Pre-clinical evidences for the efficacy of tryptanthrin as a potent suppressor of skin cancer

Discovery of the tryptanthrin-derived indoloquinazoline as an anti-breast cancer agent via ERK/JNK activation

Tryptanthrin, an alkaloid applied in traditional Chinese medicine, exhibits a variety of pharmacological activities. This study aimed to investigate the anti-tumor activity of the tryptanthrin derivative (8-cyanoindolo[2,1-b]quinazoline-6,12-dione [CIQ]) in breast cancer cells. In both MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells, CIQ inhibited cell viability and promoted caspase-dependent apoptosis. At the concentration- and time-dependent ways, CIQ increased the levels of p-ERK, p-JNK, and p-p38 in breast cancer cells. We found that exposure to the JNK inhibitor or the ERK inhibitor partially reversed CIQ's viability. We also observed that CIQ increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and upregulated the phosphorylation and expression of H2AX. However, the pretreatment of the antioxidants did not protect the cells against CIQ's effects on cell viability and apoptosis, which suggested that ROS does not play a major role in the mechanism of action of CIQ. In addition, CIQ inhibited the invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells and decreased the expression of the prometastatic factors (MMP-2 and Snail). These findings demonstrated that the possibility of this compound to show promise in playing an important role against breast cancer.

Recent advances of tryptanthrin and its derivatives as potential anticancer agents

Tryptanthrin is one of the well-known natural alkaloids with a broad spectrum of biological activities and can act as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antitubercular, and other agents. Owing to its potent anticancer activity, tryptanthrin has been widely explored for the therapy of various cancers besides being effective against other diseases. Tryptanthrin with a pharmacological indoloquinazoline moiety can not only be modified by different functional groups to achieve various tryptanthrin derivatives, which may realize the improvement of anticancer activity, but also bind with different metal ions to obtain varied tryptanthrin metal complexes as potential anticancer agents, due to their higher anticancer activities in comparison with tryptanthrin (or its derivatives) and cisplatin. This review outlines the recent advances in the syntheses, structures, and anticancer activities of tryptanthrin derivatives and their metal complexes, trying to reveal their structure-activity relationships and to provide a helpful way for medicinal chemists in the development of new and effective tryptanthrin-based anticancer agents.

Visible-light promoted catalyst-free (VLCF) multi-component synthesis of spiro indolo-quinazolinone-pyrrolo[3,4-a]pyrrolizine hybrids: evaluation of in vitro anticancer activity, molecular docking, MD simulation and DFT studies

A new and highly efficient visible-light-promoted catalyst free (VLCF) strategy for neat and clean synthesis of spiro indolo-quinazolinone-pyrrolo[3,4-a]pyrrolizine hybrids (6a-d) has been introduced. We have performed visible-light triggered 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition reaction of maleimide (5a-d) with azomethine ylide generated in situ derived from tryptanthrin (3) and L-proline (4) to obtain desired products (6a-d) in good to excellent yield. Authentication and characterization of product was done using various spectroscopic techniques such as IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, Mass spectrometry and single crystal XRD analysis. To explain the reaction spontaneity, product stability, reactivity as well as possible mode of the interaction a quantum chemical investigation was performed and depicted through DFT studies. The synthesized compound 6a was also evaluated for anti-proliferative activity against a panel of five cancer cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, HeLa, PC-3 and Ishikawa) and normal human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cell line by using MTT assay. Compound 6a showed very good in vitro anti-proliferative activity (IC50  = 6.58-17.98 μM) against four cancer cell lines and no cytotoxicity against normal HEK-293. In order to evaluate the anticancer potential of compounds 6a-d, molecular docking was performed against wild type and mutant EGFR. The results suggest that all the compounds occupied the active site of both enzymes, with a strong binding energy (-10.2 to -11.5 kcal/mol). These results have been confirmed by molecular dynamics simulation by evaluating root mean square deviation (RMSD) and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), along with principal component analysis (PCA).Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Advances in psoriasis and gut microorganisms with co-metabolites

This review summarizes the potential role of gut microbes and their metabolites as novel mediators of psoriasis, including their composition and function in disease pathogenesis, progression, and management. Gut microbiota network analysis, colony construction, and in vivo large-scale interaction experiments showed that different degrees of damage and repair in psoriasis, both in animals and humans, involve cross-border homeostasis of the microbial community. Which gut microbiota interactions are present in psoriasis and how they collaborate with immune cells and influence psoriasis development via the gut-skin axis remain incompletely elucidated. In this article, we review the latest information on the unique patterns of gut microbiota and co-metabolites involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis and attempt to explore microbial-based therapeutic targets derived from mono-and polymicrobial probiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, pharmacomicrobiomics, and dietary interventions as diagnostic or therapeutic approaches promising to provide new options and long-term management for psoriasis.

Targeting receptor tyrosine kinase signaling: Avenues in the management of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma

Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide. Among the various types of NMSCs, cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) exhibits more aggressive phenotype and is also the second-most prevalent type. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) triggers key signaling events that play critical roles in the development of various cancers including cSCC. Unsurprisingly, for this reason, this family of proteins has become the cynosure of anti-cancer drug discovery pipelines and is also being considered as attractive targets against cSCC. Though inhibition of RTKs in cSCC has yielded favourable results, there is still scope for bettering the therapeutic outcome. In this review, we discuss the relevance of RTK signaling in the progression of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, and observations from clinical trials that used RTK inhibitors against cSCC. Backed by results from preclinical studies, including those from our lab, we also give insights into the scope of using some natural products as effective suppressors of RTK signaling and skin carcinogenesis.

Engineering diabetic human skin equivalent for in vitro and in vivo applications

The prevalence of diabetes is increasing worldwide. Diabetes contributes to 70% of all non-traumatic lower-limb amputations, which are directly caused by diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) that are difficult to heal. Non-healing diabetic ulcers represent one of modern society’s most difficult medical challenges. One of the promising initiatives to treat DFU is the grafting of autologous skin or stimulating the skin cells at the edge of the wound to proliferate and close the wound. The present study was to engineer a diabetic human skin equivalent (DHSE) that contains fibroblasts and keratinocytes extracted from the skin collected from diabetic patients. The DHSE was used to investigate whether exposure to low-intensity electrical stimulation (ES) could promote diabetic cell activity. The ES was generated by a direct current (DC) electric field of 20 or 40 mV/mm. We demonstrated that the fibroblasts and keratinocytes could be extracted from older diabetics, cultured, and used to engineer DHSE. Interestingly, the exposure of DHSE to ES led to a structural improvement through tissue stratification, increased Ki-67 expression, and the deposition of basement membrane proteins (laminin and type IV collagen). The DHSE exposed to ES showed a high level of keratin 5 and 14 expressions in the basal and supra-basal layers. The keratinocyte proliferation was supported by an increased secretion of the keratinocyte growth factor (FGF-7). Exposure to ES decreased the activity of metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9. In conclusion, we extracted keratinocytes and fibroblasts from the skin of diabetic-old donors. These cells were used to engineer skin equivalents and demonstrate that ES can promote diabetic wound healing. This DHSE can be a promising tool for various in vitro studies to understand the wound healing mechanisms under chronic inflammatory conditions such as diabetes. The DHSE could also be used as an autologous substrate to cover the DFU permanently.

Pharmacological attenuation of melanoma by tryptanthrin pertains to the suppression of MITF-M through MEK/ERK signaling axis

Melanoma is the most aggressive among all types of skin cancers. The current strategies against melanoma utilize BRAFV600E, as a focal point for targeted therapy. However, therapy resistance developed in melanoma patients against the conventional anti-melanoma drugs hinders the ultimate benefits of targeted therapies. A major mechanism by which melanoma cells attain therapy resistance is via the activation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor-M (MITF-M), the key transcription factor and oncogene aiding the survival of melanoma cells. We demonstrate that tryptanthrin (Tpn), an indole quinazoline alkaloid, which we isolated and characterized from Wrightia tinctoria, exhibits remarkable anti-tumor activity towards human melanoma through the down-regulation of MITF-M. Microarray analysis of Tpn-treated melanoma cells followed by a STRING protein association network analysis revealed that differential expression of genes in melanoma converges at MITF-M. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo studies conducted using melanoma cells with differential MITF-M expression status, endogenously or ectopically, demonstrated that the anti-melanoma activity of Tpn is decisively contingent on its efficacy in down-regulating MITF-M expression. Tpn potentiates the degradation of MITF-M via the modulation of MEK1/2-ERK1/2-MITF-M signaling cascades. Murine models demonstrate the efficacy of Tpn in attenuating the migration and metastasis of melanoma cells, while remaining pharmacologically safe. In addition, Tpn suppresses the expression of mutated BRAFV600E and inhibits Casein Kinase 2α, a pro-survival enzyme that regulates ERK1/2 homeostasis in many tumor types, including melanoma. Together, we point to a promising anti-melanoma drug in Tpn, by virtue of its attributes to impede melanoma invasion and metastasis by attenuating MITF-M.

Indigo plant leaf extract inhibits the binding of SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein to angiotensin‑converting enzyme 2

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) uses its S1 spike protein to bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on human cells in the first step of cell entry. Tryptanthrin, extracted from leaves of the indigo plant, Polygonum tinctorium, using d-limonene (17.3 µg/ml), is considered to inhibit ACE2-mediated cell entry of another type of coronavirus, HCoV-NL63. The current study examined whether this extract could inhibit the binding of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to ACE2. Binding was quantified as cell-bound fluorescence intensity in live cell cultures in which canine kidney MDCK cells overexpressing ACE2 were incubated with fluorescein-labeled S1 spike protein. When indigo extract, together with S1 protein, was added at 8,650x and 17,300x dilutions, fluorescence intensity decreased in a dose- and S1 extract-dependent manner, without affecting cell viability. When 4.0-nM tryptanthrin was added instead of the indigo extract, fluorescence intensity also decreased, but to a lesser degree than with indigo extract. Docking simulation analyses revealed that tryptanthrin readily bound to the receptor-binding domain of the S1 protein, and identified 2- and 7-amino acid sequences as the preferred binding sites. The indigo extract appeared to inhibit S1-ACE2 binding at high dilutions, and evidently contained other inhibitory elements as well as tryptanthrin. This extract may be useful for the prevention or treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Cancer Chemoprevention: A Strategic Approach Using Phytochemicals

Cancer chemoprevention approaches are aimed at preventing, delaying, or suppressing tumor incidence using synthetic or natural bioactive agents. Mechanistically, chemopreventive agents also aid in mitigating cancer development, either by impeding DNA damage or by blocking the division of premalignant cells with DNA damage. Several pre-clinical studies have substantiated the benefits of using various dietary components as chemopreventives in cancer therapy. The incessant rise in the number of cancer cases globally is an issue of major concern. The excessive toxicity and chemoresistance associated with conventional chemotherapies decrease the success rates of the existent chemotherapeutic regimen, which warrants the need for an efficient and safer alternative therapeutic approach. In this scenario, chemopreventive agents have been proven to be successful in protecting the high-risk populations from cancer, which further validates chemoprevention strategy as rational and promising. Clinical studies have shown the effectiveness of this approach in managing cancers of different origins. Phytochemicals, which constitute an appreciable proportion of currently used chemotherapeutic drugs, have been tested for their chemopreventive efficacy. This review primarily aims to highlight the efficacy of phytochemicals, currently being investigated globally as chemopreventives. The clinical relevance of chemoprevention, with special emphasis on the phytochemicals, curcumin, resveratrol, tryptanthrin, kaempferol, gingerol, emodin, quercetin genistein and epigallocatechingallate, which are potential candidates due to their ability to regulate multiple survival pathways without inducing toxicity, forms the crux of this review. The majority of these phytochemicals are polyphenols and flavanoids. We have analyzed how the key molecular targets of these chemopreventives potentially counteract the key drivers of chemoresistance, causing minimum toxicity to the body. An overview of the underlying mechanism of action of these phytochemicals in regulating the key players of cancer progression and tumor suppression is discussed in this review. A summary of the clinical trials on the important phytochemicals that emerge as chemopreventives is also incorporated. We elaborate on the pre-clinical and clinical observations, pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action, and molecular targets of some of these natural products. To summarize, the scope of this review comprises of the current status, limitations, and future directions of cancer chemoprevention, emphasizing the potency of phytochemicals as effective chemopreventives.

Synthetic Tryptanthrin Derivatives Induce Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis via Akt and MAPKs in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Trytanthrin, found in Ban-Lan-Gen, is a natural product containing an indoloquinazoline moiety and has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-viral activities. Chronic inflammation and hepatitis B are known to be associated with the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this study, a series of tryptanthrin derivatives were synthesized to generate potent anti-tumor agents against HCC. This effort yielded two compounds, A1 and A6, that exhibited multi-fold higher cytotoxicity in HCC cells than the parent compound. Flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that A1 and A6 caused S-phase arrest and downregulated the expression of cyclin A1, B1, CDK2, and p-CDC2. In addition to inducing caspase-dependent apoptosis, A1 and A6 exhibited similar regulation of the phosphorylation or expression of multiple signaling targets, including Akt, NF-κB, and mitogen-activated protein kinases. The anti-tumor activities of A1 and A6 were also attributable to the generation of reactive oxygen species, accompanied by an increase in p-p53 levels. Therefore, A1 and A6 have potential clinical applications since they target diverse aspects of cancer cell growth in HCC.

Experimental research in topical psoriasis therapy (Review)

Psoriasis, one of the most prevalent inflammatory diseases in dermatologic pathology, remains a challenge in regards to the therapeutic approach. Topical therapy for psoriasis is a current trending subject as it implies good compliance for the patient, few adverse systemic reactions and a targeted effect. Numerous substances are now being tested, from natural to synthetic compounds and already known substances in improved formulas such as vesicular systems. The aim of this article was to conduct a literature review regarding the topical therapy of psoriasis in animal models, between June, 27, 2019 and July 9, 2020. For this article, the authors conducted extensive research in PubMed with the following keywords: Psoriasis AND (topical OR local) and (therapy OR treatment) AND (mice OR rats). The main new studied substances included lycopene, sodium butyrate, salvianolic acid B, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in ionic liquids, albendazole, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, biomimetic reconstituted high-density lipoprotein nanocarrier gel containing microRNA (miRNA)-210 antisense, thymoquinone in ethosomal vesicle, Sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides), nitidine chloride, Melissa officinalis spp. Altissima extract and [1-(4-chloro-3-nitrobenzenesulfonyl)-1H-indol-3-yl]-methanol (CIM). New formulas of already known anti-psoriasis substances such as: Cyclosporine, methotrexate, calcipotriol, tazarotene, protein kinase p38 and integrin α5β1 as a target, are also reviewed. Recent research in topical psoriasis underlines the importance of animal experimental research in dermatology, providing a starting point for developing new therapeutic approaches in one of the most frequently diagnosed chronic dermatologic diseases. Vesicular systems are now providing the best vehicle for topical therapy, thus easing the action of the active substances at their target sites.

A Comprehensive Review of the Chemistry, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacology, Clinical Applications, Adverse Events, and Quality Control of Indigo Naturalis

Indigo naturalis (IN), which is derived from indigo plants such as Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze, Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) Spach, and Isatis tinctoria L., has been traditionally used in the treatment of hemoptysis, epistaxis, chest pain, aphtha, and infantile convulsion in China for thousands of years. Clinical trials have shown that the curative effect of IN for psoriasis and ulcerative colitis (UC) is remarkable. A total of sixty-three compounds, including indole alkaloids, terpenoids, organic acids, steroids, and nucleosides, have been isolated from IN, of which indole alkaloids are the most important. Indirubin, isolated from IN, was used as a new agent to treat leukemia in China in the 1970s. Indirubin is also an active ingredient in the treatment of psoriasis. Pharmacological studies have confirmed that IN has inhibitory effects on inflammation, tumors, bacteria, and psoriasis. Indigo, indirubin, tryptanthrin, isorhamnetin, indigodole A, and indigodole C are responsible for these activities. This review provides up-to-date and comprehensive information on IN with regard to its chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology, clinical applications, adverse events, and quality control. This review may also serve a reference for further research on IN.

Petasis adducts of tryptanthrin – synthesis, biological activity evaluation and druglikeness assessment

The first example of a tryptanthrin-based Petasis multicomponent reaction is reported, with one of the new derivatives showing moderate fungicidal activity.

From natural dye to herbal medicine: a systematic review of chemical constituents, pharmacological effects and clinical applications of indigo naturalis

Background

Indigo naturalis is a blue dye in ancient, as well as an extensive used traditional Chinese medicine. It has a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties and can be used to treat numerous ailments such as leukemia, psoriasis, and ulcerative colitis. This article aims to expand our understanding of indigo naturalis in terms of its chemical constituents, pharmacological action and clinical applications.

Methods

We searched PubMed, web of science, CNKI, Google academic, Elsevier and other databases with the key words of “Indigo naturalis”, and reviewed and sorted out the modern research of indigo naturalis based on our research results.

Results

We outlined the traditional manufacturing process, chemical composition and quality control of indigo naturalis, systematically reviewed traditional applictions, pharmacological activities and mechanism of indigo naturalis, and summarized its clinical trials about treatment of psoriasis, leukemia and ulcerative colitis.

Conclusions

Indigo naturalis has a variety of pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulatory and so on. It has very good clinical effect on psoriasis, leukemia and ulcerative colitis. However, it should be noted that long-term use of indigo naturalis may produce some reversible adverse reactions. In summarize, indigo naturalis is an extremely important drug with great value and potential.

Arene-Ruthenium(II) Complexes Containing 11H-Indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one Derivatives and Tryptanthrin-6-oxime: Synthesis, Characterization, Cytotoxicity, and Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenation of Aryl Ketones

A series of novel mono- and binuclear arene-ruthenium(II) complexes [(p-cym)Ru(L)Cl] containing 11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one derivatives or tryptanthrin-6-oxime were synthesized and characterized by X-ray crystallography, IR, NMR spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and elemental analysis. Theoretical calculations invoking singlet state geometry optimization, solvation effects, and noncovalent interactions were done using density functional theory (DFT). DFT calculations were also applied to evaluate the electronic properties, and time-dependent DFT was applied to clarify experimental UV-vis results. Cytotoxicity for cancerous and noncancerous human cell lines was evaluated with cell viability MTT assay. Complexes demonstrated a moderate cytotoxic effect toward cancerous human cell line PANC-1. The catalytic activity of the complexes was evaluated in transfer hydrogenation of aryl ketones. All complexes exhibited good catalytic activity and functional group tolerance.

Isatis tinctoria L. (Woad): A Review of its Botany, Ethnobotanical Uses, Phytochemistry, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Studies

Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae), which is commonly known as woad, is a species with an ancient and well-documented history as an indigo dye and medicinal plant. Currently, I. tinctoria is utilized more often as medicinal remedy and also as a cosmetic ingredient. In 2011, I. tinctoria root was accepted in the official European phytotherapy by introducing its monograph in the European Pharmacopoeia. The biological properties of raw material have been known from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Over recent decades, I. tinctoria has been investigated both from a phytochemical and a biological point of view. The modern in vitro and in vivo scientific studies proved anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, antimicrobial, antiviral, analgesic, and antioxidant activities. The phytochemical composition of I. tinctoria has been thoroughly investigated and the plant was proven to contain many valuable biologically active compounds, including several alkaloids, among which tryptanthrin, indirubin, indolinone, phenolic compounds, and polysaccharides as well as glucosinolates, carotenoids, volatile constituents, and fatty acids. This article provides a general botanical and ethnobotanical overview that summarizes the up-to-date knowledge on the phytochemistry and biological properties of this valuable plant in order to support its therapeutic potential. Moreover, the biotechnological studies on I. tinctoria, which mainly focused on hairy root cultures for the enhanced production of flavonoids and alkaloids as well as on the establishment of shoot cultures and micropropagation protocols, were reviewed. They provide input for future research prospects.

Antiviral Action of Tryptanthrin Isolated from Strobilanthes cusia Leaf against Human Coronavirus NL63

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze is a Chinese herbal medicine used in the treatment of respiratory virus infections. The methanol extract of S. cusia leaf contains chemical components such as β-sitosterol, indirubin, tryptanthrin, betulin, indigodole A, and indigodole B that have diverse biological activities. However, the antiviral action of S. cusia leaf and its components against human coronavirus remains to be elucidated. Human coronavirus NL63 infection is frequent among immunocompromised individuals, young children, and in the elderly. This study investigated the anti-Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) activity of the methanol extract of S. cusia leaf and its major components. The methanol extract of S. cusia leaf effectively inhibited the cytopathic effect (CPE) and virus yield (IC₅₀ = 0.64 μg/mL) in HCoV-NL63-infected cells. Moreover, this extract potently inhibited the HCoV-NL63 infection in a concentration-dependent manner. Among the six components identified in the methanol extract of S. cusia leaf, tryptanthrin and indigodole B (5aR-ethyltryptanthrin) exhibited potent antiviral activity in reducing the CPE and progeny virus production. The IC₅₀ values against virus yield were 1.52 μM and 2.60 μM for tryptanthrin and indigodole B, respectively. Different modes of time-of-addition/removal assay indicated that tryptanthrin prevented the early and late stages of HCoV-NL63 replication, particularly by blocking viral RNA genome synthesis and papain-like protease 2 activity. Notably, tryptanthrin (IC₅₀ = 0.06 μM) and indigodole B (IC₅₀ = 2.09 μM) exhibited strong virucidal activity as well. This study identified tryptanthrin as the key active component of S. cusia leaf methanol extract that acted against HCoV-NL63 in a cell-type independent manner. The results specify that tryptanthrin possesses antiviral potential against HCoV-NL63 infection.

A, Bava SV, Sundaram S, Retnakumari AP, Chittalakkottu S, Anto RJ. Pre-clinical evidences for the efficacy of tryptanthrin as a potent suppressor of skin cancer

OBJECTIVE

Clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of indigo naturalis, a traditional Chinese medicine ingredient, against psoriasis, a skin disease characterized by keratinocyte hyperproliferation and inflammation. The present study investigates the efficacy of tryptanthrin, a bioactive compound in indigo naturalis, against non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) and the signalling events involved.

METHODS

Efficacy of tryptanthrin against NMSC was assessed using DMBA/PMA-induced skin carcinogenesis model in Swiss albino mice. Immunostaining for PCNA and ki-67 was used to mark proliferating cells in tissues. Haematoxylin and eosin staining and toluidine staining were employed to assess inflammation, and TUNEL assay was used to detect apoptosis in tissues. The signalling events were evaluated using Western blot, imunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining. MTT assay and clonogenic assay were performed to assess the viability and proliferation of cancer cells, in vitro.

RESULTS

In mice, topical application of tryptanthrin suppressed skin carcinogenesis. It attenuated inflammation, impeded the proliferation of hair follicle (HF) cells and suppressed the activation of β-catenin, a major driver of HF cell proliferation. Additionally tryptanthrin suppressed the activation of ERK1/2 and p38, both of which promote β-catenin activation and lowered the expression of c-Myc and cyclin-D1. Tryptanthrin suppressed the proliferation of the human NMSC cell line, A431 and abrogated EGF-induced activation of β-catenin and subsequent cytoskeletal rearrangement.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrates with molecular evidence that tryptanthrin is an effective suppressor of NMSC.