Large carnivore expansion in Europe is associated with human population density and land cover changes

Free-Ranging Wolves (Canis lupus) are Natural Reservoirs of Intestinal Microeukaryotes of Public Health Significance in Southwestern Europe

INTRODUCTION

Intestinal microeukaryote parasites are major contributors to the burden of diarrhoea in humans and domestic animals, but their epidemiology in wildlife is not fully understood. We investigated the frequency, genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of protists of animal and public health significance in free-ranging grey wolf (Canis lupus) populations in south-western Europe.

METHODS

Individually formed faecal samples collected from necropsied wolves or scat trails in Italy (n = 47), Portugal (n = 43) and Spain (n = 225) during the period 2011-2023 were retrospectively analysed using molecular (PCR and Sanger sequencing) methods. Complementary epidemiological data were gathered when available.

RESULTS

Giardia duodenalis was the most frequent microeukaryote found (40.3%, 127/315; 95% CI: 34.9-46.0), followed by Cryptosporidium spp. (3.5%, 11/315; 95% CI: 1.8-6.2), Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. (1.6%, 5/315; 95% CI: 0.5-3.7 each). Blastocystis was not identified in any of the faecal samples analysed. Sequence analyses confirmed the presence of canine-adapted assemblage D within G. duodenalis (n = 7). Three Cryptosporidium species were identified, namely canine-adapted C. canis (n = 9), zoonotic C. parvum (n = 1) and primarily anthroponotic C.hominis (n = 1). Genotyping tools enabled the identification of subtype family XXe2 within C. canis. Among microsporidia, the canine-adapted genotype PtEb IX was identified within E. bieneusi. Two samples were confirmed as Enc. intestinalis and three more as Enc. cuniculi genotype IV. This is the first record of Enc. intestinalis and Enc. cuniculi in the grey wolf globally.

CONCLUSIONS

Silent carriage of intestinal microeukaryotes seems common in free-ranging grey wolves in southwestern Europe. Wolves can contribute to environmental contamination through the transmission stages (cysts, oocysts, spores) of species/genotypes potentially infective to humans. Individuals in close contact with wolf carcasses or their faecal material may be at potential risk of infection by microeukaryotic pathogens.

Bridging social and ecological science to create spatially explicit models of human-caused mortality of carnivores

Research indicates that human-caused mortality (HCM) is a key factor limiting numerous large carnivore populations. However, efforts to represent HCM in spatially explicit models have generally been limited in scope-often relying on proxies, such as road or human density. Yet such efforts fail to distinguish different sources of HCM, which can arise from different antecedent processes. We offer a systems-based conceptual framework for understanding the antecedents of HCMs that is grounded in theory from the social and behavioral sciences. Specifically, we first explain how HCMs are usefully distinguished into four types (e.g., accidental, harvest, illicit, control actions), then discuss how these different types tend to be driven by different sets of psychological and sociopolitical processes. We contend that improvements in understanding the spatial variation in HCMs would rise from more explicit attention to the various antecedent processes that precede each mortality type.

Trends in habitat quality and habitat degradation in terrestrial protected areas

Protected areas are typically considered a cornerstone of conservation programs and play a fundamental role in protecting natural areas and biodiversity. Human-driven land-use and land-cover (LULC) changes lead to habitat loss and biodiversity loss inside protected areas, impairing their effectiveness. However, the global dynamics of habitat quality and habitat degradation in protected areas remain unclear. We used the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model based on global annual remotely sensed data to examine the spatial and temporal trends in habitat quality and degradation in global terrestrial protected areas. Habitat quality represented the ability of habitats to provide suitable conditions for the persistence of individuals and populations, and habitat degradation represented the impacts on habitats from human-driven LULC changes in the surrounding landscape. Based on a linear mixed-effects modeling method, we also explored the relationship between habitat degradation trends and protected area characteristics, biophysical factors, and socioeconomic factors. Habitat quality declined by 0.005 (0.6%) and habitat degradation increased by 0.002 (11%) from 1992 to 2020 globally, and similar trends occurred even in remote or restrictively managed protected areas. Habitat degradation was attributed primarily to nonirrigated cropland (62%) and urbanization (27%) in 2020. Increases in elevation, gross domestic production per capita, and human population density and decreases in agricultural suitability were associated with accelerated habitat degradation. Our results suggest that human-induced LULC changes have expanded from already-exploited areas into relatively undisturbed areas, and that in wealthy countries in particular, degradation is related to rapid urbanization and increasing demand for agricultural products.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in free-ranging wild mammals

BACKGROUND

Bacterial antimicrobial resistance is a significant global threat to public health, closely linked to the misuse of antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine, aquaculture, and agriculture. The consequences of antimicrobial resistance overcome species boundaries and require a holistic approach for mitigation actions. The study of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife is thus increasingly relevant to understand the spread of antimicrobial resistance in the environment and the animal community, as well as to investigate the role of wildlife either as a carrier, reservoir, spillover, or indicator of antimicrobial resistance. The aim of this study is to describe the prevalence and type of antimicrobial resistance in bacterial isolates from wild mammals through systematic review and meta-analysis of the available literature, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

Out of 5052 collected documents, 3795 were screened, and finally 139 studies on antimicrobial resistance in free-ranging wild mammals were included in the meta-analysis. The studies covered 37 countries, mostly European. The Enterobacterales Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp., as well as Campylobacter spp., were the most frequently targeted bacterial species, mainly in the Artiodactyla order and specifically in the Suidae and Cervidae families. Low to moderate prevalences of antimicrobial resistance were found in all the continents, countries, bacteria, host taxa, and antimicrobials included in the meta-analysis, even for critically important antimicrobials as defined by the World Health Organisation, with higher values in Africa and Asia, in carnivores, and in animal species with high adaptability to diverse habitats.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis showed that antimicrobial resistance in wild mammals is widespread and variable according to taxonomy, trophic source, and geographic location. The meta-analysis highlighted methodological gaps that need to be addressed to improve the interpretation and conclusions obtained from the data. Genetic analyses on antimicrobial resistance and population ecological data should be included in future analysis to achieve a standardised methodology and overcome current limitations. To date, wildlife appears to be an environmental indicator of antimicrobial resistance and should be included in antimicrobial resistance surveillance plans not only because this sentinel role but also to monitor potential spill-back to livestock and/or humans.

First report of T. spiralis in a wolf in Italy: An increasing health concern?

Trichinella spiralis is a zoonotic nematode parasite of worldwide distribution. It is present in Europe with important foci, particularly in Eastern countries and Spain. This species is generally associated with a domestic cycle that involves primarily pigs. It is best adapted for pigs but can also infect a wide range of other domestic, synanthropic, and wild mammals including carnivores, omnivores and scavengers. Before 2016, when T. spiralis larvae were detected in a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in the Piacenza province (Emilia Romagna region, Northern Italy), this parasite had only been reported in Italy occasionally, being found in horses or pork products imported from Eastern Europe. We describe here the first isolation of T. spiralis in a wolf (Canis lupus) in the Lazio region, Central Italy. In the wolf specimen T. spiralis was identified in coinfection with Trichinella britovi, a species endemic in Italian wildlife. Among the Trichinella species, T. spiralis is the most frequently associated with human disease in Europe and is known to cause more severe symptoms than T. britovi. In light of wolf population expansion, the detection of T. spiralis in Central Italy implies new scenarios for the risk of human trichinellosis because of the high risk this species represents for domestic and wild pigs. Active monitoring of wildlife living in these areas is necessary to define the actual distribution of  this species and to detect its possible presence in other areas of the Italian peninsula.

First detection and phylogenetic analysis of Trypanosoma species in European wolves and bears: discovery of novel haplotypes

Wild carnivores may be important sources of emerging zoonotic pathogens worldwide, however, specific data concerning their presence in large carnivores are limited. The genus Trypanosoma (protozoan parasites) comprises numerous species adapted to all classes of vertebrates. This genus includes highly pathogenic species, such as T. brucei ssp., T. congolense or T. vivax. The aim of this study was to expand on the ecological or zoonotic significance of detecting Trypanosoma in large carnivores. Samples from free-living carnivores (n = 26) were collected. The diversity and occurrence of Trypanosoma species among wildlife in Europe were investigated through the analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences. The phylogenetic analysis showed three new haplotypes of the 18S rRNA gene of Trypanosoma sp. isolated from two grey wolves (Canis lupus) and two brown bears (Ursus arctos). To the best of our knowledge, this this study represents the first detection of trypanosomes in large carnivores in Europe. The detection of Trypanosoma sp. was achieved through nested- PCR amplification. Furthermore, the identification of new haplotypes of these protozoan highlights variability within Trypanosoma sp., which could lead to the emergence of new, potentially more virulent variants of these parasites in wild animal populations, posing a potential threat to their health. Moreover, these findings underscore the need for further research to comprehensively understand the diversity, distribution, and potential impact of Trypanosoma species on the populations of large carnivores.

The trophic distribution of biomass in ecosystems with co-occurring wildlife and livestock

Trophic interactions regulate populations, but anthropogenic processes influence primary productivity and consumption by both herbivore and carnivore species. Trophic ecology studies often focus on natural systems such as protected areas, even though livestock globally comprise the majority of terrestrial vertebrate biomass. Here we explore spatial and temporal patterns in the distribution of biomass between plants, and large herbivores and carnivores (> 10 kg) in Norwegian rangelands, including both wildlife and livestock. We find high spatial variation in the relationship between plant and herbivore biomass, with both positive and negative divergence in observed biomass from expectations based on primary productivity. Meanwhile, despite recent partial recoveries in carnivore densities across Norway, carnivore biomass is still lower than expected based on herbivore biomass, even if livestock are excluded from the estimation. Our study highlights how temporal trends in both herbivores and carnivores reflect policy development. The role of livestock husbandry and wildlife management is thus key in determining realised biomass distributions in anthropogenically influenced ecosystems.

Human Footprint and Forest Disturbance Reduce Space Use of Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) Across Europe

Three-quarters of the planet's land surface has been altered by humans, with consequences for animal ecology, movements and related ecosystem functioning. Species often occupy wide geographical ranges with contrasting human disturbance and environmental conditions, yet, limited data availability across species' ranges has constrained our understanding of how human pressure and resource availability jointly shape intraspecific variation of animal space use. Leveraging a unique dataset of 758 annual GPS movement trajectories from 375 brown bears (Ursus arctos) across the species' range in Europe, we investigated the effects of human pressure (i.e., human footprint index), resource availability and predictability, forest cover and disturbance, and area-based conservation measures on brown bear space use. We quantified space use at different spatiotemporal scales during the growing season (May-September): home range size; representing general space requirements, 10-day long-distance displacement distances, and routine 1-day displacement distances. We found large intraspecific variation in brown bear space use across all scales, which was profoundly affected by human footprint index, vegetation productivity, and recent forest disturbances creating opportunity for resource pulses. Bears occupied smaller home ranges and moved less in more anthropized landscapes and in areas with higher resource availability and predictability. Forest disturbances reduced space use while contiguous forest cover promoted longer daily movements. The amount of strictly protected and roadless areas within bear home ranges was too small to affect space use. Anthropized landscapes may hinder the expansion of small and isolated populations, such as the Apennine and Pyrenean, and obstruct population connectivity, for example between the Dinaric Pindos population and the Alpine or Carpathian population. Our findings call for actions to maintain bear movements across landscapes with high human footprint, for example by maintaining forest integrity, to support viable bear populations and their ecosystem functions.

Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) Recolonization in Hungary: Does the Predation Risk Affect the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Population?

The populations and distribution areas of large carnivores have declined all over the world due to extirpation and habitat alteration and degradation. However, the grey wolf (Canis lupus) has recovered in Europe in recent decades and has been reappearing in Hungary since the 1990s. Since the dominant prey of this carnivore is the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Central and Eastern Europe, we aimed to study the impact of wolves on local deer populations. Based on hunters' opinions, we expected an increasing wolf presence and intense effects of wolves on the stress level and body condition of deer. First, we examined the occupied area by wolf in the North Hungarian Mountains. The distribution map was based on a questionnaire among the game managers. To measure the influence of the reappearing predator population on the red deer individuals, we estimated the body condition (kidney fat and bone marrow index) and stress hormone level of faecal samples. We compared them between the areas colonised by wolves and control sites in the mountains. We revealed an increased distribution area of wolves in the mountains since 2014. The stress hormone level was lower in the wolf-free sites in the case of faeces gathered from the ground, but there was similar amount of cortisol in the samples collected from the hunted animals. The body condition indices were not different between the two area types (average kidney fat index > 100% and almost 100% for the bone marrow fat content). Our results do not support a very intense recent impact of the wolf population on the body condition and stress level of red deer in Hungary.

The Protection and Management of Wapiti in Desert Oases: Bare Land Poses a Limitation to Wapiti Conservation

The Helan Mountains, situated in the heart of the desert, act as a dividing line between China's arid and semi-arid zones. Often referred to as a "desert oasis", they create an ecological island with a uniquely distinctive geographical location, making this area a focal point of contemporary research. Ungulates play a critical role in this ecosystem. The Alashan wapiti (Cervus canadensis alashanicus), an isolated population of China's smallest wapiti (Cervus canadensis) subspecies, is found exclusively within the Helan Mountains Nature Reserve. The conservation of this isolated population is fraught with challenges, particularly during winter, the harshest season for northern ungulates. Winter habitats are crucial for ensuring population stability. Therefore, we used certain methods, such as factor screening and model parameter optimization to assess habitat suitability using multi-scale species distribution models. The optimized results show that suitable habitats overlap with areas of high vegetation coverage in the Helan Mountains, covering just 588.32 km2, which is less than a quarter of the reserve's total area. The bare land area and winter NDVI are the two primary factors influencing habitat suitability, with other factors having minimal impact, underscoring the critical importance of food resources for the Alashan wapiti. The limited availability of these resources poses significant conservation challenges. Our findings provide a more precise foundation for targeted habitat protection and restoration efforts. We recommend enhancing the protection and restoration of food resources, effectively conserving vegetated areas, and preventing desertification.

Habitat suitability and protected area coverage for an expanding cougar Puma concolor population in Canada

Successful conservation of expanding large carnivore populations and management of human-wildlife conflict to promote coexistence requires sufficient spatiotemporal knowledge to inform appropriate action. In Canada, cougars (Puma concolor) are expanding their range eastwards and little research is available for use in decision making by land managers and conservation planners. To inform proactive management regarding expanding populations of cougars in Canada, we utilized open-source cougar presence and land-cover data in a maximum entropy habitat suitability model to determine potentially suitable habitat for cougars across the country. We then used a gap analysis to determine the effectiveness of existing formal protected areas to protect potential cougar habitat. Suitable habitat exists for range-expanding cougars dispersing eastwards through the central and eastern provinces to the Atlantic coast. While the habitat is highly fragmented, the highest suitability occurs in areas of medium road density, indicating that the potential for new human-cougar conflict will likely involve residents of exurban and rural areas. Protected areas offered 16% coverage of suitable habitat, although most protected areas that overlap predicted cougar habitat are not large enough to effectively conserve the large home range requirements of cougars. Synthesis and Applications: High fragmentation of suitable habitat and the potential for human-wildlife conflict requires proactive management to ensure appropriately sized and connected areas are maintained for the establishment of expanding cougar populations. Many of the management actions intended to aid in the conservation of cougars and their habitat can also serve to mitigate potential human-cougar conflict arising as a consequence of an expanding population, such as highway wildlife crossing structures and formal habitat protection.

Large variance in inbreeding within the Iberian wolf population

The gray wolf (Canis lupus) population on the Iberian Peninsula was the largest in western and central Europe during most of the 20th century, with its size apparently never under a few hundred individuals. After partial legal protection in the 1970s in Spain, the northwest Iberian population increased to about 300 to 350 packs and then stabilized. In contrast to many current European wolf populations, which have been connected through gene flow, the Iberian wolf population has been isolated for decades. Here, we measured changes in genomic diversity and inbreeding through the last decades in a geographic context. We find that the level of genomic diversity in Iberian wolves is low compared with other Eurasian wolf populations. Despite population expansion in the last 50 years, some modern wolves had very high inbreeding, especially in the recently recolonized and historical edge areas. These individuals contrast with others with low inbreeding within the same population. The high variance in inbreeding despite population expansion seems associated with small-scale fragmentation of the range that is revealed by the genetic similarity between modern and historical samples from close localities despite being separated by decades, remaining differentiated from other individuals that are just over 100 km away, a small distance for a species with great dispersal capacity inhabiting a continuous range. This illustrates that, despite its demographically stable condition, the population would probably benefit from favoring connectivity within the population as well as genetic exchange with other European wolf populations to avoid excessive fragmentation and local inbreeding depression.

Conservation genomics of wolves: The global impact of RK Wayne's research

RK Wayne has arguably been the most influential geneticist of canids, famously promoting the conservation of wolves in his homeland, the United States. His influence has been felt in other countries and regions outside the contiguous United States, where he inspired others, also including former graduate students and research fellows of his, to use modern molecular techniques to examine the evolutionary biology of canids to inform the conservation and management of wolves. In this review, we focus on the implications of Wayne's work on wolves outside the United States. He envisioned a clear future for wolf conservation research, involving the study of wolves' ecological and genetic diversity, and the description of ecotypes requiring conservation. He also documented widespread hybridization among canids and introgression of DNA from domestic dogs to wolves, a process that started dozens of thousands of years ago. His work therefore calls for innovative studies, such as examining the potential fitness benefits of introgression. Inspired by his results, for example, on the purging of deleterious alleles in small populations, wolf researchers should use novel molecular tools to challenge other conservation genetics paradigms. Overall, RK Wayne's work constitutes a call for answers, which as scientists or citizens concerned with conservation matters, we are obliged to address, as we contribute to monitoring and maintaining biodiversity during our period of dramatic transformations of the biosphere.

Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife: detection of antimicrobial resistance genes in Apennine wolves (Canis lupus italicus Altobello, 1921) from Central Italy

The aim of this study was to molecularly investigate the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in organ samples from 11 Apennine wolves (Canis lupus italicus) collected in Central Italy. Samples from lung, liver, spleen, kidney, tongue and intestine were investigated by PCRs targeting the following genes: tet(A), tet(B), tet(C), tet(D), tet(E), tet(G), tet(K), tet(L), tet(M), tet(O), tetA(P), tet(Q), tet(S), tet(X), sul1, sul2, sul3, blaCTX-M, blaSHV, blaTEM and mcr-1. A PCR positivity was highlighted for 13 out of the 21 tested genes; no positive results were obtained for tet(C), tet(D), tet(E), tet(G), sul3, blaCTX, blaSHV and mcr-1 genes. All 11 animals sampled showed positivity for one or more resistance genes. The results confirm the potential role of the wolf as an indicator and/or vector of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria or ARGs.

Identifying risk zones and landscape features that affect common leopard depredation

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a pressing issue worldwide but varies by species over time and place. One of the most prevalent forms of HWC in the mid-hills of Nepal is human-common-leopard conflict (HLC). Leopard attacks, especially in forested areas, can severely impact villagers and their livestock. Information on HLC in the Gorkha district was scarce, thus making it an ideal location to identify high-risk zones and landscape variables associated with such events. Registered cases were collected and reviewed from the Division Forest Office (DFO) during 2019-2021. Claims from DFO records were confirmed with herders and villagers via eight focus group discussions. To enhance modeling success, researchers identified a total of 163 leopard attack locations on livestock, ensuring a minimum distance of at least 100 meters between locations. Using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) and considering 13 environmental variables, we mapped common leopard attack risk zones. True Skill Statistics (TSS) and area under receiver-operator curve (AUC) were used to evaluate and validate the Output. Furthermore, 10 replications, 1,000 maximum iterations, and 1000 background points were employed during modeling. The average AUC value for the model, which was 0.726 ± 0.021, revealed good accuracy. The model performed well, as indicated by a TSS value of 0.61 ± 0.03. Of the total research area (27.92 km2), about 74% was designated as a low-risk area, 19% as a medium-risk area, and 7% as a high-risk area. Of the 13 environmental variables, distance to water (25.2%) was the most significant predictor of risk, followed by distance to road (16.2%) and elevation (10.7%). According to response curves, the risk of common leopard is highest in the areas between 1.5 to 2 km distances from the water sources, followed by the closest distance from a road and an elevation of 700 to 800 m. Results suggest that managers and local governments should employ intervention strategies immediately to safeguard rural livelihoods in high-risk areas. Improvements include better design of livestock corrals, insurance, and total compensation of livestock losses. Settlements near roads and water sources should improve the design and construction of pens and cages to prevent livestock loss. More studies on the characteristics of victims are suggested to enhance understanding of common leopard attacks, in addition to landscape variables. Such information can be helpful in formulating the best management practices.

Applying XGBoost and SHAP to Open Source Data to Identify Key Drivers and Predict Likelihood of Wolf Pair Presence

Wolves have returned to Germany since 2000. Numbers have grown to 209 territorial pairs in 2021. XGBoost machine learning, combined with SHAP analysis is applied to predict German wolf pair presence in 2022 for 10 × 10 km grid cells. Model input consisted of 38 variables from open sources, covering the period 2000 to 2021. The XGBoost model predicted well, with 0.91 as the AUC. SHAP analysis ranked the variables: distance to the closest neighboring wolf pair was the main driver for a grid cell to become occupied by a wolf pair. The clustering tendency of related wolves seems to be an important explanatory factor here. Second was the percentage of wooded area. The next eight variables related to wolf presence in the preceding year, except at fifth, eighth and tenth position in the total order: human density (square root) in the grid, percentage arable land and road density respectively. Other variables including the occurrence of wild prey were the weakest predictors. The SHAP analysis also provided crucial added value in identifying a variable that had threshold values where its contribution to the prediction changed from positive to negative or vice versa. For instance, low density of people increased the probability of wolf pair presence, whereas a high density decreased this probability. Cumulative lift techniques showed that the model performed almost four times better than random prediction. The combination of XGBoost, SHAP and cumulative lift techniques is new in wolf management and conservation, allowing for the focusing of educational and financial resources.

Native prey, not landscape change or novel prey, drive cougar (Puma concolor) distribution at a boreal forest range edge

Many large carnivores, despite widespread habitat alteration, are rebounding in parts of their former ranges after decades of persecution and exploitation. Cougars (Puma concolor) are apex predator with their remaining northern core range constricted to mountain landscapes and areas of western North America; however, cougar populations have recently started rebounding in several locations across North America, including northward in boreal forest landscapes. A camera-trap survey of multiple landscapes across Alberta, Canada, delineated a range edge; within this region, we deployed an array of 47 camera traps in a random stratified design across a landscape spanning a gradient of anthropogenic development relative to the predicted expansion front. We completed multiple hypotheses in an information-theoretic framework to determine if cougar occurrence is best explained by natural land cover features, anthropogenic development features, or competitor and prey activity. We predicted that anthropogenic development features from resource extraction and invading white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgianius) explain cougar distribution at this boreal range edge. Counter to our predictions, the relative activity of native prey, predominantly snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), was the best predictor of cougar occurrence at this range edge. Small-bodied prey items are particularly important for female and sub-adult cougars and may support breeding individuals in the northeast boreal forest. Also, counter to our predictions, there was not a strong relationship detected between cougar occurrence and gray wolf (Canis lupus) activity at this range edge. However, further investigation is recommended as the possibility of cougar expansion into areas of the multi-prey boreal system, where wolves have recently been controlled, could have negative consequences for conservation goals in this region (e.g. the recovery of woodland caribou [Rangifer tarandus caribou]). Our study highlights the need to monitor contemporary distributions to inform conservation management objectives as large carnivores recover across North America.

First evidence of widespread positivity to anticoagulant rodenticides in grey wolves (Canis lupus)

Second-generation Anticoagulant Rodenticides (ARs) can be critical for carnivores, due to their widespread use and impacts. However, although many studies explored the impacts of ARs on small and mesocarnivores, none assessed the extent to which they could contaminate large carnivores in anthropized landscapes. We filled this gap by exploring spatiotemporal trends in grey wolf (Canis lupus) exposure to ARs in central and northern Italy, by subjecting a large sample of dead wolves (n = 186) to the LC-MS/MS method. Most wolves (n = 115/186, 61.8 %) tested positive for ARs (1 compound, n = 36; 2 compounds, n = 47; 3 compounds, n = 16; 4 or more compounds, n = 16). Bromadiolone, brodifacoum and difenacoum, were the most common compounds, with brodifacoum and bromadiolone being the ARs that co-occurred the most (n = 61). Both the probability of testing positive for multiple ARs and the concentration of brodifacoum, and bromadiolone in the liver, systematically increased in wolves that were found at more anthropized sites. Moreover, wolves became more likely to test positive for ARs through time, particularly after 2020. Our results underline that rodent control, based on ARs, increases the risks of unintentional poisoning of non-target wildlife. However, this risk does not only involve small and mesocarnivores, but also large carnivores at the top of the food chain, such as wolves. Therefore, rodent control is adding one further conservation threat to endangered large carnivores in anthropized landscapes of Europe, whose severity could increase over time and be far higher than previously thought. Large-scale monitoring schemes for ARs in European large carnivores should be devised as soon as possible.

Changes in Wolf Occupancy and Feeding Habits in the Northern Apennines: Results of Long-Term Predator-Prey Monitoring

The comprehension of the factors that have influenced the recent changes in wolf (Canis lupus) range and diet that have occurred in our study area, characterized by a highly heterogeneous landscape, can shed light on their current process of expansion toward the plain. Wolf presence was monitored using a standardized protocol from 2007 to 2022 by carrying out eight monitoring sessions organized in seasonal surveys, during which, we collected wolf presence data. To model wolf range dynamics, we used dynamic occupancy models considering land cover types and wild ungulate abundances as covariates. Moreover, we studied the wolf diet through scat analysis, identifying the consumed items from undigested remains. Wolf occupancy in the study area progressed from mountains to lower hills gradually; the observed range dynamics were driven by prey abundance and human presence: in particular, the probability of colonization increased with roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) abundance, whereas the probability of extinction increased with urban areas. The wolf diet showed a gradual shift from the prevalent consumption of wild boar (2007-2008 and 2011-2012) to the prevalent consumption of roe deer (continuously increasing from 2015 onward). Our results might be related to a specific adaptation of the predator to the local ecology of the most consumed species: the roe deer.

The effectiveness of using giant panda as a surrogate for protecting sympatric species

The use of umbrella species to promote biodiversity conservation is practiced worldwide. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) an iconic species for world wildlife conservation, that inhabits regions with significant biodiversity. Given that the functions at wildlife of different trophic levels and in different body size groups are different within the ecosystem, it is unknown whether those groups of wildlife co-occurring with giant pandas are each likewise protected. To examine the umbrella effect of giant pandas on sympatric species, we used an extensive dataset of wildlife from more than 78% of giant panda habitats. We analysed the changes in distribution for four wildlife categories (large carnivores, large herbivores, medium carnivores and medium herbivores) using a generalized linear mixed model, and the underlying driving factors using binomial logistic regression models. Changes in forests in giant panda habitats were evaluated using Fragstats. The results have shown that the counts of herbivores and medium carnivores increased significantly during the decade. However, those of large carnivores significantly declined. Forest cover and nature reserves showed significant and positive effects on wildlife in 2001 and 2011, while the human population had significant and negative impacts on the herbivores and carnivores. Our results have also suggested that there has been a slight alleviation in forest fragmentation in areas unaffected by earthquakes. We concluded that the umbrella strategy of using the giant panda as an umbrella species achieved partial success by promoting the recovery of herbivores and medium carnivores. Meanwhile, this has indicated that the strategy was not sufficient for large carnivores, and therefore not enough for local ecosystems, given the critical role of large carnivores. We have suggested integrating habitat patches, controlling human disturbance, and preparing for potential human-wildlife conflict management in the Giant Panda National Park to restore large carnivore populations and maintain ecosystem functioning.

Assessment of genetic diversity, population structure and wolf-dog hybridisation in the Eastern Romanian Carpathian wolf population

The Carpathian Mountains have been constantly inhabited by grey wolves and present one of the largest distribution areas in Europe, comprising between 2300 and 2700 individuals in Romania. To date, however, relatively little is known about the Romanian wolf population. We aimed to provide a first assessment of genetic diversity, population structure and wolf-dog hybridisation based on 444 mostly non-invasively collected samples in the Eastern Romanian Carpathians. Pack reconstruction and analysis of population genetic parameters were performed with mitochondrial DNA control-region sequencing and microsatellite genotyping. We found relatively high levels of genetic diversity, which is similar to values found in previous studies on Carpathian wolves from Poland and Slovakia, as well as to the long-lasting Dinaric-Balkan wolf population. We found no significant population structure in our study region, suggesting effective dispersal and admixture. Analysis of wolf-dog hybridisation using a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism panel optimised for hybrid detection revealed low rates of admixture between wolves and domestic dogs. Our results provide evidence for the existence of a genetically viable wolf population in the Romanian Carpathians. The genetic data obtained in this study may serve as valuable baseline information for the elaboration of monitoring standards and management plans for wolves in Romania.

Shining a light on elusive lynx: Density estimation of three Eurasian lynx populations in Ukraine and Belarus

The Eurasian lynx is a large carnivore widely distributed across Eurasia. However, our understanding of population status is heterogeneous across their range, with some populations isolated that are at risk of reduced genetic variation and a complete lack of information about others. In many European countries, Eurasian lynx are monitored through demographic studies crucial for their conservation and management. Even so, there are only rough and fragmented population assessments from Ukraine and Belarus, despite strict protection in both countries and their importance for lynx connectivity across Europe. We monitored lynx from October 2020 to March 2021 and used camera trapping in combination with spatial capture-recapture (SCR) methods in a Bayesian framework to provide the first SCR density estimation of three lynx populations across Ukraine and Belarus, including the Ukrainian Chornobyl Exclusion Zone, southern Belarus and the Ukrainian Carpathians. Our density estimates varied within our study areas ranging from 0.45 to 1.54 individuals/100 km2. This work provides a substantial scientific component to the overall understanding of lynx conservation for a region where only broad information is available and opens the doors for further large-scale monitoring and trend assessments. The crucial information we provide can greatly enhance the range-wide assessments of the status of this protected species. We also discuss the implications for Eurasian lynx conservation, despite the geopolitical realities impacting species monitoring in the region. Our work serves as a baseline, not only for future conservation interventions but also to evaluate the effects of disturbance and threats to these protected populations.

Increased grey wolf diurnality in southern Europe under human-restricted conditions

Wolves have been the archetype of wildlife persecution by humans for centuries all over the world, and still are heavily persecuted in some regions. Facultative diurnal/nocturnal wild mammals are known to become more nocturnal when persecuted. Conversely, little is known regarding the possibility of wolves becoming more diurnal if not persecuted. We took advantage of a 9-year natural experiment of restricted human access to a restored coal mine debris dump to study the daily activity patterns of wolves under conditions of infrequent human presence. Results were compared with a paired control site with frequent human use. Circadian wolf activity was monitored using camera traps (3 years in human-restricted site; 2 years in control). Additionally, data from two GPS-GSM-collared wolves monitored in a second control site were also analyzed. In our control sites, wolves were nearly inactive during daylight hours. In contrast, in the human-restricted site wolves extended their activity toward noon, with a daily activity peak between 10:00 and 12:00, and showed some activity throughout the entire circadian 2-h interval cycle considered. Wolves clearly had higher diurnality in the human-restricted area with 78% greater incidence of capture with remote cameras during the day than in the control site. We suggest that the shift toward increased diurnality was related to the loss of fear of humans. Evidence in support of this hypothesis comes from flight initiation distance (FID) data. Wolves showed relatively short FIDs when faced with a human observer (range 70-183 m) in broad daylight at the human-restricted site, but were so afraid of humans in the control site that we were unable to conduct FID trials there. Based on these results, we suggest that wolves may increase their diurnality in those European countries with currently increasing movement of human populations from rural to urban areas and that do not conduct lethal control of wolves. This would represent a historical landmark for a species that has been persecuted for many centuries. However, such behavioral shifts could bring new human-wolf conflicts that would require new policies.

Abrupt height growth setbacks show overbrowsing of tree saplings, which can be reduced by raising deer harvest

Intensive ungulate browsing significantly impacts forests worldwide. However, it is usually not single browsing events that lead to sapling mortality, but the little-researched interactions of browsed saplings with their biotic and abiotic environment. (I) Our objective was to assess the impact of ungulate browsing on the growth of young saplings relative to other environmental factors by utilizing their height increment as a sensitive measure of vitality to indicate their status. (II) Furthermore, we aimed to identify factors affecting ungulate browsing at our study sites, assessed as browsing probabilities, and identify effective mitigation measures for browsing impact. We analyzed an extensive sapling dataset of 248 wildlife exclosures, which were erected in 2016 in beech dominated forests across Germany and assessed annually until 2020. (I) Browsing probability and light availability were the most influential parameters for selectively browsed, admixed tree species (e.g., sycamore maple). Height increment showed abrupt setbacks, which caused a permanent collapse of growth when browsing exceeded a certain level. However, light availability enhanced height increment. (II) An increase in deer harvest reduced the browsing probability of selectively browsed species considerably. We conclude that the growth-inhibiting effect of ungulate browsing is a multifactorial phenomenon, which can be mitigated by silvicultural management and efficient hunting strategies.

A human-neutral large carnivore? No patterns in the body mass of gray wolves across a gradient of anthropization

The gray wolf (Canis lupus) expanded its distribution in Europe over the last few decades. To better understand the extent to which wolves could re-occupy their historical range, it is important to test if anthropization can affect their fitness-related traits. After having accounted for ecologically relevant confounders, we assessed how anthropization influenced i) the growth of wolves during their first year of age (n = 53), ii) sexual dimorphism between male and female adult wolves (n = 121), in a sample of individuals that had been found dead in Italy between 1999 and 2021. Wolves in anthropized areas have a smaller overall variation in their body mass, during their first year of age. Because they already have slightly higher body weight at 3-5 months, possibly due to the availability of human-derived food sources. The difference in the body weight of adult females and males slightly increases with anthropization. However, this happens because of an increase in the body mass of males only, possibly due to sex-specific differences in dispersal and/or to "dispersal phenotypes". Anthropization in Italy does not seem to have any clear, nor large, effect on the body mass of wolves. As body mass is in turn linked to important processes, like survival and reproduction, our findings indicates that wolves could potentially re-occupy most of their historical range in Europe, as anthropized landscapes do not seem to constrain such of an important life-history trait. Wolf management could therefore be needed across vast spatial scales and in anthropized areas prone to social conflicts.

Socioeconomic factors predict population changes of large carnivores better than climate change or habitat loss

Land-use and climate change have been linked to changes in wildlife populations, but the role of socioeconomic factors in driving declines, and promoting population recoveries, remains relatively unexplored. Here, we evaluate potential drivers of population changes observed in 50 species of some of the world's most charismatic and functionally important fauna-large mammalian carnivores. Our results reveal that human socioeconomic development is more associated with carnivore population declines than habitat loss or climate change. Rapid increases in socioeconomic development are linked to sharp population declines, but, importantly, once development slows, carnivore populations have the potential to recover. The context- and threshold-dependent links between human development and wildlife population health are challenges to the achievement of the UN Sustainable development goals.

Patterns of livestock loss associated with a recolonizing wolf population in Germany

Predation on livestock presents a daunting challenge for human–carnivore coexistence in agricultural landscapes. In Germany, the recolonization of wolves is ongoing and its consequences are insufficiently understood. Knowledge about which livestock species are susceptible to wolf predation, which farm types are predisposed to attacks by wolves, and when predation on livestock occurs is valuable for mitigating stakeholder conflicts. To this end, we analyzed 14 years of monitoring data and assessed the livestock prey spectrum, identified correlates between predation on livestock, farm type and livestock category, and described temporal patterns of livestock loss caused by a recolonizing wolf population in the state of Brandenburg (Germany). Among a total of 1387 recorded cases, 42% were unequivocally attributed to wolves (SCALP criteria C1 and C2) and 12% of cases were not caused by wolves. The number of head of livestock killed during a single wolf attack was mediated by farm type and livestock species; losses per event were greater in full-time farms vs. other farm types and greater in sheep, farmed deer and other livestock species, compared to cattle. While sheep were the most commonly killed livestock species, the increase in wolf territories over the investigation period was associated with a widening of the domestic prey species spectrum. Count regression models provided evidence for the increasing frequency of predation events over the 14-year period, along with an exponential increase in wolf territories. Predation on livestock occurred throughout the year, yet seasonality of events was evident and differed across livestock categories. Predation on sheep peaked in the fall, coinciding with the post-weaning period of wolf offspring. Predation on cattle peaked in the spring, coinciding with the cattle calving period. These results call for renewed investment in the implementation of prevention methods for all susceptible domestic species, particularly during times of elevated predation risk.

Does the Wolf (Canis lupus) Exhibit Human Habituation Behaviours after Rehabilitation and Release into the Wild? A Case Report from Central Italy

The knowledge of how wolves’ movement patterns and habitat selection are affected by habituation to persons after a period of veterinary isolation, treatment and non-agonistic experience with humans is scarce. Unnatural behaviours could be transferred by imitation to members of the pack and to subsequent generations, increasing direct interaction risks. We used GPS data from a rescued radio-collared female wolf after an 11-day rehabilitation to estimate home range, movement patterns, circadian rhythms, and habitat selection, searching for signals of eventual behavioural distortions. In the period 1 August−26 November 2013, 870 valid locations were acquired. The wolf moved within a minimum convex polygon (95%) of 6541.1 ha (79% wooded), avoiding anthropized areas. Nocturnal and diurnal displacements were significantly different (p < 0.01). Nocturnal displacements were 4409.4 ± 617.5 m during summer and 3684.8 ± 468.1 m during autumn, without differences between seasons. Diurnal movements were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in the summer (2239.0 ± 329.0 m) than in the autumn (595.9 ± 110.3 m), when the hunting season was running. As for a wild wolf, clear complementarity concerning human activities was recorded and no habituation signals were detected, but this is only a first case study that aims to be a stimulus for further research and a call for widespread data sharing.

High Prevalence and Genetic Variability of Hepatozoon canis in Grey Wolf (Canis lupus L. 1758) Population in Serbia

Wild canids are globally recognised as hosts and reservoirs of a large number of ecto- and endoparasites. Data that reveal the importance of the grey wolf (Canis lupus L.1758) in the spread of hepatozoonosis are very scarce. There are a large number of different potential host species that can be infected by Hepatozoon canis, but the most common are domestic and wild carnivores, such as dogs, jackals, foxes, and wolves. In this study, the epidemiological significance of the grey wolf as a host for the pathogen was analysed for the first time in Serbia, as well as the genetic variability of H. canis. The presence of H. canis in wolf spleens has been demonstrated using molecular methods. A total of 107 wolf spleen samples from 30 localities in Serbia were analysed. The presence of H. canis was confirmed in 62 (57.94%) individuals from 26 out of 30 localities. According to the analysis, the sampled H. canis sequences were found to be characterised by a certain heterogeneity. Based on five mutated nucleotide sites in the sequences, H. canis could be divided into five sequence types, S1 to S5. The five sequence types can potentially circulate in grey wolf populations as well as among other domestic and wild canids. This study is the first confirmation of the presence of H. canis in grey wolf populations in Serbia. Considering that the role of this vector-borne disease is poorly researched in wild carnivores, it is very important to indicate the role of this species in the circulation of this pathogen in natural ecosystems.

Dogs, not wolves, most likely to have caused the death of a British tourist in northern Greece

Wolf (Canis lupus) populations have recovered and expanded across many parts of the world thanks to conservation efforts, including improved legal status and restoration of their prey. Concurrently, public concerns regarding the risk of wolf attacks on humans and livestock are increasing as wolves occupy human-dominated landscapes. We examined a unique case in Europe allegedly involving wolves in the death of a female British tourist, aged 64, in northern Greece in September 2017. This incident received extensive international media attention and yet many fundamental details of the case area are lacking, including whether local livestock guarding dogs played a role. To assist in resolving the case, we conducted an extensive literature review which documented 13 criteria linked to the risk of either a wolf and/or a dog attacking a human. We also conducted a camera trap survey (October to December 2017) soon after the fatal attack to calculate the activity overlap among humans, dogs and wolves. Sufficient data were available for assessing 11 of the 13 criteria. For the remaining two, the required data were either not analysed (i.e. canid DNA collected from the attack site), not appropriately collected (i.e. DNA from the mouths of suspected dogs) or were collected, but misinterpreted (i.e. the post-consumption patterns of the victim’s corpse). Via this combination of evidence, we conclude that this case involved a fatal dog attack. This assertion is supported by evidence such as the: a) high dog-human activity overlap at the attack site which peaked during the attack time as opposed to near zero wolf-human activity overlap at the same time, b) presence of a large pack of unsupervised dogs, c) high ratio of male dogs in the dog pack, d) close vicinity of the attack site to dog owner’s property and e) previous documented aggression of these dogs towards humans. The consumption patterns, time scale and location of the victim’s remains indicate a posthumous consumption of the corpse possibly by the same dogs and/or by wild scavengers including wolves. A multidisciplinary approach, such as this one, in the assessment of putative wildlife attacks on humans can reduce misidentifications of the responsible species by forensic authorities and, therefore, prevent unfounded decrease in public tolerance for large carnivores.

Circadian activity of small brown bear populations living in human-dominated landscapes

Whereas numerous studies on large carnivores have focused on analyzing spatial patterns and habitat use, the temporal dimension of their activity has been relatively little investigated, making this a topic of growing interest, especially in human-dominated landscapes. Relict and isolated Apennine brown bears (Ursus arctos marsicanus) have been living in a human-modified landscape since millennia, but no information is available on their activity patterns. By means of GPS telemetry (26,880 GPS locations collected from 18 adult Apennine brown bears) we investigated their circadian rhythms, using hourly movement rates as an index of bear activity. Based on a Bayesian modeling approach, circadian activity of Apennine brown bears was described by a bimodal curve, with peaks of activity around sunrise and sunset. We revealed seasonal effects, with bears exhibiting higher movement rates throughout the mating season, but no relevant influence of sex. In addition, bears increased their movement rate at distances < 100–500 m to roads and settlements exclusively during spring and late summer, suggesting a trade-off between foraging opportunities and risk avoidance. The absence of a marked nocturnality in Apennine brown bears suggests a relatively low degree of habitat encroachment and disturbance by humans. Yet, the occurrence of crepuscular activity patterns and the responses in proximity of anthropogenic landscape features likely indicate a coadaptation by bears to human presence through a shift in their temporal niche. Further studies should aim to unveil fitness implications of such modifications in activity patterns.

Large carnivores and naturalness affect forest recreational value

Recreation is a crucial contribution of nature to people, relevant for forest ecosystems. Large carnivores (LCs) are important components of forests, however, their contribution to forest recreational value has not yet been evaluated. Given the current expansion of LC populations, the ongoing forest conservation debate, and the increasing use of nature for recreational purposes, this is a timely study. We used discrete choice experiments and willingness-to-travel to determine people’ preferences for both forest structural characteristics and presence of four LC species in Poland (N = 1097 respondents) and Norway (N = 1005). In both countries, two-thirds of the respondents (termed ‘wildness-positive’) perceived LCs as contributing positively to forest recreational value and preferred to visit old forests with trees of different species and ages and presence of dead wood (i.e. natural forests). Respondents with negative preferences towards LCs preferred more intensively managed forest (‘wildness-negative’); their preferences were stronger than in wildness-positive respondents and in Norway. Preferences towards wild nature were highly polarized and there were hardly neutral people. Our results showed a strong link between preferences for LC presence and forest structure, and reflected the dualism of human-nature relationships. This study highlights the need to consider the contribution of forests and LCs to human recreation services in ecosystem management policies.

habCluster: identifying the geographical boundary among intraspecific units using community detection algorithms in R

Conservation management for a species generally rests on intraspecific units, while identification of their geographic boundaries is necessary for the implementation. Intraspecific units can be discriminated using population genetic methods, yet an analytical approach is still lacking for detecting their geographic boundaries. Here, based on landscape connectivity, we present a raster-based geographical boundary delineation method, habCluster, using community detection algorithms. Community detection is a technique in graph theory used to identify clusters of highly connected nodes within a network. We assume that the habitat raster cells with better connections tend to form a continuous habitat patch than the others, thus making the range of an intraspecific unit. The method was tested on the gray wolf (Canis lupus) habitat in Europe and the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) habitat in China. The habitat suitability index (HSI) maps for gray wolves and giant pandas were evaluated using species distribution models. Each cell in the HSI raster is treated as a node and directly connected with its eight neighbor cells. The edge weight between nodes is the reciprocal of the relative distance between the centers of the nodes weighted by the average of their HSI values. We implement habCluster using the R programming language with the inline C++ code to speed up the computing. We found that the boundaries of the clusters delineated using habCluster could serve as a good indicator of habitat patches. In the giant panda case, the clusters match generally well with nature reserves. habCluster can provide a spatial analysis basis for conservation management plans such as monitoring, translocation and reintroduction, and population structure research.

The origin and population genetics of wolves in the north Hungarian mountains

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is one of the most challenging species to conserve in our modern and crowded world. Due to various factors, most European wolf populations are currently growing. In Hungary, numbers have increased since the 2000s. Although spontaneous recolonisation from Slovakia is considered to be the most likely mechanism by the majority of experts, some stakeholders claim that hand-reared individuals have been released. To determine the origin of wolves in northern Hungary, we analysed samples of free-ranging wolves collected in Slovakia and Hungary as well as samples from wolves in private enclosures in the region. We also included reference samples from domestic dogs. All samples were genotyped at 14 canine autosomal tetranucleotide microsatellite loci (STR) and analysed using multivariate, Bayesian methods. Hungarian wolf samples were also analysed using kinship methods. In the free-ranging wolf samples, all loci were polymorphic with 3–12 alleles. The overall observed (Ho) and unbiased expected (uHE) heterozygosities were 0.60–0.66 and 0.69–0.71, respectively. Parental and sibling relationships were also found among Hungarian individuals: three generations of a pack in the Bükk Mountains were identified. Samples from free-ranging wolves clustered separately from those of captive wolves and dogs. However, genetic similarities were found between Slovakian and Hungarian wolf samples. Our analyses indicate a Slovakian origin of the sampled Hungarian wolves, and we found no evidence that individuals originating in captivity have played any role in the recolonisation process. Kinship relationships and moderate genetic diversity suggest that there is ongoing gene flow across the Slovakian–Hungarian border.

Assessment of Eurasian lynx reintroduction success and mortality risk in north-west Poland

Despite recent local reintroductions of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in central and north-eastern Poland, the increase in its population was not followed by its westward expansion. To address this problem and restore the lynx population in north-western Poland, 61 captive-born individuals of Baltic population origin were released in the province of Western Pomerania in 2019–2021. Prior to their release, all the animals underwent an adaptation training phase. They were then set free according to a hard-release protocol and subsequently monitored by means of GPS telemetry. In order to assess the short-term reintroduction success, the survival and causes of death of the released individuals were studied as a function of sex, age, training time, and release time and place. The overall survival rate was 71.15%, the median survival time 202 days. Most mortality, due to environmental factors, i.e. scabies (> 200 days) or traffic collisions (< 200 days), was recorded during the first 300 days following release. Age, year of release and training time were significantly related to survival, indicating that the older the lynx was when released, the better its survival changes. In contrast, the longer the training time, the poorer were the chances of survival. There was no evidence of any effect of sex, month of release or place of release. Based on these results, recommendations were made for the planning of further releases and measures to manage the restored population.

The effects of protected areas on the ecological niches of birds and mammals

Protected areas are a cornerstone for biodiversity conservation, and typically support more natural and undisturbed habitats compared to unprotected lands. The effect of protected areas on intra-specific ecological niche has been rarely investigated. Here, we explore potential differences in ecological niche properties of birds and mammals across protected and unprotected areas, and relate such differences to species traits. We combine two decades of survey data of birds and mammals from protected and unprotected areas, and apply robust matching to obtain a set of environmentally comparable protected and unprotected sites. Next, we calculate intra-specific niche volume change and habitat shift between protected and unprotected areas, and use generalized linear mixed models to explain these responses with species traits (habitat specialization, body mass, diet, and red list status). The majority of bird and mammal species (83% and 90%, respectively) show different habitat use when occurring within and outside protected areas, with the magnitude of this shift highly varying across species. A minority of species (16% of birds and 10% of mammals) do not change their niche volume nor shift their habitat between protected and unprotected areas. Variation in niche properties is largely unrelated to species traits. Overall, the varying ecological niche responses of birds and mammals to protected areas underscore that there is no universal niche-based response, and that niche responses to land protection are species-specific.

Determining the role of climate change in India's past forest loss

Tropical forests in India have declined at an alarming rate over the past century, with extensive literature focusing on the high contributions of agricultural expansions to deforestation, while the effects of climate change have largely been overlooked. Climate change effects, such as increasing temperatures, drought and flooding, have already occurred, and are projected to worsen. Climate velocity, a metric that accounts for spatial heterogeneity in climate, can help identify contiguous areas under greater climate stress and potential climate refuges in addition to traditional temporal trends. Here, we examined the relative contribution of climate changes to forest loss in India during the period 2001-2018, at two spatial (regional and national) and two temporal (seasonal and annual) scales. This includes, for the first time, a characterization of climate velocity in the country. Our findings show that annual forest loss increased substantially over the 17-year period examined (2001-2018), with the majority of forest loss occurring in the Northeast region. Decreases in temporal trends of temperature and precipitation were most associated with forest losses, but there was large spatial and seasonal variation in the relationship. In every region except the Northeast, forest losses were correlated with faster velocities of at least one climate variable but overlapping areas of high velocities were rare. Our findings indicate that climate changes have played an important role in India's past forest loss, but likely remain secondary to other factors at present. We stress concern for climates velocities recorded in the country, reaching 97 km year-1 , and highlight that understanding the different regional and seasonal relationships between climatic conditions and forest distributions will be key to effective protection of the country's remaining forests as climate change accelerates.

Wolf Dispersal Patterns in the Italian Alps and Implications for Wildlife Diseases Spreading

Simple Summary

Wildlife dispersal directly influences population expansion patterns, and may have indirect effects on the spread of wildlife diseases. For many species, little is known about dispersal, despite its importance to conservation. We documented the natural dispersal processes of an expanding wolf (Canis lupus) population in the Italian Alps to understand the dynamics of the recolonization pattern and identify diseases that might be connected with the process through the use of non-invasive genetic sampling over a 20-year period. By documenting 55 dispersal events, with an average minimum straight dispersal distance of 65.8 km (±67.7 km), from 7.7 km to 517.2 km, we discussed the potential implications for maintaining genetic diversity of the population and for wildlife diseases spreading.

Abstract

Wildlife dispersal directly influences population expansion patterns, and may have indirect effects on the spread of wildlife diseases. Despite its importance to conservation, little is known about dispersal for several species. Dispersal processes in expanding wolf (Canis lupus) populations in Europe is not well documented. Documenting the natural dispersal pattern of the expanding wolf population in the Alps might help understanding the overall population dynamics and identifying diseases that might be connected with the process. We documented 55 natural dispersal events of the expanding Italian wolf alpine population over a 20-year period through the use of non-invasive genetic sampling. We examined a 16-locus microsatellite DNA dataset of 2857 wolf samples mainly collected in the Western Alps. From this, we identified 915 individuals, recaptured 387 (42.3%) of individuals, documenting 55 dispersal events. On average, the minimum straight dispersal distance was 65.8 km (±67.7 km), from 7.7 km to 517.2 km. We discussed the potential implications for maintaining genetic diversity of the population and for wildlife diseases spreading.

Occurrence and Livestock Depredation Patterns by Wolves in Highly Cultivated Landscapes

Attacks by large predators on livestock are an important driver of conflicts. Consequently, knowledge about where predators occur, where livestock depredation takes place and what factors influence it will aid the mitigation of stakeholder conflicts. Following legal protection, wolves (Canis lupus) in Central Europe are recently spreading to areas dominated by agriculture, bringing them in closer contact with livestock. Here, we analyzed habitat selection and livestock depredation rates of 43 wolves identified by genotyping on the Jutland peninsula, consisting of mainland Denmark and the northernmost German federal state Schleswig-Holstein. Occupancy by resident wolves correlated positively with forest and other non-forested semi-natural land cover (habitat for natural ungulate prey), whereas occupancy by non-resident wolves correlated with increasing forest cover and sheep density. The latter effect likely reflected increased sampling probability of highly mobile dispersers killing livestock. We recorded 565 livestock depredation events (85 in Denmark and 480 in Schleswig-Holstein), of which 42% (55 in DK and 185 in SH) could be assigned to 27 individual wolves based on DNA evidence. Livestock (mostly sheep) were killed by wolves in 16% of the study area. Our results indicate that wolves mostly killed livestock as a context-dependent response, i.e., being dispersers in agricultural areas with low availability of wild ungulate prey and high livestock densities, and not because of behavioral preferences for sheep. Moreover, the livestock depredation was lower in areas with livestock protection measures (implemented in areas with established pairs/packs). We conclude that while wolf attacks on livestock in established wolf territories generally can be reduced through improvement of fences, livestock depredation by non-resident wolves in agricultural areas constitutes a bigger challenge. Albeit technically possible, the economic costs of implementing predator-proof fences and other preventive measures in such pastoral areas infrequently visited by wolves will be considerable. Experiences so far further indicate that lethal removal of identified “problem wolves” may be inefficient in practice.

Global patterns of resilience decline in vertebrate populations

Maintaining the resilience of natural populations, their ability to resist and recover from disturbance, is crucial to prevent biodiversity loss. However, the lack of appropriate data and quantitative tools has hampered our understanding of the factors determining resilience on a global scale. Here, we quantified the temporal trends of two key components of resilience-resistance and recovery-in >2000 population time-series of >1000 vertebrate species globally. We show that the number of threats to which a population is exposed is the main driver of resilience decline in vertebrate populations. Such declines are driven by a non-uniform loss of different components of resilience (i.e. resistance and recovery). Increased anthropogenic threats accelerating resilience loss through a decline in the recovery ability-but not resistance-of vertebrate populations. These findings suggest we may be underestimating the impacts of global change, highlighting the need to account for the multiple components of resilience in global biodiversity assessments.

Patterns and determinants of dispersal in grey wolves (Canis lupus)

Dispersal is a key demographic process involving three stages: emigration, transience and settlement; each of which is influenced by individual, social and environmental determinants. An integrated understanding of species dispersal is essential for demographic modelling and conservation planning. Here, we review the dispersal patterns and determinants documented in the scientific literature for the grey wolf (Canis lupus) across its distribution range. We showed a surprisingly high variability within and among study areas on all dispersal parameters - dispersal rate, direction, distance, duration and success. We found that such large variability is due to multiple individual, social and environmental determinants, but also due to previously overlooked methodological research issues. We revealed a potential non-linear relationship between dispersal rate and population density, with dispersal rate higher at both ends of the gradient of population density. We found that human-caused mortality reduces distance, duration and success of dispersal events. Furthermore, dispersers avoid interaction with humans, and highly exposed areas like agricultural lands hamper population connectivity in many cases. We identified numerous methodological research problems that make it difficult to obtain robust estimates of dispersal parameters and robust inferences on dispersal patterns and their determinants. In particular, analyses where confounding factors were not accounted for led to substantial knowledge gaps on all aspects of dispersal in an otherwise much-studied species. Our understanding of wolf biology and management would significantly benefit if wolf dispersal studies reported the results and possible factors affecting wolf dispersal more transparently.

Welcoming Wolves? Governing the Return of Large Carnivores in Traditional Pastoral Landscapes

Wolf populations are recovering across Europe and readily recolonize most areas where humans allow their presence. Reintegrating wolves in human-dominated landscapes is a major challenge, particularly in places where memories and experience of coexistence have been lost. Despite the observed expansion trends, little has been done to prepare communities for the return of these apex predators, or to understand what fosters and perpetuates coexistence. In this study, we present a theoretical framework for resilient coexistence based on four conditions: Effective institutions, large carnivore persistence, social legitimacy, and low levels of risk and vulnerability, nested within the social-ecological systems (SES) concept. To empirically show how the conditions can be manifested and interconnected, and how this knowledge could be used to improve local coexistence capacities, the framework is applied in a case study of human–wolf relations in Spain. We examined three traditionally pastoral landscapes at different states of cohabitation with wolves: uninterrupted presence, recent recolonization, and imminent return. We found that both the perceptions of wolves and the capacity to coexist with them diverged across these states, and that this was largely determined by a diversity of vulnerabilities that have not been recognized or addressed within current management regimes, such as economic precarity and weak legitimacy for governing institutions. Our results illustrate the importance of working in close contact with communities to understand local needs and enhance adaptive capacities in the face of rural transitions, beyond those directly related to wolves. The framework complements emerging tools for coexistence developed by researchers and practitioners, which offer guidance on the process of situational analysis, planning, and resource allocation needed to balance large carnivore conservation with local livelihoods.

Students' Attitudes to and Knowledge of Brown Bears (Ursus arctos L.): Can More Knowledge Reduce Fear and Assist in Conservation Efforts?

Simple Summary

Large carnivores distributed throughout Europe have interactions with people because their habitats often collide with human settlements. Since human behavior can significantly influence the conservation of these species, knowledge of certain behaviors and factors of influence are crucial. The present study included 534 students from lower and upper secondary schools. In this article, students’ attitudes to and knowledge of brown bears and the indirect effect of teaching are examined. Factors such as gender and seeing a bear in nature were found to influence the students’ attitudes and knowledge significantly, implying that they should be considered in any future educational actions. Other factors like residence, owning a dog, having a hunter in the family, breeding livestock and visiting a zoo had a smaller effect on the students’ attitudes and knowledge in general. The results thus indicate that greater knowledge was correlated with proconservation attitudes and reduced fear among the students.

Abstract

The expansion of large carnivores across Europe is posing a challenge to their conservation. Since success with conservation may depend significantly on human behavior, knowledge of certain behaviors’ emergence and all the factors that affect them are crucial. The present study included 534 students who were divided into a comparison group (n = 317) and a treatment group (n = 217) consisting of 309 lower secondary (LS, M_Age = 12.2, SD = 0.94) and 225 upper secondary (US, n = 225, M_Age = 16.5, SD = 0.99) school students. We assessed their attitudes to and knowledge of brown bears. An indirect effect of the workshops (instructions) is also described. Sociodemographic factors, such as gender and seeing a bear in nature, significantly influenced the students’ attitudes and knowledge. Residence, owning a dog, having a hunter in the family, breeding livestock and visiting a zoo had a smaller effect on the students’ attitudes and knowledge. The results thus show that greater knowledge is correlated with proconservation attitudes, and partly with reduction of fear. Therefore, future conservation and management should employ strong communication, especially education activities based on direct experiences and carefully designed information regarding species and socio-scientific issues.