Impact of nursing intervention on decreasing substances among homeless youth

The effectiveness of abstinence-based and harm reduction-based interventions in reducing problematic substance use in adults who are experiencing homelessness in high income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis: A systematic review

Background

Homelessness is a traumatic experience, and can have a devastating effect on those experiencing it. People who are homeless often face significant barriers when accessing public services, and have often experienced adverse childhood events, extreme social disadvantage, physical, emotional and sexual abuse, neglect, low self-esteem, poor physical and mental health, and much lower life expectancy compared to the general population. Rates of problematic substance use are disproportionately high, with many using drugs and alcohol to deal with the stress of living on the street, to keep warm, or to block out memories of previous abuse or trauma. Substance dependency can also create barriers to successful transition to stable housing.

Objectives

To understand the effectiveness of different substance use interventions for adults experiencing homelessness.

Search Methods

The primary source of studies for was the 4th edition of the Homelessness Effectiveness Studies Evidence and Gaps Maps (EGM). Searches for the EGM were completed in September 2021. Other potential studies were identified through a call for grey evidence, hand-searching key journals, and unpacking relevant systematic reviews.

Selection Criteria

Eligible studies were impact evaluations that involved some comparison group. We included studies that tested the effectiveness of substance use interventions, and measured substance use outcomes, for adults experiencing homelessness in high income countries.

Data Collection and Analysis

Descriptive characteristics and statistical information in included studies were coded and checked by at least two members of the review team. Studies selected for the review were assessed for confidence in the findings. Standardised effect sizes were calculated and, if a study did not provide sufficient raw data for the calculation of an effect size, author(s) were contacted to obtain these data. We used random-effects meta-analysis and robust-variance estimation procedures to synthesise effect sizes. If a study included multiple effects, we carried out a critical assessment to determine (even if only theoretically) whether the effects are likely to be dependent. Where dependent effects were identified, we used robust variance estimation to determine whether we can account for these. Where effect sizes were converted from a binary to continuous measure (or vice versa), we undertook a sensitivity analysis by running an additional analysis with these studies omitted. We also assessed the sensitivity of results to inclusion of non-randomised studies and studies classified as low confidence in findings. All included an assessment of statistical heterogeneity. Finally, we undertook analysis to assess whether publication bias was likely to be a factor in our findings. For those studies that we were unable to include in meta-analysis, we have provided a narrative synthesis of the study and its findings.

Main Results

We included 48 individual papers covering 34 unique studies. The studies covered 15, 255 participants, with all but one of the studies being from the United States and Canada. Most papers were rated as low confidence (n = 25, or 52%). By far the most common reason for studies being rated as low confidence was high rates of attrition and/or differential attrition of study participants, that fell below the What Works Clearinghouse liberal attrition standard. Eleven of the included studies were rated as medium confidence and 12 studies as high confidence. The interventions included in our analysis were more effective in reducing substance use than treatment as usual, with an overall effect size of -0.11 SD (95% confidence interval [CI], -0.27, 0.05). There was substantial heterogeneity across studies, and the results were sensitive to the removal of low confidence studies (-0.21 SD, 95% CI [-0.59, 0.17] - 6 studies, 17 effect sizes), the removal of quasi-experimental studies (-0.14 SD, 95% CI [-0.30, 0.02] - 14 studies, 41 effect sizes) and the removal of studies where an effect size had been converted from a binary to a continuous outcome (-0.08 SD, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.15] - 10 studies, 31 effect sizes). This suggests that the findings are sensitive to the inclusion of lower quality studies, although unusually the average effect increases when we removed low confidence studies. The average effect for abstinence-based interventions compared to treatment-as-usual (TAU) service provision was -0.28 SD (95% CI, -0.65, 0.09) (6 studies, 15 effect sizes), and for harm reduction interventions compared to a TAU service provision is close to 0 at 0.03 SD (95% CI, -0.08, 0.14) (9 studies, 30 effect sizes). The confidence intervals for both estimates are wide and crossing zero. For both, the comparison groups are primarily abstinence-based, with the exception of two studies where the comparison group condition was unclear. We found that both Assertative Community Treatment and Intensive Case Management were no better than treatment as usual, with average effect on substance use of 0.03 SD, 95% CI [-0.07, 0.13] and -0.47 SD, 95% CI [-0.72, -0.21] 0.05 SD, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.39] respectively. These findings are consistent with wider research, and it is important to note that we only examined the effect on substance use outcomes (these interventions can be effective in terms of other outcomes). We found that CM interventions can be effective in reducing substance use compared to treatment as usual, with an average effect of -0.47 SD, 95% CI (-0.72, -0.21). All of these results need to be considered in light of the quality of the underlying evidence. There were six further interventions where we undertook narrative synthesis. These syntheses suggest that Group Work, Harm Reduction Psychotherapy, and Therapeutic Communities are effective in reducing substance use, with mixed results found for Motivational Interviewing and Talking Therapies (including Cognitive Behavioural Therapy). The narrative synthesis suggested that Residential Rehabilitation was no better than treatment as usual in terms of reducing substance use for our population of interest.

Authors' Conclusions

Although our analysis of harm reduction versus treatment as usual, abstinence versus treatment as usual, and harm reduction versus abstinence suggests that these different approaches make little real difference to the outcomes achieved in comparison to treatment as usual. The findings suggest that some individual interventions are more effective than others. The overall low quality of the primary studies suggests that further primary impact research could be beneficial.

Design, Recruitment, and Implementation of Research Interventions Among Youth Experiencing Homelessness: A Systematic Review

Transitional age youth experiencing homelessness (TAY-EH) represent an underserved and understudied population. While an increasing number of empirical interventions have sought to address the high burden of psychopathology in this population, findings remain mixed regarding intervention effectiveness. In this systematic review of behavioral health interventions for TAY-EH, we sought to examine the structural framework in which these interventions take place and how these structures include or exclude certain populations of youth. We also examined implementation practices to identify how interventions involving youth and community stakeholders effectively engage these populations. Based on PRISMA guidelines, searches of Medline, PsycInfo, Embase, Cochrane Central, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were conducted, including English language literature published before October 2022. Eligible studies reported on interventions for adolescent or young adult populations ages 13-25 years experiencing homelessness. The initial search yielded 3850 citations; 353 underwent full text review and 48 met inclusion criteria, of which there were 33 unique studies. Studies revealed a need for greater geographic distribution of empirically based interventions, as well as interventions targeting TAY-EH in rural settings. Studies varied greatly regarding their operationalizations of homelessness and their method of intervention implementation, but generally indicated a need for increased direct-street outreach in participant recruitment and improved incorporation of youth feedback into intervention design. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review to examine the representation of various groups of TAY-EH in the literature on substance use and mental health interventions. Further intervention research engaging youth from various geographic locations and youth experiencing different forms of homelessness is needed to better address the behavioral health needs of a variety of TAY-EH.

Mediation of Psychological Capital in Youth Experiencing Homelessness

BACKGROUND

Youth who experience homelessness engage in behaviors that place them at high risk for disease and injury. Despite their health risk behaviors, these youth display psychological capital, positive attributes of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism that motivate them to engage in health-promoting behaviors such as safer sex. However, this array of positive psychological attributes has not been studied in this vulnerable population.

OBJECTIVES

The specific aim of this analysis was to determine whether factors of psychological capital mediated the relationship between background risk factors (e.g., race/ethnicity, educational attainment, reason for being homeless, sexual abuse history, and HIV status) and outcomes of condom intention, safer sex behaviors, and life satisfaction among youth who participated in a longitudinal intervention study.

METHODS

Using a Solomon four-group design, 602 youth were recruited from drop-in centers in two large cities (Columbus, Ohio, and Austin, Texas) to participate in a brief intervention that included outcomes of enhanced communication skills, goal setting, safer sex behaviors, drug refusal skills, and life satisfaction. Using an autoregressive, cross-lagged, longitudinal mediation model, we tested the direct and indirect effects of background factors, psychological capital, and intervention outcomes. Models were tested for the intervention group alone and the total sample.

RESULTS

There were no significant direct or indirect effects of background factors on intervention outcomes among the intervention group, and the model fit was poor. There were also no significant mediating paths via factors of psychological capital and poor model fit for the combined group.

DISCUSSION

Findings provide important information about intrinsic strengths of youth experiencing homelessness and psychological capital as a significant construct for understanding health behaviors among disadvantaged and underserved youth. The lack of significant mediation effects may have been due, in part, to the lack of a robust measure of psychological capital. Further study with various background factors and outcomes would contribute further to our understanding of how best to support this population.

Motives for alcohol use, risky drinking patterns and harm reduction practices among people who experience homelessness and alcohol dependence in Montreal

BACKGROUND

People experiencing homelessness are disproportionately affected by harms related to alcohol use. Indeed, their alcohol dependence is associated with numerous physical and mental health problems along with strikingly high rates of alcohol-related mortality. Recent research has extensively examined alcohol use patterns among people experiencing homelessness in an effort to develop interventions and treatments for this problem. However, only a few studies have incorporated the perspectives of the individuals under study about their drinking or examined the ways in which they manage the associated harms. To bridge this gap, we conducted a qualitative study exploring the relation between the drinking motives, risky drinking patterns and harm reduction practices of a group of people (n = 34) experiencing homelessness in Montreal, Canada.

METHODS

The qualitative methods we used consisted of semi-structured interviews (n = 12) and focus groups (n = 2, with a total of 22 participants). The content of the collected data was then analyzed.

RESULTS

Participants identified their various motives for alcohol use (coping with painful memories, dealing with harsh living conditions, socializing/seeking a sense of belonging, enjoying themselves/having fun); their risky drinking patterns (binge drinking, mixing alcohol with drugs, non-beverage alcohol drinking, failing to keep sufficient alcohol on hand to prevent acute withdrawal, drinking in public settings); their harm reduction practices (planning how much to drink, keeping a supply of alcohol to prevent acute withdrawal, hiding to drink, concealing alcohol, drinking alone, drinking/hanging out with others, drinking non-beverage alcohol, and taking benzodiazepines, cocaine or other stimulant drugs); and the rationales underpinning their alcohol use and harm reduction practices.

CONCLUSION

Associating the drinking motives of a group of study participants with their risky drinking patterns and harm reduction practices shed light on their rationales for alcohol use, yielding insights that could be used to better tailor policies and interventions to their needs.

Promoting Healthy Attitudes and Behaviors in Youth Who Experience Homelessness: Results of a Longitudinal Intervention Study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to determine the effectiveness of a brief intervention to promote responsible substance use and safe sex behaviors in youths experiencing homelessness (YEH).

METHODS

Design: A Solomon four-group (double randomized controlled trial) longitudinal design with repeated measures (3- and 6-month follow-ups) was used in drop-in centers for YEH in Austin, Texas and Columbus, Ohio from which 602 youths, 18-24 years-old (M = 21 ± 1.8), 50% white; 69.9% heterosexual were recruited. A manualized one-on-one intervention consisted of six modules delivered via laptop computers. Modules focused on communication, goal-setting, substance use refusal, safe sex behaviors, enhanced psychological capital (hope, optimism, resilience, self-efficacy, gratitude), and life satisfaction. Valid and reliable measures of hope, optimism, future time perspective, resilience, social connectedness, gratitude, condom intention, self-efficacy for safe sex, safe sex behaviors, self-efficacy for substance use refusal, and life satisfaction were used to collect data for which three hypotheses were tested, using intent to treat, with multi-level modeling (R).

RESULTS

The analysis showed partial support for all hypotheses: (1) post-test outcomes were greater than pretests; (2) intervention group outcomes were greater than control group measures; and (3) significant effects for pretesting. YEH in Ohio completed significantly more sessions than YEH in Texas (p = .001), but took significantly longer to complete all six sessions (p = .001).

DISCUSSION

This brief intervention had significant effects on YEH to promote healthy attitudes and behaviors that merit further testing in larger samples.

Opioid use disorder treatment for people experiencing homelessness: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

The opioid-related overdose epidemic remains a persistent public health problem in the United States and has been accelerated by the 2019 coronavirus disease pandemic. Existing, evidence-based treatment options for opioid use disorder (OUD) are broadly underutilized, particularly by people experiencing homelessness (PEH). PEH are also more likely to misuse and overdose on opioids. To better understand current gaps and disparities in OUD treatment experienced by PEH and efforts to address them, we synthesized the literature reporting on the intersection of housing status and OUD treatment.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review of the literature from the electronic databases MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, and Web of Science Core Collection. We included studies describing treatment-related outcomes specific to PEH and articles assessing OUD treatment interventions tailored to this population. Relevant findings were compiled via thematic analysis and narratively synthesized.

RESULTS

60 articles met our inclusion criteria, including 43 descriptive and 17 intervention-focused studies. These studies demonstrated that PEH experience more barriers to OUD treatment than their housed counterparts and access inpatient and detoxification treatment more commonly than pharmacotherapy. However, the reviewed literature indicated that PEH have similar outcomes once engaged in pharmacotherapy. Efficacious interventions for PEH were low-barrier and targeted, with housing interventions also demonstrating benefit.

CONCLUSIONS

PEH have diminished access to evidence-based OUD treatment, particularly medications, and require targeted approaches to improve engagement and retention. To mitigate the disproportionate opioid-related morbidity and mortality PEH experience, innovative, flexible, and interdisciplinary OUD treatment models are necessary, with housing support playing an important role.

A Nurse Case Management HIV Prevention Intervention (Come As You Are) for Youth Experiencing Homelessness: Protocol for a Randomized Wait-list Controlled Trial

Background

Youth experiencing homelessness are more likely than housed youth to experience premature death, suicide, drug overdose, pregnancy, substance use, and mental illness. Yet while youth experiencing homelessness are 6 to 12 times more likely to become infected with HIV than housed youth, with HIV prevalence as high as 16%, many do not access the prevention services they need. Despite adversities, youth experiencing homelessness are interested in health promotion programs, can be recruited and retained in interventions and research studies, and demonstrate improved outcomes when programs are tailored and relevant to them.

Objective

The study aims to compare the efficacy of a nurse case management HIV prevention and care intervention, titled Come As You Are, with that of usual care among youth experiencing homelessness aged 16 to 25 years.

Methods

The study is designed as a 2-armed randomized wait-list controlled trial. Participants (n=450) will be recruited and followed up for 9 months after the intervention for a total study period of 12 months. Come As You Are combines nurse case management with a smartphone-based daily ecological momentary assessment to develop participant-driven HIV prevention behavioral goals that can be monitored in real-time. Youth in the city of Houston, Texas will be recruited from drop-in centers, shelters, street outreach programs, youth-serving organizations, and clinics.

Results

Institutional review board approval (Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston) was obtained in November 2018. The first participant was enrolled in November 2019. Data collection is ongoing. To date, 123 participants have consented to participate in the study, 89 have been enrolled, and 15 have completed their final follow-up.

Conclusions

There is a paucity of HIV prevention research regarding youth experiencing homelessness. Novel and scalable interventions that address the full continuum of behavioral and biomedical HIV prevention are needed. This study will determine whether a personalized and mobile HIV prevention approach can reduce HIV risk among a hard-to-reach, transient population of youth at high risk.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/26716

Interventions to reduce tobacco use in people experiencing homelessness

BACKGROUND

Populations experiencing homelessness have high rates of tobacco use and experience substantial barriers to cessation. Tobacco-caused conditions are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among people experiencing homelessness, highlighting an urgent need for interventions to reduce the burden of tobacco use in this population.

OBJECTIVES

To assess whether interventions designed to improve access to tobacco cessation interventions for adults experiencing homelessness lead to increased numbers engaging in or receiving treatment, and whether interventions designed to help adults experiencing homelessness to quit tobacco lead to increased tobacco abstinence. To also assess whether tobacco cessation interventions for adults experiencing homelessness affect substance use and mental health.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialized Register, MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO for studies using the terms: un-housed*, homeless*, housing instability, smoking cessation, tobacco use disorder, smokeless tobacco. We also searched trial registries to identify unpublished studies. Date of the most recent search: 06 January 2020.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized controlled trials that recruited people experiencing homelessness who used tobacco, and investigated interventions focused on the following: 1) improving access to relevant support services; 2) increasing motivation to quit tobacco use; 3) helping people to achieve abstinence, including but not limited to behavioral support, tobacco cessation pharmacotherapies, contingency management, and text- or app-based interventions; or 4) encouraging transitions to long-term nicotine use that did not involve tobacco. Eligible comparators included no intervention, usual care (as defined by the studies), or another form of active intervention.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We followed standard Cochrane methods. Tobacco cessation was measured at the longest time point for each study, on an intention-to-treat basis, using the most rigorous definition available. We calculated risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for smoking cessation for each study where possible. We grouped eligible studies according to the type of comparison (contingent reinforcement in addition to usual smoking cessation care; more versus less intensive smoking cessation interventions; and multi-issue support versus smoking cessation support only), and carried out meta-analyses where appropriate, using a Mantel-Haenszel random-effects model. We also extracted data on quit attempts, effects on mental and substance-use severity, and meta-analyzed these outcomes where sufficient data were available.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 10 studies involving 1634 participants who smoked combustible tobacco at enrolment. One of the studies was ongoing. Most of the trials included participants who were recruited from community-based sites such as shelters, and three included participants who were recruited from clinics. We judged three studies to be at high risk of bias in one or more domains. We identified low-certainty evidence, limited by imprecision, that contingent reinforcement (rewards for successful smoking cessation) plus usual smoking cessation care was not more effective than usual care alone in promoting abstinence (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.16 to 2.77; 1 trial, 70 participants). We identified very low-certainty evidence, limited by risk of bias and imprecision, that more intensive behavioral smoking cessation support was more effective than brief intervention in promoting abstinence at six-month follow-up (RR 1.64, 95% CI 1.01 to 2.69; 3 trials, 657 participants; I2 = 0%). There was low-certainty evidence, limited by bias and imprecision, that multi-issue support (cessation support that also encompassed help to deal with other challenges or addictions) was not superior to targeted smoking cessation support in promoting abstinence (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.35 to 2.61; 2 trials, 146 participants; I2 = 25%). More data on these types of interventions are likely to change our interpretation of these data. Single studies that examined the effects of text-messaging support, e-cigarettes, or cognitive behavioral therapy for smoking cessation provided inconclusive results. Data on secondary outcomes, including mental health and substance use severity, were too sparse to draw any meaningful conclusions on whether there were clinically-relevant differences. We did not identify any studies that explicitly assessed interventions to increase access to tobacco cessation care; we were therefore unable to assess our secondary outcome 'number of participants receiving treatment'.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence to assess the effects of any tobacco cessation interventions specifically in people experiencing homelessness. Although there was some evidence to suggest a modest benefit of more intensive behavioral smoking cessation interventions when compared to less intensive interventions, our certainty in this evidence was very low, meaning that further research could either strengthen or weaken this effect. There is insufficient evidence to assess whether the provision of tobacco cessation support and its effects on quit attempts has any effect on the mental health or other substance-use outcomes of people experiencing homelessness. Although there is no reason to believe that standard tobacco cessation treatments work any differently in people experiencing homelessness than in the general population, these findings highlight a need for high-quality studies that address additional ways to engage and support people experiencing homelessness, in the context of the daily challenges they face. These studies should have adequate power and put effort into retaining participants for long-term follow-up of at least six months. Studies should also explore interventions that increase access to cessation services, and address the social and environmental influences of tobacco use among people experiencing homelessness. Finally, studies should explore the impact of tobacco cessation on mental health and substance-use outcomes.

Mobile-Enhanced Prevention Support Study for Men Who Have Sex With Men and Transgender Women Leaving Jail: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women, particularly those who have experienced criminal justice involvement, have particularly high HIV burdens, and a majority of those in jail have substance use disorders (SUDs). MSM and transgender women also experience elevated rates of incarceration. Once community re-entry occurs, individuals are in a critical period for addressing potential risks of HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) acquisition and negative sequelae of substance use. Further, the impact experienced by one's social and sexual networks experienced at the time of detention and release have important health implications for MSM and transgender women.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to test a new intervention-Mobile-Enhanced Prevention Support (MEPS)-that involves a GPS-based mobile app called GeoPassport (referred to as GeoPass in practice), incentives, and peer support for promoting HIV prevention, substance use treatment, and use of related services.

METHODS

A two-arm, unblinded, randomized controlled trial will seek to enroll 300 HIV-negative MSM and transgender women, aged 18-49 years, with SUDs, who are either in jail or have recently left jail. Participants will be enrolled by study staff and randomized to the MEPS intervention group or usual care group. The intervention group will receive customized wellness goals in addition to GeoPass, cash incentives, and the support of a trained peer mentor for 6 months. Data collection will consist of a baseline survey and three follow-up surveys at 3, 6, and 9 months postenrollment, either in person or by phone or videoconference when necessary. The primary outcomes include establishing a primary care provider; being prescribed and adhering to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV; screening for HIV, STIs, and hepatitis C virus; and engagement in recommended treatment for SUDs. Secondary outcomes include obtaining treatment for any identified infections and avoiding recidivism.

RESULTS

Enrollment began in November 2019 and study completion is expected in 2023.

CONCLUSIONS

This study will advance our knowledge base on patient navigation and peer mentor interventions. Peer navigation services have been studied for the treatment of HIV, but less often in the context of HIV and STI prevention among sexual and gender minority populations at the time of re-entry into the community from jail. The MEPS study will examine the acceptability and feasibility of combining peer mentor services with a mobile app to facilitate service utilization and participant-peer mentor communication. MEPS will assess patterns of PrEP uptake and utilization in MSM and transgender women leaving jail. The study will provide heretofore unavailable data from persons leaving jail regarding HIV PrEP, STI screening, substance abuse treatment, and service utilization patterns and experiences, including geocoded data for those in the intervention arm.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04036396); https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04036396.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/18106.

Exploring the Relationship between Foster Care Experiences and Social Network Engagement Among a Sample of Homeless Former Foster Youth

INTRODUCTION

Recent research has begun to demonstrate high rates of poor behavioral health outcomes among homeless former foster, but with relatively little attention in the scientific literature. Because social networks have been shown to impact behavioral health outcomes, we need to better understand the network characteristics of homeless young adults with a history of foster care.

METHODS

Data were collected from 184 homeless former foster youth at a drop-in center in Hollywood, California. A series of logistic regressions were conducted for network engagement behaviors that may be impacted by foster care experiences.

RESULTS

Youth were largely African American, Latino, and Mixed race, approximately 22 years old, and majority male. Significant results from the logistic regressions indicated that youth experiencing homelessness for the first time before exiting foster care were more likely to have alters engaging in condomless sex, and youth with higher numbers of foster care placements were more likely to have alters engaging in methamphetamine use.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that certain foster care experiences impact the types of alters with which youths engage. Time spent in placement was significantly associated with alter behaviors, evident from homeless experiences and multiple foster care placements, negatively impacting the types of alters with which youths are connected, and thusly the risk factors for the youth themselves. Frequent network disruptions may be associated with engagement with risky alters. Included are intervention-based implications for providers as well as structural-based implications for child welfare systems.

On the fringes: How youth experiencing homelessness conceptualize social and economic inequality-A Photovoice study

This study used Photovoice methods with young adults experiencing homelessness to collaboratively identify issues that are of greatest importance in an open-ended, exploratory, and inductive manner. Participants selected two concepts to focus their inquiry: freedom and prosperity. Within these concepts, participants discussed nature as a source of inspiration, a desire to better themselves and to change their situations, and passion for contributing to social change by exposing economic inequality and raising awareness about homelessness. These findings demonstrate that young people are keenly aware of the structural and macro-level factors that have contributed to their risks of social exclusion and marginalization.

Recruitment and Retention of Homeless Youth in a Substance Use and HIV-risk Reduction Program

Conducting intervention studies with homeless populations can be difficult, particularly in terms of retaining participants across multiple sessions and locating them for subsequent follow-up assessments. Homeless youth are even more challenging to engage due to substance use, mental health problems, wariness of authority figures, and frequent relocations. This article describes methods used to successfully recruit a sample of 200 homeless youth from two drop-in centers in Los Angeles, engage them in a four-session substance use and sexual risk reduction program (79% of youth attended multiple sessions), and retain 91% of the full sample at a three-month follow-up assessment. Our experience indicates that utilizing structured project materials and having a small dedicated staff are essential to recruitment and retention efforts for intervention studies with homeless youth. Using these and other nontraditional methods are likely necessary to engage this at-risk yet hard-to-reach population.

Cost-effective way to reduce stimulant-abuse among gay/bisexual men and transgender women: a randomized clinical trial with a cost comparison

OBJECTIVES

A randomized controlled study was conducted with 422 homeless, stimulant-using gay/bisexual (G/B) men and 29 transgender women (n = 451) to assess two community-based interventions to reduce substance abuse and improve health: (a) a nurse case-managed program combined with contingency management (NCM + CM) versus (b) standard education plus contingency management (SE + CM).

STUDY DESIGN

Hypotheses tested included: a) completion of hepatitis A/B vaccination series; b) reduction in stimulant use; and c) reduction in number of sexual partners.

METHODS

A deconstructive cost analysis approach was utilized to capture direct costs associated with the delivery of both interventions. Based on an analysis of activity logs and staff interviews, specific activities and the time required to complete each were analyzed as follows: a) NCM + CM only; b) SE + CM only; c) time to administer/record vaccines; and d) time to receive and record CM visits. Cost comparison of the interventions included only staffing costs and direct cash expenditures.

RESULTS

The study outcomes showed significant over time reductions in all measures of drug use and multiple sex partners, compared to baseline, although no significant between-group differences were detected. Cost analysis favored the simpler SE + CM intervention over the more labor-intensive NCM + CM approach. Because of the high levels of staffing required for the NCM relative to SE, costs associated with it were significantly higher.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that while both intervention strategies were equally effective in achieving desired health outcomes, the brief SE + CM appeared less expensive to deliver.

"Good Passengers and Not Good Passengers:" Adolescent Drivers' Perceptions About Inattention and Peer Passengers

PURPOSE

The purpose of this qualitative focus group elicitation research study was to explore teen driver perceptions of peer passengers and driver inattention.

DESIGN & METHODS

We utilized focus groups for data collection and content analysis to analyze the data, both of which were guided by the theory of planned behavior. We conducted 7 focus groups with 30 teens, ages 16-18, licensed for ≤1year to examine attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and norms related to driving inattention and peer passengers.

RESULTS

The sample was 50% male, mean age 17.39 (SD 0.52) with mean length of licensure 173.7days (SD 109.2). Three themes emerged: 1) "Good and not good" passengers; 2) Passengers and technology as harmful and helpful; and 3) The driver is in charge.

CONCLUSIONS

While passengers can be a source of distraction, our participants also identified passenger behaviors that reduced risk, such as assistance with technology and guidance for directions.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

An understanding of teens' perceptions of peer passengers can contribute to the development of effective interventions targeting teen driver inattention. Nurses are well-positioned to contribute to these teen crash prevention efforts.

Impact of Community-Based Programs on Incarceration Outcomes Among Gay and Bisexual Stimulant-Using Homeless Adults

This study was part of a randomized controlled trial designed to improve hepatitis knowledge and health promoting behaviors and subsequently decrease stimulant use and incarceration with 422 (G/B) homeless men between 18 and 46 years of age. Findings revealed that no significant program differences on incarceration in the 4 months following the intervention. However, younger participants (p = .010), and those with prior incarceration (p = .001) were at greater risk for incarceration at 4 months. An additional factor associated with incarceration at 4 months included living on the street for at least 1 week (p = .049).

A randomized clinical trial of tailored interventions for health promotion and recidivism reduction among homeless parolees: outcomes and cost analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study conducted a randomized controlled trial with 600 recently released homeless men exiting California jails and prisons.

METHODS

The purpose of this study was to primarily ascertain how different levels of intensity in peer coaching and nurse-partnered intervention programs may impact reentry outcomes; specifically: (a) an intensive peer coach and nurse case managed (PC-NCM) program; (b) an intermediate peer coaching (PC) program with brief nurse counseling; and (c) the usual care (UC) program involving limited peer coaching and brief nurse counseling. Secondary outcomes evaluated the operational cost of each program.

RESULTS

When compared to baseline, all three groups made progress on key health-related outcomes during the 12-month intervention period; further, 84.5 % of all participants eligible for hepatitis A/B vaccination completed their vaccine series. The results of the detailed operational cost analysis suggest the least costly approach (i.e., UC), which accounted for only 2.11 % of the total project expenditure, was as effective in achieving comparable outcomes for this parolee population as the PC-NCM and PC approaches, which accounted for 53.98 % and 43.91 %, respectively, of the project budget.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, all three intervention strategies were found to be comparable in achieving a high rate of vaccine completion, which over time will likely produce tremendous savings to the public health system.

Impact of an intervention for recently released homeless offenders on self-reported re-arrest at 6 and 12 months

A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 600 paroled men, homeless prior to incarceration, to assess varying levels of peer-coach and nurse-partnered interventions on re-arrest at 6 and 12 months. Findings revealed that positive predictors of re-arrest at 12 months included having received social support from drug users and non-drug users, as well as having used marijuana at least once a week prior to their most recent incarceration. In terms of protective factors, those who participated in a substance abuse program contract within a residential drug treatment program or spent 90 days or greater in a residential drug treatment program were less likely to have been re-arrested within 12 months.

Interventions for promoting reintegration and reducing harmful behaviour and lifestyles in street-connected children and young people

BACKGROUND

Millions of street-connected children and young people worldwide live or work in street environments. They are vulnerable to many risks, whether or not they remain connected to families of origin, and despite many strengths and resiliencies, they are excluded from mainstream social structures and opportunities.

OBJECTIVES

Primary research objectivesTo evaluate and summarise the effectiveness of interventions for street-connected children and young people that aim to:• promote inclusion and reintegration;• increase literacy and numeracy;• facilitate access to education and employment;• promote mental health, including self esteem;• reduce harms associated with early sexual activity and substance misuse. Secondary research objectives• To explore whether effects of interventions differ within and between populations, and whether an equity gradient influences these effects, by extrapolating from all findings relevance for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Peters 2004).• To describe other health, educational, psychosocial and behavioural effects, when appropriate outcomes are reported.• To explore the influence of context in design, delivery and outcomes of interventions.• To explore the relationship between numbers of components and duration and effects of interventions.• To highlight implications of these findings for further research and research methods to improve evidence in relation to the primary research objective.• To consider adverse or unintended outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following bibliographic databases, searched for the original review, from inception to 2012, and various relevant non-governmental and organisational websites: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE and Pre-MEDLINE; EMBASE and EMBASE Classic; Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL); PsycINFO; Education Resource Information Center (ERIC); Sociological Abstracts; Social Services Abstracts; Social Work Abstracts; Healthstar; Latin American Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS); System for Grey literature in Europe (OpenGrey); ProQuest Dissertations and Theses; EconLit; IDEAS Economics and Finance Research; JOLIS Library Catalog of the holdings of the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) Libraries; British Library for Development Studies (BLDS); Google and Google Scholar. We updated the search in April 2015 for the review update, using the same methods.

SELECTION CRITERIA

This review includes data from harm reduction or reintegration intervention studies that used a comparison group study design; all were randomised or quasi-randomised studies. Studies were included if they evaluated interventions provided for street-connected children and young people, from birth to 24 years, in all contexts.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias and other factors presented in the Discussion and Summary quality assessment (Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE)). We extracted data on intervention delivery, context, process factors, equity and outcomes, and grouped outcomes into psychosocial outcomes, risky sexual behaviours or substance use. We conducted meta-analyses for outcomes where the outcome measures were sufficiently similar. We evaluated other outcomes narratively.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 13 studies evaluating 19 interventions from high-income countries (HICs). We found no sufficiently robust evaluations conducted in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Study quality overall was low and measurements used by studies variable. Participants were classified as drop-in and shelter-based. No studies measured the primary outcome of reintegration and none reported on adverse effects.We found no consistent results on a range of relevant outcomes within domains of psychosocial health, substance misuse and sexually risky behaviours . Interventions evaluated consisted of time-limited therapeutically based programmes that proved no more effective than standard shelter or drop-in services and other control interventions used for most outcomes in most studies. Favourable changes from baseline were reported for outcomes for most participants following therapy interventions and standard services. We noted considerable heterogeneity between studies and inconsistent reporting of equity data. No studies measured the primary outcome of reintegration or reported on adverse effects.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Analysis revealed no consistently significant benefit for focused therapeutic interventions compared with standard services such as drop-in centres, case management and other comparable interventions for street-connected children and young people. Commonly available services, however, were not rigorously evaluated. Robust evaluation of interventions, including comparison with no intervention, would establish a more reliable evidence base to inform service implementation. More robust research is needed in LMICs to examine interventions for street-connected children and young people with different backgrounds and service needs.

Correlates of frailty among homeless adults

Frailty, a relatively unexplored concept among vulnerable populations, may be a significant issue for homeless adults. This cross-sectional study assessed correlates of frailty among middle age and older homeless adults (N = 150, 40-73). A Pearson (r) bivariate correlation revealed a weak relationship between frailty and being female (r = .230, p < .01). Significant moderate negative correlations were found between frailty and resilience (r = -.395, p < .01), social support (r = -.377, p < .01), and nutrition (r = -.652, p < .01). Furthermore, Spearman's rho (r s) bivariate correlations revealed a moderate positive relationship between frailty and health care utilization (r(s) = .444, p < .01). A stepwise backward linear regression analysis was conducted and in the final model, age, gender, health care utilization, nutrition, and resilience were significantly related to frailty. Over the next two decades, there is an anticipated increase in the number of homeless adults which will necessitate a greater understanding of the needs of this hard-to-reach population.

Impact of nursing intervention on improving HIV, hepatitis knowledge and mental health among homeless young adults

In a prospective two-group pilot study of a convenient sample of 156 young adults, we assessed improvement in HIV cognitive and transmission knowledge, hepatitis knowledge, and mental health at six-month follow-up. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed higher six-month scores in total HIV/AIDS knowledge, HIV/AIDS cognitive knowledge, HIV transmission knowledge and HBV and HCV knowledge at 6 months in the Hepatitis Health Promotion (HHP) group compared to the Art Messaging (AM) group. Moreover, homeless young participants who reported having significant others in their lives, and excellent or very good health did better than their counterparts. Youth who were attempting to get their lives together had higher scores for all types of knowledge except HBV. Hallucinogen users had significantly worse scores on all knowledge measures than non-users. Lastly, the HHP group revealed an improvement in psychological well-being compared to the AM group.