced by both the cell type and the local environment in which the traps are released. In many cases, these proteins have an antimicrobial role and assist with pathogen killing. Therefore, the release of extracellular traps serves as a means to both immobilise and destroy invading pathogens. In addition to their protective role, extracellular traps are also implicated in disease pathology. The release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is causally linked to the development of wide range of human diseases. However, whether macrophage extracellular traps (METs) play a similar role in disease pathology is less well established. Moreover, macrophages are also involved in the clearance of extracellular traps, which could assist in the resolution of tissue damage associated with the presence of extracellular traps. In this review, we will provide an overview of the pathways responsible for macrophage extracellular trap release, and discuss the role of these structures in innate immunity and disease pathology and possible therapeutic strategies.

Neutrophil dysfunction due to continuous mechanical shear exposure in mechanically assisted circulation in vitro

OBJECTIVE

Leukocytes play an important role in the body's immune system. The aim of this study was to assess alterations in neutrophil phenotype and function in pump-assisted circulation in vitro.

METHODS

Human blood was circulated for four hours in three circulatory flow loops with a CentriMag blood pump operated at a flow of 4.5 L/min at three rotational speeds (2100, 2800, and 4000 rpm), against three pressure heads (75, 150, and 350 mm Hg), respectively. Blood samples were collected hourly for analyses of neutrophil activation state (Mac-1, CD62L, CD162), neutrophil reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, apoptosis, and neutrophil phagocytosis.

RESULTS

Activated neutrophils indicated by both Mac-1 expression and decreased surface expression of CD62L and CD162 receptors increased with time in three loops. The highest level of neutrophil activation was observed in the loop with the highest rotational speed. Platelet-neutrophil aggregates (PNAs) progressively increased in two loops with lower rotational speeds. PNAs peaked at one hour after circulation and decreased subsequently in the loop with the highest rotational speed. Neutrophil ROS production dramatically increased at one hour after circulation and decreased subsequently in all three loops with similar levels and trends. Apoptotic neutrophils increased with time in all three loops. Neutrophil phagocytosis capacity in three loops initially elevated at one hour after circulation and decreased subsequently. Apoptosis and altered phagocytosis were dependent on rotational speed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that the pump-assisted circulation induced neutrophil activation, apoptosis, and functional impairment. The alterations were strongly associated with pump operating condition and duration.

Imaging innate immunity

Innate immunity is the first line of defense against infectious intruders and also plays a major role in the development of sterile inflammation. Direct microscopic imaging of the involved immune cells, especially neutrophil granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages, has been performed since more than 150 years, and we still obtain novel insights on a frequent basis. Initially, intravital microscopy was limited to small-sized animal species, which were often invertebrates. In this review, we will discuss recent results on the biology of neutrophils and macrophages that have been obtained using confocal and two-photon microscopy of individual cells or subcellular structures as well as light-sheet microscopy of entire organs. This includes the role of these cells in infection defense and sterile inflammation in mammalian disease models relevant for human patients. We discuss their protective but also disease-enhancing activities during tumor growth and ischemia-reperfusion damage of the heart and brain. Finally, we provide two visions, one experimental and one applied, how our knowledge on the function of innate immune cells might be further enhanced and also be used in novel ways for disease diagnostics in the future.

The emerging role of neutrophils in autoimmune-associated disorders: effector, predictor, and therapeutic targets

Neutrophils are essential components of the immune system and have vital roles in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders. As effector cells, neutrophils promote autoimmune disease by releasing cytokines and chemokines cascades that accompany inflammation, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) regulating immune responses through cell-cell interactions. More recent evidence has extended functions of neutrophils. Accumulating evidence implicated neutrophils contribute to tissue damage during a broad range of disorders, involving rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), primary sjögren's syndrome (pSS), multiple sclerosis (MS), crohn's disease (CD), and gout. A variety of studies have reported on the functional role of neutrophils as therapeutic targets in autoimmune diseases. However, challenges and controversies in the field remain. Enhancing our understanding of neutrophils' role in autoimmune disorders may further advance the development of new therapeutic approaches.

Neutrophil injury and function alterations induced by high mechanical shear stress with short exposure time

High mechanical shear stresses (HMSS) can cause damage to blood, which manifests as morphologic changes, shortened life span, biochemical alterations, and complete rupture of blood cells and proteins, leading to the alterations of normal blood function. The aim of this study is to determine the state of neutrophil activation and function alterations caused by HMSS with short exposure time relevant to ventricular assist devices. Blood from healthy donors was exposed to three levels of HMSS (75Pa, 125Pa, and 175Pa) for a short exposure time (0.5 s) using our Couette-type blood-shearing device. Neutrophil activation (Mac-1, platelet-neutrophil aggregates) and surface expression levels of two key functional receptors (CD62L and CD162) on neutrophils were evaluated by flow cytometry. Neutrophil phagocytosis and transmigration were also examined with functional assays. Results showed that the expression of Mac-1 on neutrophils and platelet-neutrophil aggregates increased significantly while the level of CD62L expression on neutrophils decreased significantly after the exposure to HMSS. The Mac-1 expression progressively increased while the CD62L expression progressively decreased with the increased level of HMSS. The level of CD162 expression on neutrophils slightly increased after the exposure to HMSS, but the increase was not significant. The phagocytosis assay data revealed that the ability of neutrophils to phagocytose latex beads coated with fluorescently labeled rabbit IgG increased significantly with the increased level of HMSS. The transmigration ability of neutrophils slightly increased after the exposure to HMSS, but did not reach a significant level. In summary, HMSS with a short exposure time of 0.5 seconds could induce neutrophil activation, platelet-neutrophil aggregation, shedding of CD62L receptor, and increased phagocytic ability. However, the exposure to the three levels of HMSS did not cause a significant change in neutrophil transmigration capacity and shedding of CD162 receptor on neutrophils.

Zebrafish Models to Study Inflammasome-Mediated Regulation of Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis is a complex process through which immature bone marrow precursor cells mature into all types of blood cells. Although the association of hematopoietic lineage bias (including anemia and neutrophilia) with chronic inflammatory diseases has long been appreciated, the causes involved are obscure. Recently, cytosolic multiprotein inflammasome complexes were shown to activate inflammatory and immune responses, and directly regulate hematopoiesis in zebrafish models; this was deemed to occur via cleavage and inactivation of the master erythroid transcription factor GATA1. Herein summarized are the zebrafish models that are currently available to study this unappreciated role of inflammasome-mediated regulation of hematopoiesis. Novel putative therapeutic strategies, for the treatment of hematopoietic alterations associated with chronic inflammatory diseases in humans, are also proposed.

Defective migration and dysmorphology of neutrophil granulocytes in atypical chronic myeloid leukemia treated with ruxolitinib

BACKGROUND

The identification of pathologically altered neutrophil granulocyte migration patterns bears strong potential for surveillance and prognostic scoring of diseases. We recently identified a strong correlation between impaired neutrophil motility and the disease stage of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS). Here, we apply this assay to study quantitively increased neutrophils of a patient suffering from a rare leukemia subtype, atypical chronic myeloid leukemia (aCML).

METHODS

A 69-year-old male was analyzed in this study. Besides routine analyses, we purified the patient's neutrophils from peripheral whole blood and studied their migration behavior using time-lapse video microscopy in a standardized assay. These live cell migration analyses also allowed for the quantification of cell morphology. Furthermore, the cells were stained for the markers CD15, CD16, fMLPR, CXCR1 and CXCR2.

RESULTS

Despite cytoreductive therapy with hydroxyurea, the patient's WBC and ANC were poorly controlled and severe dysgranulopoiesis with hypogranularity was observed. Neutrophils displayed strongly impaired migration when compared to healthy controls and migrating cells exhibited a more flattened-out morphology than control neutrophils. Because of a detected CSF3R (p.T618I) mutation and constitutional symptoms treatment with ruxolitinib was initiated. Within 1 week of ruxolitinib treatment, the cell shape normalized and remained indistinguishable from healthy control neutrophils. However, neutrophil migration did not improve over the course of ruxolitinib therapy but was strikingly altered shortly before a sinusitis with fever and bleeding from a gastric ulcer. Molecular work-up revealed that under ruxolitinib treatment, the CSF3R clone was depleted, yet the expansion of a NRAS mutated subclone was promoted.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate the usefulness of neutrophil migration analyses to uncover corresponding alterations of neutrophil migration in rare myeloid neoplasms. Furthermore, in addition to monitoring migration the determination of morphological features of live neutrophils might represent a useful tool to monitor the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches.

Hydrogen peroxide in neutrophil inflammation: Lesson from the zebrafish

The zebrafish has become an excellent model for the study of inflammation and immunity. Its unique advantages for in vivo imaging and gene and drug screening have allowed the visualization of dual oxidase 1 (Duox1)-derived hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) tissue gradients and its crosstalk with neutrophil infiltration to inflamed tissue. Thus, it has been shown that H₂O₂ directly recruits neutrophils via the Src-family tyrosine kinase Lyn and indirectly by the activation of several signaling pathways involved in inflammation, such as nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen activated kinases and the transcription factor AP1. In addition, this model has also unmasked the unexpected ability of H₂O₂ to induce the expression of the gene encoding the key neutrophil chemoattractant CXC chemokine ligand 8 by facilitating the accessibility of transcription factors to its promoter through histone covalent modifications. Finally, zebrafish models of psoriasis have shown that a H₂O₂/NF-κB/Duox1 positive feedback inflammatory loop operates in this chronic inflammatory disorder and that pharmacological inhibition of Duox1, but not of downstream mediators, inhibits inflammation and restores epithelial homeostasis. Therefore, these results have pointed out DUOX1 and H₂O₂ as therapeutic targets for the treatment of skin inflammatory disorders, such as psoriasis.

Carbohydrate and Amino Acid Metabolism as Hallmarks for Innate Immune Cell Activation and Function

Immune activation is now understood to be fundamentally linked to intrinsic and/or extrinsic metabolic processes which are essential for immune cells to survive, proliferate, and perform their effector functions. Moreover, disruption or dysregulation of these pathways can result in detrimental outcomes and underly a number of pathologies in both communicable and non-communicable diseases. In this review, we discuss how the metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids in particular can modulate innate immunity and how perturbations in these pathways can result in failure of these immune cells to properly function or induce unfavorable phenotypes.

Harmful neutrophil subsets in patients with ischemic stroke: Association with disease severity

Objective

To better understand the functional state of circulating neutrophils in patients with ischemic stroke (IS) for planning future clinical trials.

Methods

We analyzed by flow cytometry activation state of circulating neutrophils and the distribution of neutrophil peripheral subsets in 41 patients with acute IS less than 6 hours before admission and compared them with 22 age-matched healthy controls.

Results

Our results demonstrated continuous basal hyperactivation of circulating neutrophils during acute IS, characterized by lower l-selectin expression and higher CD11b expression at the cell surface, increased ROS production by neutrophils, and greater circulating levels of neutrophil elastase. Neutrophil hyperactivation was associated with deregulation of the equilibrium between apoptotic and necrotic. Patients also had higher percentages than controls of the overactive senescent (CXCR4^bright/CD62L^dim) neutrophil subset and increased percentage of neutrophils with a reverse transendothelial migration (CD54^highCXCR1^low) phenotype. Importantly, neutrophil alterations were associated with the clinical severity of the stroke, evaluated by its NIH Stroke Scale score.

Conclusion

Altogether, our results indicate that during acute IS, the inflammatory properties of circulating neutrophils rise, associated with the expansion of harmful neutrophil subsets. These changes in neutrophil homeostasis, associated with disease severity, may play an instrumental role by contributing to systemic inflammation and to the blood-brain barrier breakdown. Our findings highlight new potential therapeutic approaches of stroke by rebalancing the ratio of senescent to immunosuppressive neutrophils or decreasing reverse neutrophil transmigration or both.

A network of trans-cortical capillaries as mainstay for blood circulation in long bones

Closed circulatory systems (CCS) underlie the function of vertebrate organs, but in long bones their structure is unclear, although they constitute the exit route for bone marrow (BM) leukocytes. To understand neutrophil emigration from BM, we studied the vascular system of murine long bones. Here we show that hundreds of capillaries originate in BM, cross murine cortical bone perpendicularly along the shaft and connect to the periosteal circulation. Structures similar to these trans-cortical-vessels (TCVs) also exist in human limb bones. TCVs express arterial or venous markers and transport neutrophils. Furthermore, over 80% arterial and 59% venous blood passes through TCVs. Genetic and drug-mediated modulation of osteoclast count and activity leads to substantial changes in TCV numbers. In a murine model of chronic arthritic bone inflammation, new TCVs develop within weeks. Our data indicate that TCVs are a central component of the CCS in long bones and may represent an important route for immune cell export from the BM.

Role of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and other inflammatory mediators in the induction of macrophage extracellular trap formation

The infiltration of activated leukocytes, including macrophages, at sites of inflammation and the formation and presence of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) are interlinked hallmarks of many debilitating disease processes, including atherosclerosis, arthritis, neurological and renal disease, diabetes and obesity. The production of extracellular traps by activated leukocytes in response to a range of inflammatory stimuli is increasingly recognised as an important process within a range of disease settings. We show that exposure of human monocyte-derived macrophages to pathophysiological levels of HOCl results in the dose-dependent extrusion of DNA and histones into the cellular supernatant, consistent with extracellular trap formation. Concurrent with, but independent of these findings, macrophage exposure to HOCl also resulted in an immediate and sustained cytosolic accumulation of Ca²⁺, culminating in the increased production of cytokines and chemokines. Polarisation of the macrophages prior to HOCl exposure revealed a greater propensity for inflammatory M1 macrophages to produce extracellular traps, whereas alternatively-activated M2 macrophages were less susceptible to HOCl insult. M1 macrophages also produced extracellular traps on exposure to phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα). Taken together, these data indicate a potential role for macrophages in mediating extracellular trap formation, which may be relevant in pathological conditions characterised by chronic inflammation or excessive HOCl formation.

Surveillance of Myelodysplastic Syndrome via Migration Analyses of Blood Neutrophils: A Potential Prognostic Tool

Autonomous migration is a central characteristic of immune cells, and changes in this function have been correlated to the progression and severity of diseases. Hence, the identification of pathologically altered leukocyte migration patterns might be a promising approach for disease surveillance and prognostic scoring. However, because of the lack of standardized and robust assays, migration patterns have not been clinically exploited so far. In this study, we introduce an easy-to-use and cross-laboratory, standardized two-dimensional migration assay for neutrophil granulocytes from peripheral blood. By combining time-lapse video microscopy and automated cell tracking, we calculated the average migration of neutrophils from 111 individual participants of the German Heinz Nixdorf Recall MultiGeneration study under steady-state, formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine-, CXCL1-, and CXCL8-stimulated conditions. Comparable values were obtained in an independent laboratory from a cohort in Belgium, demonstrating the robustness and transferability of the assay. In a double-blinded retrospective clinical analysis, we found that neutrophil migration strongly correlated with the Revised International Prognostic Scoring System scoring and risk category of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) patients. In fact, patients suffering from high-risk subtypes MDS with excess blasts I or II displayed highly significantly reduced neutrophil migration. Hence, the determination of neutrophil migration patterns might represent a useful tool in the surveillance of MDS. Taken together, we suggest that standardized migration assays of neutrophils and other leukocyte subtypes might be broadly applicable as prognostic and surveillance tools for MDS and potentially for other diseases.

Role of polymorphonuclear neutrophils in the reperfused ischemic brain: insights from cell-type-specific immunodepletion and fluorescence microscopy studies

Polymorphonuclear neutrophil granulocytes (PMNs) are part of the early post-ischemic immune response that orchestrates the removal of infarcted brain tissue. PMNs contribute to secondary brain injury in experimental stroke models. In human patients, high PMN-to-lymphocyte ratios in peripheral blood are predictive of poor stroke outcome. Following earlier studies indicating that the cerebral microvasculature forms an efficient barrier that impedes PMN brain entry even under conditions of ischemia, more recent studies combining intravital two-photon microscopy and ex vivo immunohistochemistry unequivocally demonstrated the accumulation of PMNs in the ischemic brain parenchyma. In the meantime, transgenic mouse lines, such as mice expressing Cre-recombinase and the red fluorescent reporter protein tdTomato under the highly granulocyte-specific locus for the gene Ly6G (so-called Catchup mice), have become available that allow study of dynamic interactions of PMNs with brain parenchymal cells. These mice will further help us understand how PMNs promote brain injury and disturb brain remodeling and plasticity.

Neutrophil extracellular traps are increased in patients with acute ischemic stroke: prognostic significance

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of DNA, histones, and proteolytic enzymes produced by activated neutrophils through different mechanisms. NET formation is promoted by activated platelets and can in turn activate platelets, thus favoring thrombotic processes. NETs have been detected in venous and arterial thrombosis, but data in stroke are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate NETs in the plasma of patients with acute ischemic stroke and their potential association with baseline clinical characteristics, stroke severity, and one-year clinical outcomes. The study included 243 patients with acute ischemic stroke. Clinical and demographic data and scores of stroke severity (NIHSS and mRs) at onset and discharge were recorded. Markers of NETs (cell-free DNA, nucleosomes, and citrullinated histone 3 (citH3)), were determined in plasma. Patients were followed-up for 12 months after the ischemic event. NETs were significantly elevated in the plasma of patients with acute ischemic stroke when compared to healthy subjects. NETs were increased in patients who were over 65 years of age and in those with a history of atrial fibrillation (AF), cardioembolic stroke, high glucose levels, and severe stroke scores at admission and discharge. In multivariate analysis, elevated levels of citH3, the most specific marker of NETs, at onset were independently associated with AF and all-cause mortality at oneyear follow-up. NETs play a role in the pathophysiology of stroke and are associated with severity and mortality. In conclusion, citH3 may constitute a useful prognostic marker and therapeutic target in patients with acute stroke.

Quantitative Analysis of Proteome Modulations in Alveolar Epithelial Type II Cells in Response to Pulmonary Aspergillus fumigatus Infection

The ubiquitous mold Aspergillus fumigatus threatens immunosuppressed patients as inducer of lethal invasive aspergillosis. A. fumigatus conidia are airborne and reach the alveoli, where they encounter alveolar epithelial cells (AEC). Previous studies reported the importance of the surfactant-producing AEC II during A. fumigatus infection via in vitro experiments using cell lines. We established a negative isolation protocol yielding untouched primary murine AEC II with a purity >90%, allowing ex vivo analyses of the cells, which encountered the mold in vivo By label-free proteome analysis of AEC II isolated from mice 24h after A. fumigatus or mock infection we quantified 2256 proteins and found 154 proteins to be significantly differentially abundant between both groups (ANOVA p value ≤ 0.01, ratio of means ≥1.5 or ≤0.67, quantified with ≥2 peptides). Most of these proteins were higher abundant in the infected condition and reflected a comprehensive activation of AEC II on interaction with A. fumigatus This was especially represented by proteins related to oxidative phosphorylation, hence energy production. However, the most strongly induced protein was the l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) Interleukin 4 induced 1 (IL4I1) with a 42.9 fold higher abundance (ANOVA p value 2.91^-10). IL4I1 has previously been found in B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and rare neurons. Increased IL4I1 abundance in AEC II was confirmed by qPCR, Western blot and immunohistology. Furthermore, A. fumigatus infected lungs showed high levels of IL4I1 metabolic products. Importantly, higher IL4I1 abundance was also confirmed in lung tissue from human aspergilloma. Because LAAO are key enzymes for bactericidal product generation, AEC II might actively participate in pathogen defense. We provide insights into proteome changes of primary AEC II thereby opening new avenues to analyze the molecular changes of this central lung cell on infectious threats. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD005834.

Reversal of murine alcoholic steatohepatitis by pepducin-based functional blockade of interleukin-8 receptors

OBJECTIVE

Alcoholic steatohepatitis is a life-threatening condition with short-term mortality up to 40%. It features hepatic neutrophil infiltration and blood neutrophilia, and may evolve from ethanol-induced breakdown of the enteric barrier and consequent bacteraemia. Signalling through CXCR1/2 G-protein-coupled-receptors (GPCRs), the interleukin (IL)-8 receptors, is critical for the recruitment and activation of neutrophils. We have developed short lipopeptides (pepducins), which inhibit post-ligand GPCR activation precisely targeting individual GPCRs.

DESIGN

Experimental alcoholic liver disease was induced by administering alcohol and a Lieber-DeCarli high-fat diet. CXCR1/2 GPCRs were blocked via pepducins either from onset of the experiment or after disease was fully established. Hepatic inflammatory infiltration, hepatocyte lipid accumulation and overall survival were assessed as primary outcome parameters. Neutrophil activation was assessed by myeloperoxidase activity and liver cell damage by aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase plasma levels. Chemotaxis assays were performed to identify chemoattractant signals derived from alcohol-exposed hepatocytes.

RESULTS

Here, we show that experimental alcoholic liver disease is driven by CXCR1/2-dependent activation of neutrophils. CXCR1/2-specific pepducins not only protected mice from liver inflammation, weight loss and mortality associated with experimental alcoholic liver disease, but therapeutic administration cured disease and prevented further mortality in fully established disease. Hepatic neutrophil infiltration and triglyceride accumulation was abrogated by CXCR1/2 blockade. Moreover, CXCL-1 plasma levels were decreased with the pepducin therapy as was the transcription of hepatic IL-1β mRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that high circulating IL-8 in human alcoholic hepatitis may cause pathogenic overzealous neutrophil activation, and therapeutic blockade via pepducins merits clinical study.

Role of the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper gene in dexamethasone-induced inhibition of mouse neutrophil migration via control of annexin A1 expression

The glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) gene is a pivotal mediator of the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids (GCs) that are known to regulate the function of both adaptive and innate immunity cells. Our aim was to investigate the role of GILZ in GC-induced inhibition of neutrophil migration, as this role has not been investigated before. We found that GILZ expression was induced by dexamethasone (DEX), a synthetic GC, in neutrophils, and that it regulated migration of these cells into inflamed tissues under DEX treatment. Of note, inhibition of neutrophil migration was not observed in GILZ-knockout mice with peritonitis that were treated by DEX. This was because DEX was unable to up-regulate annexin A1 (Anxa1) expression in the absence of GILZ. Furthermore, we showed that GILZ mediates Anxa1 induction by GCs by transactivating Anxa1 expression at the promoter level via binding with the transcription factor, PU.1. The present findings shed light on the role of GILZ in the mechanism of induction of Anxa1 by GCs. As Anxa1 is an important protein for the resolution of inflammatory response, GILZ may represent a new pharmacologic target for treatment of inflammatory diseases.-Ricci, E., Ronchetti, S., Pericolini, E., Gabrielli, E., Cari, L., Gentili, M., Roselletti, E., Migliorati, G., Vecchiarelli, A., Riccardi, C. Role of the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper gene in dexamethasone-induced inhibition of mouse neutrophil migration via control of annexin A1 expression.

Depletion of Neutrophils Exacerbates the Early Inflammatory Immune Response in Lungs of Mice Infected with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Neutrophils predominate during the acute phase of the Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection. Herein, we determined the role of the neutrophil during the early stages of experimental pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis using a monoclonal antibody (mAb) specific for neutrophils. Male BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally with 1.5 × 10⁶ or 2 × 10⁶ P. brasiliensis yeast cells. The mAb was administered 24 h before infection, followed by doses every 48 h until mice were sacrificed. Survival time was evaluated and mice were sacrificed at 48 h and 96 h after inoculation to assess cellularity, fungal load, cytokine/chemokine levels, and histopathological analysis. Neutrophils from mAb-treated mice were efficiently depleted (99.04%). Eighty percent of the mice treated with the mAb and infected with 1.5 × 10⁶ yeast cells died during the first two weeks after infection. When mice were treated and infected with 2 × 10⁶ yeast cells, 100% of them succumbed by the first week after infection. During the acute inflammatory response significant increases in numbers of eosinophils, fungal load and levels of proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines were observed in the mAb-treated mice. We also confirmed that neutrophils are an important source of IFN-γ and IL-17. These results indicate that neutrophils are essential for protection as well as being important for regulating the early inflammatory immune response in experimental pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis.

Molecular mechanisms of NET formation and degradation revealed by intravital imaging in the liver vasculature

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) composed of DNA decorated with histones and proteases trap and kill bacteria but also injure host tissue. Here we show that during a bloodstream infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, the majority of bacteria are sequestered immediately by hepatic Kupffer cells, resulting in transient increases in liver enzymes, focal ischaemic areas and a robust neutrophil infiltration into the liver. The neutrophils release NETs into the liver vasculature, which remain anchored to the vascular wall via von Willebrand factor and reveal significant neutrophil elastase (NE) proteolytic activity. Importantly, DNase although very effective at DNA removal, and somewhat effective at inhibiting NE proteolytic activity, fails to remove the majority of histones from the vessel wall and only partly reduces injury. By contrast, inhibition of NET production as modelled by PAD4-deficiency, or prevention of NET formation and proteolytic activity as modelled in NE^−/− mice prevent collateral host tissue damage.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by neutrophils trap pathogens but may also cause tissue damage. Here the authors show that during systemic Staphylococcus aureus infection NETs anchoring to the vasculature are only partially DNase-sensitive, advocating for better anti-NET therapies.

Neutrophils release extracellular DNA traps in response to exercise

Intense exercise evokes a rapid and transient increase in circulating cell-free DNA (cf-DNA), a phenomenon that is commonly observed in a variety of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. In this study, we aimed to shed new light on the release and clearance mechanisms of cf-DNA in response to exercise. We hypothesized that activated neutrophils may primarily contribute to exercise-evoked cf-DNA levels by releasing neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Analysis of plasma and/or serum samples from male athletes at rest and in response to exhaustive treadmill exercise revealed an immediate and transient increase in cf-DNA that was concomitantly counterbalanced by an increase in serum DNase activity. Consistently, rapid release and clearance kinetics for cf-DNA could also be observed in response to intensive cycling exercise, with no significant differences between endurance-trained (V̇o2max >57 ml·min(-1)·kg(-1)) and healthy (V̇o2max <49 ml·min(-1)·kg(-1)) sedentary individuals. In postexercise blood smear samples, we detected seemingly intact neutrophils displaying morphological signs of NET release, as indicated by abnormal swollen nuclei and emanating DNA fibers. In support, we observed a striking correlation of postexercise cf-DNA concentrations with plasma levels of the granule-derived enzyme myeloperoxidase. Our study indicates that intense exercise induces liberation of NETs, which is sufficiently counterbalanced in healthy individuals by a concomitant rise in serum DNase activity. As aberrant release of NETs has been linked to diverse disease states, monitoring of cf-DNA/DNase levels or activities in response to standardized exercise testing could provide a valuable tool to identify people who are at increased risk for cardiac ischemia, thrombosis, autoimmunity, or chronic fatigue.

A review of the mitochondrial and glycolytic metabolism in human platelets and leukocytes: implications for their use as bioenergetic biomarkers

The assessment of metabolic function in cells isolated from human blood for treatment and diagnosis of disease is a new and important area of translational research. It is now becoming clear that a broad range of pathologies which present clinically with symptoms predominantly in one organ, such as the brain or kidney, also modulate mitochondrial energetics in platelets and leukocytes allowing these cells to serve as “the canary in the coal mine” for bioenergetic dysfunction. This opens up the possibility that circulating platelets and leukocytes can sense metabolic stress in patients and serve as biomarkers of mitochondrial dysfunction in human pathologies such as diabetes, neurodegeneration and cardiovascular disease. In this overview we will describe how the utilization of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation differs in platelets and leukocytes and discuss how they can be used in patient populations. Since it is clear that the metabolic programs between leukocytes and platelets are fundamentally distinct the measurement of mitochondrial function in distinct cell populations is necessary for translational research.

•

Monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils and platelets have distinct bioenergetic programs that regulate energy production.

•

Platelets and monocytes exhibit a high level of aerobic glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration.

•

Lymphocytes have a low glycolytic capacity while neutrophils have little or no detectable oxidative phosphorylation.

•

The levels of mitochondrial complex IV and III subunits differ substantially between lymphocytes, monocytes and platelets.