Meta-analysis reveals enhanced growth of marine harmful algae from temperate regions with warming and elevated CO2 levels

Temperature-dependent photosynthesis and antioxidant system in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Ocean warming is expected to alter the productivity and composition of marine phytoplankton communities, thus impacting global biogeochemical cycles. However, the physiological mechanisms and antioxidant systems in response to temperature in Phaeodactylum tricornutum remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined the effects of temperature variation on growth, photosynthesis, inorganic carbon utilization, and antioxidant enzyme activity in P. tricornutum. Our results showed that the specific growth rate and pigment contents significantly increased between 13 °C and 22 °C, and followed by a decline at 25 °C. The maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) and actual photochemical efficiency (Yield) were maximized at the optimal temperature. Photosynthetic efficiency (ɑ) remained a higher levels at elevated temperatures, while the relative electron transport rate (rETRm) decreased. Low activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) were observed at the optimal temperature. Glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content also exhibited similar trends with antioxidant enzyme activity. Carbonic anhydrase activity initially rose and then dropped with rising temperatures, whereas Rubisco activity increased significantly with temperature. Our study highlights the temperature-dependent growth and physiological plasticity of P. tricornutum, suggesting that phytoplankton may adapt to ocean warming in the future by modulating light use efficiency, CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM), and antioxidant systems.

Hot and toxic: Accumulation dynamics and ecotoxicological responses of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to marine biotoxins during a marine heatwave

Climate change is increasing marine heatwaves (MHWs) frequency and severity worldwide. These extreme events often cause bivalves' mass mortality and facilitate the growth, proliferation and dispersion of toxin-producing microalgae blooms associated with threats to seafood safety. Yet, the interactive effects between MHW and uptake of marine biotoxins by biota are a novel topic still lacking thorough research, from both the ecotoxicological and seafood safety standpoints. This study assessed the effects of a MHW event on the accumulation/elimination dynamics of diarrhetic shellfish toxins in Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to Prorocentrum lima and the ecotoxicological responses of mussels co-exposed to these two stressors. Results showed that acute exposure to +4 °C reduced toxins accumulation (-49 %) and elimination (-77 %) compared to control temperature. Moreover, exposure to MHW and toxins affected mussels' antioxidant activity, lipid and protein damage, and metabolism in a tissue-specific manner. These findings highlight that M. galloprovincialis can face higher vulnerability to toxins when MHW events strike.

Physiological responses and sexual compatibility within a massive toxic bloom of Alexandrium minutum

In summer 2018, a massive bloom of Alexandrium minutum, a causative agent of paralytic shellfish poisoning, occurred in the Ría de Vigo (NW Spain) reaching a maximum density of 745,470 cells L-1. This study assessed the bloom's physiological state, by analyzing its cell abundance, cell size, toxin content and DNA content, as well as how those cell parameters evolved in time. While toxicity decreased over time, cell size remained constant. DNA content analysis revealed a scarcity of sexual stages and a decline in mitotic growth rate between the two dates. Nine months later, 39 sediment samples were analyzed for resting cyst deposition, showing highly variable distribution. The highest cyst concentrations were at the bloom initiation site and the farthest sampling point. Generally low cyst deposition values aligned with the low number of sexual stages detected in the bloom samples analyzed. To estimate the intrinsic potential for sexuality of the bloom, i.e., that shown under conditions specifically designed to induce cyst formation 43 strains from different bloom locations were isolated and mixed in all possible combinations of pairs (945 crosses). Sexual reproduction occurred in 86.46 % of the crosses, but with low compatibility indices (CI = 0.10-0.88, AV = 1.50-2.55, RC = 0.14-2.12). The low intrinsic potential for sexuality of the bloom, was coincident with all previous sexual aspects analyzed in the bloom subsamples, an aspect which may relate to a bloom with low genetic variability. This study provides insights into the dynamics of sexual reproduction and physiological changes in harmful dinoflagellate blooms, contributing to understanding bloom persistence and future risks.

Divergent responses of an armored and an unarmored dinoflagellate to ocean acidification

Dinoflagellates, both armored and unarmored, with distinct cell wall difference, are being affected by elevated CO2-induced ocean acidification (OA). However, their specific responses to OA are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the physiological and molecular response of the armored species Prorocentrum obtusidens and the unarmored species Karenia mikimotoi to OA over a 28-day period. The results show that the two species responded differently to OA. Cell growth rate, particulate organic carbon (POC) content, and the activities of C4 pathway enzymes decreased in P. obtusidens under future acidified ocean condition (pH 7.8, 1000 μatm pCO2), but the activities of carbonic anhydrase (CA), ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased. Whereas cell growth rate, contents of Chl a and PON, and SOD activity altered insignificantly in K. mikimotoi, but contents of POC and total carbohydrate, and the activity of RubisCO increased while the activities of CA and C4 pathway enzymes decreased. Transcriptomic analysis indicates that genes associated with antioxidative response, heat shock protein, proteasome, signal transduction, ribosome, and pH regulation were up-regulated in P. obtusidens but down-regulated in K. mikimotoi. Notably, the synthesis of soluble organic matter (i.e., spermidine and trehalose) was enhanced in K. mikimotoi, thereby regulating intracellular pH and improving stress resistance. This study highlights the divergent response of the armored and unarmored dinoflagellates to OA, with the unarmored dinoflagellate exhibiting a higher ability to withstand this stressor. Therefore, caution should be exercised when predicting the behavior and the eventual fate of dinoflagellates in the future acidified ocean.

Protists and protistology in the Anthropocene: challenges for a climate and ecological crisis

Eukaryotic microorganisms, or "protists," while often inconspicuous, play fundamental roles in the Earth ecosystem, ranging from primary production and nutrient cycling to interactions with human health and society. In the backdrop of accelerating climate dysregulation, alongside anthropogenic disruption of natural ecosystems, understanding changes to protist functional and ecological diversity is of critical importance. In this review, we outline why protists matter to our understanding of the global ecosystem and challenges of predicting protist species resilience and fragility to climate change. Finally, we reflect on how protistology may adapt and evolve in a present and future characterized by rapid ecological change.

Elevated temperature as the dominant stressor on the harmful algal bloom-causing dinoflagellate Prorocentrum obtusidens in a future ocean scenario

Marine dinoflagellates are increasingly affected by ongoing global climate changes. While understanding of their physiological and molecular responses to individual stressors anticipated in the future ocean has improved, their responses to multiple concurrent stressors remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the individual and combined effects of elevated temperature (26 °C relative to 22 °C), increased pCO2 (1000 μatm relative to 400 μatm), and high nitrogen: phosphorus ratio (180:1 relative to 40:1) on a harmful algal bloom-causing dinoflagellate Prorocentrum obtusidens under short-term (28 days) exposure. Elevated temperature was the most dominant stressor affecting P. obtusidens at physiological and transcriptomic levels. It significantly increased cell growth rate and maximum photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm), but reduced chlorophyll a, particulate organic carbon, particulate organic nitrogen, and particulate organic phosphorus. Elevated temperature also interacted with other stressors to produce synergistic positive effects on cell growth and Fv/Fm. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that elevated temperature promoted energy production by enhancing glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and nitrogen and carbon assimilation, which supported rapid cell growth but reduced material storage. Increased pCO2 enhanced the expression of genes involved in ionic acid-base regulation and oxidative stress resistance, whereas a high N:P ratio inhibited photosynthesis, compromising cell viability, although the effect was alleviated by elevated temperature. The combined effect of these multiple stressors resulted in increased energy metabolism and up-regulation of material-synthesis pathways compared to the effect caused by elevated temperature alone. Our results underscore ocean warming as the predominant stressor for dinoflagellates and highlight the complex, synergistic effects of multi-stressors on dinoflagellates.

Domoic Acid: A Review of Its Cytogenotoxicity Within the One Health Approach

In this review, we toxicologically assessed the naturally occurring toxin domoic acid. We used the One Health approach because the impact of domoic acid is potentiated by climate change and water pollution on one side, and reflected in animal health, food security, human diet, and human health on the other. In a changing environment, algal blooms are more frequent. For domoic acid production, the growth of Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms is of particular interest. They produce this toxin, whose capability of accumulation and biomagnification through the food web impacts other organisms in the ecosystem. Domoic acid targets nervous system receptors inducing amnestic shellfish poisoning, among other less severe health-related problems. However, the impact of domoic acid on non-target cells is rather unknown, so we reviewed the currently available literature on cytogenetic effects on human and animal cells. The results of different studies indicate that domoic acid has the potential to induce early molecular events, such as oxidative imbalance and DNA damage, thus posing an additional threat which needs to be thoroughly addressed and monitored in the future.

Interactions between ocean acidification and multiple environmental drivers on the biochemical traits of marine primary producers: A meta-analysis

Ocean acidification (OA) interacts with multiple environmental drivers, such as temperature, nutrients, and ultraviolet radiation (UVR), posing a threat to marine primary producers. In this study, we conducted a quantitative meta-analysis of 1001 experimental assessments from 68 studies to examine the combined effects of OA and multiple environmental drivers (e.g., light, nutrient) on the biochemical compositions of marine primary producers. The results revealed significant positive effects of each environmental driver and their interactions with OA according to Hedge's d analysis. The results revealed significant positive effects of multiple environmental drivers and their interactions with OA. Additive effects dominated (71%), with smaller proportions of antagonistic (20%) and synergistic interactions (9%). The antagonistic interactions, although fewer, had a substantial impact, causing OA and other environmental drivers to interact antagonistically. Significant differences were observed among taxonomic groups: haptophytes and rhodophytes were negatively affected, while bacillariophytes were positively affected by OA. Our findings also indicated that the interactions between OA and multiple environmental drivers varied depending on specific type of the environmental driver, suggesting a modulating role of OA on the biochemical compositions of marine primary producers in response to global change. In summary, our study elucidates the complex interactions between OA and multiple environmental drivers on marine primary producers, highlighting the varied impacts on biochemical compositions and elemental stoichiometry.

An unusual winter bloom of dinoflagellates with notable damage to kelp cultivation around Shandong peninsula, China

In the coastal waters around Shandong peninsula, an unprecedented winter bloom of dinoflagellates Gonyaulax polygramma and Akashiwo sanguinea occurred in 2021 from late November to early December. The bloom affected a wide area of coastal waters extending from west to east along the northern Shandong peninsula and had a devastating blow to the kelp cultivation industry. Based on the remote-sensing data, the initiation of the bloom was traced back to the region adjacent to the mouth of the Yellow River in Laizhou Bay, where enhanced freshwater discharge from the Yellow River was recorded from September to November. It's proposed that the increased precipitation in the Yellow River basin associated with northward extension of the precipitation band in China could be an important reason for this winter bloom. This unusual winter bloom around Shandong peninsula highlights the potential risks of harmful algal blooms and their impacts on coastal ecosystems under the background of climate change.

Temperature dependent sensitivity of the harpacticoid copepod Nitokra spinipes to marine algal toxins

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) - proliferated algae densities, often producing toxins - have increasingly been found in ocean and coastal areas. Recent studies show that rising temperatures contribute to HAB occurrence, but the broader influence of climate change on these outbreaks is less quantified. Of particular concern is the limited research on HAB toxin effects under varying temperatures, especially regarding primary consumers such as copepods, a crucial component of aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, we examined the impact of marine toxins on the harpacticoid copepod Nitokra spinipes, a model organism for marine ecotoxicology, in the context of climate change. We evaluated the toxicity of four purified, commonly occurring algal toxins, at three different temperatures in the laboratory. First, adult females were exposed to a concentration series of toxins at 15, 20, and 25 °C for 48 h. EC50 values of domoic acid ranged from 8.79 ± 1.93 μg L-1 to 25.97 ± 11.96 μg L-1. Nauplii, aged 48-72 h, were exposed at 18, 20 and 22 °C for the same duration. Less sensitive compared to adults, the EC50 of domoic acid in this case varied from 57.26 ± 6.82 μg L-1 to 97.24 ± 6.45 μg L-1. Both results indicated a temperature-dependent EC50. For the chronic toxicity tests, larval development ratio (LDR), brood size and inter-brood time of domoic acid (DA), yessotoxin (YTX), saxitoxin (STX), and microcystin-LR (MC-LR) were examined at 18, 20 and 22 °C. We observed that with increasing temperatures, LDR increased, whereas brood size significantly decreased as DA, YTX or STX concentrations rose. No interaction between temperature and algal toxins was found but a temperature dependent sensitivity of copepods towards DA, YTX and STX was revealed. Our research provides insights into the effects of long-term exposure to algal toxins on marine copepods and the potential impacts of climate warming.

The adaptive mechanisms of the marine diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii to long-term high CO2 and warming

While it is known that increased dissolved CO2 concentrations and rising sea surface temperature (ocean warming) can act interactively on marine phytoplankton, the ultimate molecular mechanisms underlying this interaction on a long-term evolutionary scale are relatively unexplored. Here, we performed transcriptomics and quantitative metabolomics analyses, along with a physiological trait analysis, on the marine diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii adapted for approximately 3.5 years to warming and/or high CO2 conditions. We show that long-term warming has more pronounced impacts than elevated CO2 on gene expression, resulting in a greater number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The largest number of DEGs was observed in populations adapted to warming + high CO2, indicating a potential synergistic interaction between these factors. We further identified the metabolic pathways in which the DEGs function and the metabolites with significantly changed abundances. We found that ribosome biosynthesis-related pathways were upregulated to meet the increased material and energy demands after warming or warming in combination with high CO2. This resulted in the upregulation of energy metabolism pathways such as glycolysis, photorespiration, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, as well as the associated metabolites. These metabolic changes help compensate for reduced photochemical efficiency and photosynthesis. Our study emphasizes that the upregulation of ribosome biosynthesis plays an essential role in facilitating the adaptation of phytoplankton to global ocean changes and elucidates the interactive effects of warming and high CO2 on the adaptation of marine phytoplankton in the context of global change.

Spatiotemporal Expansion of Algal Blooms in Coastal China Seas

The coastal seas of China are increasingly threatened by algal blooms, yet their comprehensive spatiotemporal mapping and understanding of underlying drivers remain challenging due to high turbidity and heterogeneous water conditions. We developed a singular value decomposition-based algorithm to map these blooms using two decades of MODIS-Aqua satellite data, spanning from 2003 to 2022. Our findings indicate significant algal activity along the Chinese coastline, impacting an average annual area of approximately 1.8 × 105 km2. The blooms exhibit peak intensity in August, while the maximum affected area occurs in September, featuring multifrequency outbreaks in spring, and pronounced large-scale events in summer and autumn. Notably, our analysis demonstrates a robust 67% increase in bloom occurrences over the study period. This expansion is primarily attributed to increased nutrient inflow from terrestrial sources linked to human activity and precipitation, compounded by rising global sea surface temperatures. These spatiotemporal insights are critical for devising effective management strategies and policies to mitigate the impacts of algal blooms.

A laboratory study of the increasing competitiveness of Karenia mikimotoi under rising CO2 scenario

Ocean acidification (OA) driven by elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) levels is expected to disturb marine ecological processes, including the formation and control of harmful algal blooms (HABs). In this study, the effects of rising CO2 on the allelopathic effects of macroalgae Ulva pertusa to a toxic dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi were investigated. It was found that high level of CO2 (1000 ppmv) promoted the competitive growth of K. mikimotoi compared to the group of present ambient CO2 level (420ppmv), with the number of algal cell increased from 32.2 × 104 cells/mL to 36.75 × 104 cells/mL after 96 h mono-culture. Additionally, rising CO2 level weakened allelopathic effects of U. pertusa on K. mikimotoi, as demonstrated by the decreased inhibition rate (50.6 % under the original condition VS 34.3 % under the acidified condition after 96 h co-culture) and the decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, antioxidant enzymes activity (superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione reductase (GR) and catalase (CAT) and non-enzymatic antioxidants (glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid (ascorbate, vitamin C). Indicators for cell apoptosis of K. mikimotoi including decreased caspase-3 and -9 protease activity were observed when the co-cultured systems were under rising CO2 exposure. Furthermore, high CO2 level disturbed fatty acid synthesis in U. pertusa and significantly decreased the contents of fatty acids with allelopathy, resulting in the allelopathy weakening of U. pertusa. Collectively, rising CO2 level promoted the growth of K. mikimotoi and weakened allelopathic effects of U. pertusa on K. mikimotoi, indicating the increased difficulties in controlling K. mikimotoi using macroalgae in the future.

Antagonistic interactions of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella under simultaneous warming and acidification

There is a concern that harmful algal bloom (HAB) species may increase under climate change. Yet, we lack understanding of how ecological interactions will be affected under ocean warming and acidification (OWA) conditions. We tested the antagonistic effects of three strains of the dinoflagellate HAB species Alexandrium catenella on three target species (the chlorophyte Tetraselmis sp., the cryptomonad Rhodomonas salina, and the diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii) at various biomass ratios between species, at ambient (16 °C and 400 µatm CO2) and OWA (20 °C and 2000 µatm CO2) conditions. In these experiments the Alexandrium strains had been raised under OWA conditions for ∼100 generations. All three non-HAB species increased their growth rate under OWA relative to ambient conditions. Growth rate inhibition was evident for R. salina and Tetraselmis sp. under OWA conditions, but not under ambient conditions. These negative effects were exacerbated at higher concentrations of Alexandrium relative to non-HAB species. By contrast, T. weissflogii showed positive growth in the presence of two strains of Alexandrium under ambient conditions, whereas growth was unaffected under OWA. Contrary to our expectations, A. catenella had a slight negative response in the presence of the diatom. These results demonstrate that Alexandrium exerts higher antagonistic effects under OWA compared to ambient conditions, and these effects are species-specific and density dependent. These negative effects may shift phytoplankton community composition under OWA conditions.

Predicting coastal harmful algal blooms using integrated data-driven analysis of environmental factors

Coastal harmful algal blooms (HABs) have become one of the challenging environmental problems in the world's thriving coastal cities due to the interference of multiple stressors from human activities and climate change. Past HAB predictions primarily relied on single-source data, overlooked upstream land use, and typically used a single prediction algorithm. To address these limitations, this study aims to develop predictive models to establish the relationship between the HAB indicator - chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and various environmental stressors, under appropriate lagging predictive scenarios. To achieve this, we first applied the partial autocorrelation function (PACF) to Chl-a to precisely identify two prediction scenarios. We then combined multi-source data and several machine learning algorithms to predict harmful algae, using SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) to extract key features influencing output from the prediction models. Our findings reveal an apparent 1-month autoregressive characteristic in Chl-a, leading us to create two scenarios: 1-month lead prediction and current-month prediction. The Extra Tree Regressor (ETR), with an R2 of 0.92, excelled in 1-month lead predictions, while the Random Forest Regressor (RFR) was most effective for current-month predictions with an R2 of 0.69. Additionally, we identified current month Chl-a, developed land use, total phosphorus, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) as critical features for accurate predictions. Our predictive framework, which can be applied to coastal regions worldwide, provides decision-makers with crucial tools for effectively predicting and mitigating HAB threats in major coastal cities.

The Occurrence of Karenia species in mid-Atlantic coastal waters: Data from the Delmarva Peninsula, USA

A bloom of Karenia papilionacea that occurred along the Delaware coast in late summer of 2007 was the first Karenia bloom reported on the Delmarva Peninsula (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, USA). Limited spatial and temporal monitoring conducted by state agencies and citizen science groups since 2007 have documented that several Karenia species are an annual component of the coastal phytoplankton community along the Delmarva Peninsula, often present at background to low concentrations (100 to 10,000 cells L-1). Blooms of Karenia (> 105 cells L-1) occurred in 2010, 2016, 2018, and 2019 in different areas along the Delmarva Peninsula coast. In late summer and early autumn of 2017, the lower Chesapeake Bay experienced a K. papilionacea bloom, the first recorded in Bay waters. Blooms typically occurred summer into autumn but were not monospecific; rather, they were dominated by either K. mikimotoi or K. papilionacea, with K. selliformis, K. brevis-like cells, and an undescribed Karenia species also present. Cell concentrations during these mid-Atlantic Karenia spp. blooms equalled concentrations reported for other Karenia blooms. However, the negative impacts to environmental and human health often associated with Karenia red tides were not observed. The data compiled here report on the presence of multiple Karenia species in coastal waters of the Delmarva Peninsula detected through routine monitoring and opportunistic sampling conducted between 2007 and 2022, as well as findings from research cruises undertaken in 2018 and 2019. These data should be used as a baseline for future phytoplankton community analyses supporting coastal HAB monitoring programs.

Meta-analysis reveals responses of coccolithophores and diatoms to warming

A meta-analysis was conducted to explore the effects of warming on the physiological processes of coccolithophores and diatoms by synthesizing a large number of published literatures. A total of 154 studies consisting 301 experiments were synthesized in this study. Under a projected temperature increase of 3-5 °C by IPCC AR6 at the end of this century, our results suggest that the growth and photosynthetic rate of coccolithophores were significantly enhanced by the rising temperature, while the calcification of coccolithophores was only slightly promoted. Warming also had significantly positive effects on the growth but not photosynthesis of diatoms. In comparison, the effect size of warming on the growth rate of coccolithophores was larger than that of diatoms. However, there was no significant effect of warming on either the ratio of particulate inorganic carbon to particulate organic carbon (PIC:POC) of coccolithophores or the ratio of biogenic silica to carbon (BSi:C) of diatoms. Furthermore, the results reveal latitudinal and size-specific patterns of the effect sizes of warming. For diatoms, the effects of warming on growth were more prominent in high latitudes, specifically for the Southern Hemisphere species. In addition, the effect size of warming on the small-sized diatoms was larger than that of the large-sized diatoms. For coccolithophores, the growth of the Southern Hemisphere temperate strains was significantly promoted by warming. Overall, the results based on the meta-analysis indicate that the projected warming of the end of this century will be more favor to the growth of coccolithophores than that of diatoms, thus potentially affect the competitive advantages of coccolithophores over diatoms; while the mid-to high latitude species/strains of both coccolithophores and diatoms will benefit more than their counterparts in the lower latitudes. Therefore, this study offers novel insights into predicting both the inter- and intra-group competitive advantages of diatoms and coccolithophores under the future warming climate change scenario.

Climate-Change Impacts on Cephalopods: A Meta-Analysis

Aside from being one of the most fascinating groups of marine organisms, cephalopods play a major role in marine food webs, both as predators and as prey, while representing key living economic assets, namely for artisanal and subsistence fisheries worldwide. Recent research suggests that cephalopods are benefitting from ongoing environmental changes and the overfishing of certain fish stocks (i.e., of their predators and/or competitors), putting forward the hypothesis that this group may be one of the few "winners" of climate change. While many meta-analyses have demonstrated negative and overwhelming consequences of ocean warming (OW), acidification (OA), and their combination for a variety of marine taxa, such a comprehensive analysis is lacking for cephalopod molluscs. In this context, the existing literature was surveyed for peer-reviewed articles featuring the sustained (≥24 h) and controlled exposure of cephalopod species (Cephalopoda class) to these factors, applying a comparative framework of mixed-model meta-analyses (784 control-treatment comparisons, from 47 suitable articles). Impacts on a wide set of biological categories at the individual level (e.g., survival, metabolism, behavior, cell stress, growth) were evaluated and contrasted across different ecological attributes (i.e., taxonomic lineages, climates, and ontogenetic stages). Contrary to what is commonly assumed, OW arises as a clear threat to cephalopods, while OA exhibited more restricted impacts. In fact, OW impacts were ubiquitous across different stages of ontogeny, taxonomical lineages (i.e., octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish). These results challenge the assumption that cephalopods benefit from novel ocean conditions, revealing an overarching negative impact of OW in this group. Importantly, we also identify lingering literature gaps, showing that most studies to date focus on OW and early life stages of mainly temperate species. Our results raise the need to consolidate experimental efforts in a wider variety of taxa, climate regions, life stages, and other key environmental stressors, such as deoxygenation and hypoxia, to better understand how cephalopods will cope with future climate change.

Immediate and delayed effects of a heatwave and Prorocentrum lima ((Ehrenberg) Stein 1878) bloom on the toxin accumulation, physiology, and survival of the oyster Magallana gigas (Thunberg, 1793)

Warming could facilitate the intensification of toxic algal blooms, two important stressors for marine organisms that are predicted to co-occur more frequently in the future. We investigated the immediate and delayed effects of a heatwave and a simulated bloom (3 × 106 cells L-1) of the diarrhetic shellfish toxin (DST)-producing benthic dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima on the survival, physiology (oxygen consumption rate, condition index, immune parameters), and toxin accumulation in the Pacific rock oyster Magallana (Crassostrea) gigas. Oysters exposed to both stressors contained higher mean DST concentrations (mean ± 1 SE: 173.3 ± 19.78 μg kg-1 soft tissue) than those exposed to P. lima bloom alone (120.4 ± 20.90 μg kg-1) and exceeded the maximum permitted levels for human consumption. Exposure to individual stressors and their combination modified the physiology of M. gigas. Oysters exposed to heatwave alone had significantly higher oxygen consumption rates (0.7 ± 0.06 mg O2 h-1 g-1) than the control (0.3 ± 0.06 mg O2 h-1 g-1). However, this was not observed in oysters exposed to both heatwave and P. lima (0.5 ± 0.06 mg O2 h-1 g-1). This alteration of the metabolic response to warming in the presence of P. lima may affect the ability of rock oysters to adapt to environmental stressors (i.e., a heatwave) to ensure survival. Immunomodulation, through changes in total hemocyte count, was observed in oysters exposed to P. lima alone and in combination with warming. Individual stressors and their combination did not influence the condition index, but one mortality was recorded in oysters exposed to both stressors. The findings of this study highlight the vulnerability of rock oysters to the predicted increased frequency of heatwaves and toxic algal blooms, and the increased likelihood of shellfish containing higher than regulatory levels of DST in warming coasts.

Harmful algal bloom aerosols and human health

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are increasing across many locations globally. Toxins from HABs can be incorporated into aerosols and transported inland, where subsequent exposure and inhalation can induce adverse health effects. However, the relationship between HAB aerosols and health outcomes remains unclear despite the potential for population-level exposures. In this review, we synthesized the current state of knowledge and identified evidence gaps in the relationship between HAB aerosols and human health. Aerosols from Karenia brevis, Ostreopsis sp., and cyanobacteria were linked with respiratory outcomes. However, most works did not directly measure aerosol or toxin concentrations and instead relied on proxy metrics of exposure, such as cell concentrations in nearby waterbodies. Furthermore, the number of studies with epidemiological designs was limited. Significant uncertainties remain regarding the health effects of other HAB species; threshold dose and the dose-response relationship; effects of concurrent exposures to mixtures of toxins and other aerosol sources, such as microplastics and metals; the impact of long-term exposures; and disparities in exposures and associated health effects across potentially vulnerable subpopulations. Additional studies employing multifaceted exposure assessment methods and leveraging large health databases could address such gaps and improve our understanding of the public health burden of HABs.

Transcriptome analysis of two bloom-forming Prorocentrum species reveals physiological changes related to light and temperature

Temperature and light substantially influence red tide succession. However, it remains unclear whether the molecular mechanisms differ among species. In this study, we measured the variation in the physiological parameters of growth and pigments and transcriptional levels of two bloom-forming dinoflagellates, namely Prorocentrum micans and P. cordatum. This was undertaken in four treatments that represented two factorial temperature combinations (LT: 20 °C, HT: 28 °C) and light conditions (LL: 50 µmol photons m^-2 s^-1, HL: 400 µmol photons m^-2 s^-1) for 7-day batch culture. Growth under high temperature and high light (HTHL) was the fastest, while growth under high temperature and low light (HTLL) was the slowest. The pigments (chlorophyll a and carotenoids) decreased significantly in all high light (HL) treatments, but not in high temperature (HT) treatments. HL alleviated the low light-caused photolimitation and enhanced the growth of both species at low temperatures. However, HT inhibited the growth of both species by inducing oxidative stress under low light conditions. HL mitigated the HT-induced stress on growth in both species by upregulating photosynthesis, antioxidase activity, protein folding, and degradation. The cells of P. micans were more sensitive to HT and HL than those of P. cordatum. This study deepens our understanding of the species-specific mechanism of dinoflagellates at the transcriptomic level, adapting to the future ocean changes including higher solar radiation and higher temperatures in the upper mixed layer.

Plastic responses lead to increased neurotoxin production in the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia under ocean warming and acidification

Ocean warming (OW) and acidification (OA) are recognized as two major climatic conditions influencing phytoplankton growth and nutritional or toxin content. However, there is limited knowledge on the responses of harmful algal bloom species that produce toxins. Here, the study provides quantitative and mechanistic understanding of the acclimation and adaptation responses of the domoic acid (DA) producing diatom Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries to rising temperature and pCO2 using both a one-year in situ bulk culture experiment, and an 800-day laboratory acclimation experiment. Ocean warming showed larger selective effects on growth and DA metabolism than ocean acidification. In a bulk culture experiment, increasing temperature +4 °C above ambient seawater temperature significantly increased DA concentration by up to 11-fold. In laboratory when the long-term warming acclimated samples were assayed under low temperatures, changes in growth rates and DA concentrations indicated that P. multiseries did not adapt to elevated temperature, but could instead rapidly and reversibly acclimate to temperature shifts. However, the warming-acclimated lines showed evidence of adaptation to elevated temperatures in the transcriptome data. Here the core gene expression was not reversed when warming-acclimated lines were moved back to the low temperature environment, which suggested that P. multiseries cells might adapt to rising temperature over longer timescales. The distinct strategies of phenotypic plasticity to rising temperature and pCO2 demonstrate a strong acclimation capacity for this bloom-forming toxic diatom in the future ocean.

Response mechanism of harmful algae Phaeocystis globosa to ocean warming and acidification

Simultaneous ocean warming and acidification will alter marine ecosystem structure and directly affect marine organisms. The alga Phaeocystis globosa commonly causes harmful algal blooms in coastal areas of eastern China. P. globosa often outcompetes other species due to its heterotypic life cycle, primarily including colonies and various types of solitary cells. However, little is known about the adaptive response of P. globosa to ocean warming and acidification. This study aimed to reveal the global molecular regulatory networks implicated in the response of P. globosa to simultaneous warming and acidification. After exposure to warming and acidification, the phosphatidylinositol (PI) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways of P. globosa were activated to regulate other molecular pathways in the cell, while the light harvesting complex (LHC) genes were downregulated to decrease photosynthesis. Exposure to warming and acidification also altered the intracellular energy flow, with more energy allocated to the TCA cycle rather than to the biosynthesis of fatty acids and hemolytic substances. The upregulation of genes associated with glycosaminoglycan (GAG) degradation prevented the accumulation of polysaccharides, which led to a reduction in colony formation. Finally, the upregulation of the Mre11 and Rad50 genes in response to warming and acidification implied an increase in meiosis, which may be used by P. globosa to increase the number of solitary cells. The increase in genetic diversity through sexual reproduction may be a strategy of P. globosa that supports rapid response to complex environments. Thus, the life cycle of P. globosa underwent a transition from colonies to solitary cells in response to warming and acidification, suggesting that this species may be able to rapidly adapt to future climate changes through life cycle transitions.

Gymnodinium catenatum Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Production and Photobiological Responses under Marine Heat Waves

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) have doubled in frequency since the 1980s and are projected to be exacerbated during this century. MHWs have been shown to trigger harmful algal blooms (HABs), with severe consequences to marine life and human populations. Within this context, this study aims to understand, for the first time, how MHWs impact key biological and toxicological parameters of the paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) producer Gymnodinium catenatum, a dinoflagellate inhabiting temperate and tropical coastal waters. Two MHW were simulated-category I (i.e., peak: 19.9 °C) and category IV (i.e., peak: 24.1 °C)-relative to the estimated baseline in the western coast of Portugal (18.5 °C). No significant changes in abundance, size, and photosynthetic efficiency were observed among treatments. On the other hand, chain-formation was significantly reduced under category IV MHW, as was PSP toxicity and production of some PST compounds. Overall, this suggests that G. catenatum may have a high tolerance to MHWs. Nevertheless, some sublethal effects may have occurred since chain-formation was affected, suggesting that these growth conditions may be sub-optimal for this population. Our study suggests that the increase in frequency, intensity, and duration of MHWs may lead to reduced severity of G. catenatum blooms.

Marine viruses and climate change: Virioplankton, the carbon cycle, and our future ocean

Interactions between marine viruses and microbes are a critical part of the oceanic carbon cycle. The impacts of virus-host interactions range from short-term disruptions in the mobility of microbial biomass carbon to higher trophic levels through cell lysis (i.e., the viral shunt) to long-term reallocation of microbial biomass carbon to the deep sea through accelerating the biological pump (i.e., the viral shuttle). The biogeochemical backdrop of the ocean-the physical, chemical, and biological landscape-influences the likelihood of both virus-host interactions and particle formation, and the fate and flow of carbon. As climate change reshapes the oceanic landscape through large-scale shifts in temperature, circulation, stratification, and acidification, virus-mediated carbon flux is likely to shift in response. Dynamics in the directionality and magnitude of changes in how, where, and when viruses mediate the recycling or storage of microbial biomass carbon is largely unknown. Integrating viral infection dynamics data obtained from experimental models and field systems, with particle motion microphysics and global observations of oceanic biogeochemistry, into improved ecosystem models will enable viral oceanographers to better predict the role of viruses in marine carbon cycling in the future ocean.

Low Levels of Contaminants Stimulate Harmful Algal Organisms and Enrich Their Toxins

A widespread increase in intense phytoplankton blooms has been noted in lakes worldwide since the 1980s, with the summertime peak intensity amplifying in most lakes. Such blooms cause annual economic losses of multibillion USD and present a major challenge, affecting 11 out of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Here, we evaluate recent scientific evidence for hormetic effects of emerging contaminants and regulated pollutants on Microcystis sp., the most notorious cyanobacteria forming harmful algal blooms and releasing phycotoxins in eutrophic freshwater systems. This new evidence leads to the conclusion that pollution is linked to algal bloom intensification. Concentrations of contaminants that are considerably smaller than the threshold for toxicity enhance the formation of harmful colonies, increase the production of phycotoxins and their release into the environment, and lower the efficacy of algaecides to control algal blooms. The low-dose enhancement of microcystins is attributed to the up-regulation of a protein controlling microcystin release (McyH) and various microcystin synthetases in tandem with the global nitrogen regulator Ycf28, nonribosomal peptide synthetases, and several ATP-binding cassette transport proteins. Given that colony formation and phycotoxin production and release are enhanced by contaminant concentrations smaller than the toxicological threshold and are widely occurring in the environment, the effect of contaminants on harmful algal blooms is more prevalent than previously thought. Climate change and nutrient enrichment, known mechanisms underpinning algal blooms, are thus joined by low-level pollutants as another causal mechanism.

Rising CO2 will increase toxicity of marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum

Ocean acidification caused by increasing emission of carbon dioxide (CO₂) is expected to have profound impacts on marine ecological processes, including the formation and evolution of harmful algal blooms (HABs). We designed a set of experiments in the laboratory to examine the effects of increasing CO₂ on the growth and toxicity of a toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum producing paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). It was found that high levels of CO₂ (800 and 1200 ppm) significantly promoted the growth of A. minutum compared to the group (400 ppm) representing the current CO₂ level. The total yields of PSTs by A. minutum, including both intracellular and extracellular toxins, were significantly enhanced, probably due to the induction of core enzyme activity and key amino acids synthesis for PST production. More interestingly, high level of CO₂ promoted the transformation from gonyautoxin2&3 to gonyautoxin1&4 and depressed the release of PSTs from inside to outside of the cells. All these processes collectively led to an apparent increase of A. minutum toxicity. Our study demonstrated that rising CO₂ would increase the risk of toxic A. minutum based on the comprehensive analyses of different processes including algal growth and toxin synthesis, transformation and release.

Current Situation of Palytoxins and Cyclic Imines in Asia-Pacific Countries: Causative Phytoplankton Species and Seafood Poisoning

Among marine biotoxins, palytoxins (PlTXs) and cyclic imines (CIs), including spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, and gymnodimines, are not managed in many countries, such as the USA, European nations, and South Korea, because there are not enough poisoning cases or data for the limits on these biotoxins. In this article, we review unregulated marine biotoxins (e.g., PlTXs and CIs), their toxicity, causative phytoplankton species, and toxin extraction and detection protocols. Due to global warming, the habitat of the causative phytoplankton has expanded to the Asia-Pacific region. When ingested by humans, shellfish that accumulated toxins can cause various symptoms (muscle pain or diarrhea) and even death. There are no systematic reports on the occurrence of these toxins; however, it is important to continuously monitor causative phytoplankton and poisoning of accumulating shellfish by PlTXs and CI toxins because of the high risk of toxicity in human consumers.

Human poisonings by neurotoxic phycotoxins related to the consumption of shellfish: study of cases registered by the French Poison Control Centres from 2012 to 2019

CONTEXT

In June 2019, a paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) case related to the consumption of mussels contaminated by saxitoxins at a concentration below the regulatory threshold came to the attention of the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES). This pointed to probable undetected human cases of poisoning by neurotoxic phycotoxins.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of poisoning cases by bivalve shellfish (oysters, mussels and scallops) recorded by the French Poison Control Centres (PCC) from 2012 to 2019. All medical records were reviewed by a toxicologist.Cases that could be related to neurotoxic phycotoxins were selected and described. Diagnosis was based on symptoms compatible with ingestion of contaminated shellfish and on contamination data for the shellfish production area (analysed by the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, Ifremer), or notifications to the European Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed when the origin of the shellfish was known.

RESULTS

Among the 619 shellfish poisoning cases recorded by the PCCs from 2012 to 2019, 22% (n = 134) had reported at least one neurological symptom (headache, dizziness or paraesthesia). Review of medical records for the 134 patients led to suspicion of 14 cases of PSP and one case of amnesic shellfish poisoning. Five patients experienced persistent neurological symptoms. Marine toxins were not tested for in the blood or urine of these patients.

CONCLUSION

This retrospective identification of cases strongly suspected of being related to neurotoxic phycotoxins led ANSES, PCCs and Ifremer to develop a specific questionnaire and to recommend actions to take when neurological symptoms related to shellfish consumption are reported to a PCC. Daily monitoring of shellfish poisoning cases registered in the national PCCs database was also implemented in order to rapidly detect any suspicious cases, alert the competent authorities, and warn the general population.

Phytoplankton dynamics in Louisiana estuaries: Building a baseline to understand current and future change

Louisiana estuaries are important habitats in the northern Gulf of Mexico, a region undergoing significant and sustained human- and climate-driven changes. This paper synthesizes data collected over multiple years from four Louisiana estuaries - Breton Sound, Terrebonne Bay, the Atchafalaya River Delta Estuary, and Vermilion Bay - to characterize trends in phytoplankton biomass, community composition, and the environmental factors influencing them. Results highlight similarities in timing and composition of maximum chlorophyll, with salinity variability often explaining biomass trends. Distinct drivers for biomass versus community structure were observed in all four estuarine systems. Systems shared a lack of significant correlation between river discharge and overall phytoplankton biomass, while discharge was important for understanding community composition. Temperature was a significant explanatory variable for both biomass and community composition in only one system. These results provide a regional view of phytoplankton dynamics in Louisiana estuaries critical to understanding and predicting the effects of ongoing change.

Harmful algae and climate change on the Canadian East Coast: Exploring occurrence predictions of Dinophysis acuminata, D. norvegica, and Pseudo-nitzschia seriata

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a threat to human health, local economies, and coastal ecosystems. Generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) were fitted using a 24-y database in order to predict future occurrences of three distinct species of HABs on the Canadian East Coast, the dinoflagellates Dinophysis acuminata and D. norvegica, and the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia seriata. GAMMs produced for each species were combined with two downscaled climate simulations (MPI-ESM-LR and CanESM2) under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 over the 21st century. D. acuminata, D. norvegica, and P. seriata GAMMs were fitted using sea surface salinity and sea surface temperature, with wind speed averaged over seven days added to the P. seriata model. GAMMs succeeded at various degrees at reproducing past HAB events, with D. acuminata and D. norvegica being accurately modelled, and P. seriata producing less precise model results. Both climate simulations lead to similar conclusions in regards to the spatio-temporal shift in occurrences of the three studied species. D. acuminata and D. norvegica blooms (≥ 1000 cells L ^- 1) are predicted to increase in the future, whereas P. seriata bloom events (≥ 5000 cells L ^- 1) will tend to stabilise/decrease overall on the Canadian East Coast. Dinophysis blooms are most likely to increase in the St. Lawrence Estuary. Pseudo-nitzschia blooms will move to the northeastern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and will increase in the Bay of Fundy/Gulf of Maine regions. On average, earlier blooms and larger seasonal windows of opportunity are predicted across all species investigated. We conclude that changes in D. acuminata, D. norvegica, and P. seriata bloom dynamics and their spatial distributions could threaten aquaculture industries and ecosystem health on Canada's East Coast in localities and during seasons which were not previously impacted by these species.

The responses of harmful dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi to simulated ocean acidification at the transcriptional level

The HAB-forming, toxic dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi, previously found to benefit from ocean acidification (OA), was cultivated to investigate its transcriptional response to simulated OA for 30 generations. Batch cultures were grown under two CO₂ concentrations, 450 (control) and 1100 (simulated OA) μatm, and physiological parameters [growth, pigments, catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity], as well as transcriptomes (obtained via RNA-seq), were compared. Chlorophyll a (Chl a) and carotenoid (Caro) contents, as well as CAT and GR activities, were significantly increased under OA conditions. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 2,490 differentially expressed unigenes in response to OA, which comprised 1.54% of all unigenes. A total of 1,121 unigenes were upregulated, and 1,369 unigenes were downregulated in OA compared to control conditions. The downregulated expression of bicarbonate transporter and carbonic anhydrase genes was a landmark of OA acclimation. Key genes involved in energy metabolism, e.g., photosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and nitrogen metabolism, were highly upregulated under OA, contributing to increases in the Chl a (55.05%) and Caro (28.37%). The enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities (i.e. CAT, GR) and upregulated genes (i.e. glutathione peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, heat shock protein, 20S proteasome, aldehyde dehydrogenase, and apolipoprotein) benefit cells against the potential lower pH stress condition under OA. In addition, the downregulation of four genes associated with motility suggested that the preserved energy could further boost growth. In conclusion, the present study suggests that K. mikimotoi exhibits efficient gene expression regulation for the utilization of energy and resistance to OA-induced stress. Taken together, K. mikimotoi appeared as a tolerant species in response to OA. Thus, more extensive algal blooms that threaten marine organisms are likely in the future. These findings expand current knowledge on the gene expression of HAB-forming species in response to future OA.

Nutrient Alteration Drives the Impacts of Seawater Acidification on the Bloom-Forming Dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi

Seawater acidification and nutrient alteration are two dominant environmental factors in coastal environments that influence the dynamics and succession of marine microalgae. However, the impacts of their combination have seldom been recorded. A simulated experimental system was set up to mimic the effects of elevated acidification on a bloom-forming dinoflagellate, Karenia mikimotoi, exposed to different nutrient conditions, and the possible mechanism was discussed. The results showed that acidification at different pH levels of 7.6 or 7.4 significantly influenced microalgal growth (p<0.05) compared with the control at pH 8.0. Mitochondria, the key sites of aerobic respiration and energy production, were impaired in a pH-dependent manner, and a simultaneous alteration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production occurred. Cytochrome c oxidase (COX) and citrate synthase (CS), two mitochondrial metabolism-related enzymes, were actively induced with acidification exposure, suggesting the involvement of the mitochondrial pathway in coping with acidification. Moreover, different nutrient statuses indicated by various N:P ratios of 7:1 (N limitation) and 52:1 (P limitation) dramatically altered the impacts of acidification compared with those exposed to an N:P ratio of 17:1 (control), microalgal growth at pH 7.4 was obviously accelerated with the elevation of the nutrient ratio compared to that at pH 8.1 (p<0.05), and nutrient limitations seemed beneficial for growth in acidifying conditions. The production of alkaline phosphatase (AP) and acid phosphatase (AcP), an effective index indicating the microalgal growth status, significantly increased at the same time (p<0.05), which further supported this speculation. However, nitrate reductase (NR) was slightly inhibited. Hemolytic toxin production showed an obvious increase as the N:P ratio increased when exposed to acidification. Taken together, mitochondrial metabolism was suspected to be involved in the process of coping with acidification, and nutrient alterations, especially P limitation, could effectively alleviate the negative impacts induced by acidification. The obtained results might be a possible explanation for the competitive fitness of K. mikimotoi during bloom development.

Adaptation of a marine diatom to ocean acidification and warming reveals constraints and trade-offs

Ocean acidification and warming are recognized as two major anthropogenic perturbations of the modern ocean. However, little is known about the adaptive response of phytoplankton to them. Here we examine the adaptation of a marine diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii to ocean acidification in combination with ocean warming. Our results show that ocean warming have a greater effect than acidification on the growth of T. weissflogii over the long-term selection experiment (~380 generations), as well as many temperature response traits (e.g., optimum temperatures for photosynthesis, maximal net photosynthetic oxygen evolution rates, activation energy) in thermal reaction norm. These results suggest that ocean warming is the main driver for the evolution of the marine diatom T. weissflogii, rather than oceanacidification. However, the evolution resulting from warming can be constrained by ocean acidification, where ocean warming did not impose any effects at high CO₂ level. Furthermore, adaptations to ocean warming alone or to the combination of ocean acidification and warming come with trade-offs by inhibiting photochemical performances. The constrains and trade-offs associated with the adaptation to ocean acidification and warming demonstrated in this study, should be considered for parameterizing evolutionary responses in eco-evolutionary models of phytoplankton dynamics in a future ocean.

Meta-analysis of the response of marine phytoplankton to nutrient addition and seawater warming

As an indispensable part of the marine ecosystem, phytoplankton are important prey for zooplankton and various marine animals with important commercial value. The influence of seawater warming and eutrophication on phytoplankton communities is well known, but few studies have explained the effects of the interaction between temperature and nutrients on marine phytoplankton. Through meta-analysis and meta-regression, the phytoplankton responses to the effects of nutrient addition and seawater warming were evaluated in this study. Nitrogen (N) addition led to an increase in phytoplankton biomass, while phosphorus (P) had no significant effect on phytoplankton biomass. However, this result may be biased by the uneven distribution of the research area. N limitation is widespread in the areas where these collected studies were conducted, including many parts of North and South Atlantic and West Pacific Oceans. The key limiting nutrient in other areas lacking corresponding experiments, however, remain unclear. The effect of seawater warming was not significant, which indicates the uncertainty about the effect of temperature on phytoplankton. The results of ANOVA show that nutrient addition and seawater warming had similar effects in various marine habitats (coastal regions, estuaries and open seas), while salinity could have caused the difference in the N effects among the three habitats. Furthermore, our results showed that the impact of temperature depends on nutrient conditions, especially N status, which has rarely been considered before. This result demonstrated the importance of evaluating nutrient limitation patterns when studying climate warming. The impact of rising temperatures may need to be reevaluated because N limitation is common.

Elevated co2 has Differential Effects on Five Species of Microalgae from a Subtropical Freshwater Lake: Possible Implications for Phytoplankton Species Composition

Rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations are predicted to have a significant impact on global phytoplankton populations. Of particular interest in freshwater systems are those species that produce toxins or impact water quality, though evidence for how these species, and many others, will respond is limited. This study investigated the effects of elevated CO₂ (1,000 ppm) relative to current atmospheric CO₂ partial pressures (400 ppm), on growth, cell size, carbon acquisition, and photophysiology of five freshwater phytoplankton species including a toxic cyanophyte, Raphidiopsis raciborskii, from Lake Wivenhoe, Australia. Effects of elevated CO₂ on growth rate varied between species; notably growth rate was considerably higher for Staurastrum sp. and significantly lower for Stichococcus sp. with a trend to lower growth rate for R. raciborskii. Surface area to volume ratio was significantly lower with elevated CO₂ , for all species except Cyclotella sp. Timing of maximum cell concentrations of those genera studied in monoculture occurred in the lake in order of CO₂ affinity when free CO₂ concentrations dropped below air equilibrium. The results presented here suggest that as atmospheric levels of CO₂ rise, R. raciborskii may become less of a problem to water quality, while some species of chlorophytes may become more dominant. This has implications for stakeholders of many freshwater systems.

Meta-analysis of multiple driver effects on marine phytoplankton highlights modulating role of pCO2

Responses of marine primary production to a changing climate are determined by a concert of multiple environmental changes, for example in temperature, light, pCO₂ , nutrients, and grazing. To make robust projections of future global marine primary production, it is crucial to understand multiple driver effects on phytoplankton. This meta-analysis quantifies individual and interactive effects of dual driver combinations on marine phytoplankton growth rates. Almost 50% of the single-species laboratory studies were excluded because central data and metadata (growth rates, carbonate system, experimental treatments) were insufficiently reported. The remaining data (42 studies) allowed for the analysis of interactions of pCO₂ with temperature, light, and nutrients, respectively. Growth rates mostly respond non-additively, whereby the interaction with increased pCO₂ profusely dampens growth-enhancing effects of high temperature and high light. Multiple and single driver effects on coccolithophores differ from other phytoplankton groups, especially in their high sensitivity to increasing pCO₂ . Polar species decrease their growth rate in response to high pCO₂ , while temperate and tropical species benefit under these conditions. Based on the observed interactions and projected changes, we anticipate primary productivity to: (a) first increase but eventually decrease in the Arctic Ocean once nutrient limitation outweighs the benefits of higher light availability; (b) decrease in the tropics and mid-latitudes due to intensifying nutrient limitation, possibly amplified by elevated pCO₂ ; and (c) increase in the Southern Ocean in view of higher nutrient availability and synergistic interaction with increasing pCO₂ . Growth-enhancing effect of high light and warming to coccolithophores, mainly Emiliania huxleyi, might increase their relative abundance as long as not offset by acidification. Dinoflagellates are expected to increase their relative abundance due to their positive growth response to increasing pCO₂ and light levels. Our analysis reveals gaps in the knowledge on multiple driver responses and provides recommendations for future work on phytoplankton.

Functional trait thermal acclimation differs across three species of mid-Atlantic harmful algae

Characterizing the thermal niche of harmful algae is crucial for understanding and projecting the effects of future climate change on harmful algal blooms. The effects of 6 different temperatures (18-32 °C) on the growth, photophysiology, and toxicity were examined in the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum, and the raphidophytes, Heterosigma akashiwo and Chattonella subsalsa from the Delaware Inland Bays (DIB). K. veneficum and H. akashiwo had skewed unimodal growth patterns, with temperature optima (Topt) at 28.6 and 27.3 °C respectively and an upper thermal niche limit of 32 °C. In contrast, C. subsalsa growth increased linearly with temperature, suggesting Topt and upper thermal boundaries >32 °C. K. veneficum photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency remained stable across all temperatures, while H. akashiwo PSII efficiency declined at higher temperature and C. subsalsa was susceptible to low temperature (~18 °C) photoinactivation. Cell toxicity thermal response was species-specific such that K. veneficum toxicity increased with temperature above Topt. Raphidophyte toxicity peaked at 25-28 °C and was in close agreement with Topt for growth in H. akashiwo but below C. subsalsa maximal growth. The mode of toxicity was markedly different between the dinoflagellate and the raphidophytes such that K. veneficum had greater hemolytic activity while the raphidophytes had pronounced fish gill cell toxicity. These results and patterns of natural abundance for these algae in the DIB suggest that continued ocean warming may contribute to C. subsalsa bloom formation while possibly promoting highly toxic blooms of K. veneficum.

Ocean acidification increases domoic acid contents during a spring to summer succession of coastal phytoplankton

Enrichment of the oceans with CO₂ may be beneficial for some marine phytoplankton, including harmful algae. Numerous laboratory experiments provided valuable insights into the effects of elevated pCO₂ on the growth and physiology of harmful algal species, including the production of phycotoxins. Experiments close to natural conditions are the next step to improve predictions, as they consider the complex interplay between biotic and abiotic factors that can confound the direct effects of ocean acidification. We therefore investigated the effect of ocean acidification on the occurrence and abundance of phycotoxins in bulk plankton samples during a long-term mesocosm experiment in the Gullmar Fjord, Sweden, an area frequently experiencing harmful algal blooms. During the experimental period, a total of seven phycotoxin-producing harmful algal genera were identified in the fjord, and in accordance, six toxin classes were detected. However, within the mesocosms, only domoic acid and the corresponding producer Pseudo-nitzschia spp. was observed. Despite high variation within treatments, significantly higher particulate domoic acid contents were measured in the mesocosms with elevated pCO₂. Higher particulate domoic acid contents were additionally associated with macronutrient limitation. The risks associated with potentially higher phycotoxin levels in the future ocean warrants attention and should be considered in prospective monitoring strategies for coastal marine waters.

Climate change and harmful benthic microalgae

Sea surface temperatures in the world's oceans are projected to warm by 0.4-1.4 °C by mid twenty-first century causing many tropical and sub-tropical harmful dinoflagellate genera like Gambierdiscus, Fukuyoa and Ostreopsis (benthic harmful algal bloom species, BHABs) to exhibit higher growth rates over much of their current geographic range, resulting in higher population densities. The primary exception to this trend will be in the tropics where temperatures exceed species-specific upper thermal tolerances (30-31 °C) beyond which growth slows significantly. As surface waters warm, migration to deeper habitats is expected to provide refuge. Range extensions of several degrees of latitude also are anticipated, but only where species-specific habitat requirements can be met (e.g., temperature, suitable substrate, low turbulence, light, salinity, pH). The current understanding of habitat requirements that determine species distributions are reviewed to provide fuller understanding of how individual species will respond to climate change from the present to 2055 while addressing the paucity of information on environmental factors controlling small-scale distribution in localized habitats. Based on the available information, we hypothesized how complex environmental interactions can influence abundance and potential range extensions of BHAB species in different biogeographic regions and identify sentinel sites appropriate for long-term monitoring programs to detect range extensions and reduce human health risks.

Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms: Insights and perspective

Climate change is transforming aquatic ecosystems. Coastal waters have experienced progressive warming, acidification, and deoxygenation that will intensify this century. At the same time, there is a scientific consensus that the public health, recreation, tourism, fishery, aquaculture, and ecosystem impacts from harmful algal blooms (HABs) have all increased over the past several decades. The extent to which climate change is intensifying these HABs is not fully clear, but there has been a wealth of research on this topic this century alone. Indeed, the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) approved in September 2019 was the first IPCC report to directly link HABs to climate change. In the Summary for Policy Makers, the report made the following declarations with "high confidence": In addition, the report specifically outlines a series of linkages between heat waves and HABs. These statements about HABs and climate change and the high levels of confidence ascribed to them provides clear evidence that the field of HABs and climate change has matured and has, perhaps, reached a first plateau of certainty. While there are well-documented global trends in HABs being promoted by human activity, including climate change, individual events are driven by local, regional, and global drivers, making it critical to carefully evaluate the conditions and responses at appropriate scales. It is within this context that the first Special Issue on Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms is published in Harmful Algae.

Diatoms Dominate and Alter Marine Food-Webs When CO2 Rises

Diatoms are so important in ocean food-webs that any human induced changes in their abundance could have major effects on the ecology of our seas. The large chain-forming diatom Biddulphia biddulphiana greatly increases in abundance as pCO2 increases along natural seawater CO2 gradients in the north Pacific Ocean. In areas with reference levels of pCO2, it was hard to find, but as seawater carbon dioxide levels rose, it replaced seaweeds and became the main habitat-forming species on the seabed. This diatom algal turf supported a marine invertebrate community that was much less diverse and completely differed from the benthic communities found at present-day levels of pCO2. Seawater CO2 enrichment stimulated the growth and photosynthetic efficiency of benthic diatoms, but reduced the abundance of calcified grazers such as gastropods and sea urchins. These observations suggest that ocean acidification will shift photic zone community composition so that coastal food-web structure and ecosystem function are homogenised, simplified, and more strongly affected by seasonal algal blooms.