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Artem'eva KA, Boltovskaya MN, Bogdanova IM, Obernikhin SS, Stepanova II, Stepanov AA, Svitich OA, Kalyuzhin OV. Proliferative Activity of Mouse Splenocytes in Physiological Pregnancy and in Models of Spontaneous and Muramylpeptide-Dependent Abortions. Bull Exp Biol Med 2020; 168:757-760. [PMID: 32328935 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-020-04796-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous proliferative activity of splenocytes in female CBA mice and the response of these cells to antigens of allogeneic male BALB/c and DBA/2 mice in a mixed splenocyte culture were evaluated by 3H-thymidine incorporation in different pregnancy models. ♀CBA×♂BALB/c mating was used for modeling physiological pregnancy. Spontaneous abortions were reproduced by abortion-prone ♀CBA×♂DBA/2 mating. In order to simulate immunostimulant-induced and immunostimulant-potentiated abortions, 0.83 mg/kg muramyl dipeptide β-heptylglycoside was intraperitoneally injected to CBA females mated with BALB/c or DBA/2 males, respectively, on gestation days 5 and 7. The increase in the rate of embryo resorption in the models of spontaneous, induced, and potentiated abortions occurred against the background of an increase in the level of spontaneous proliferation of splenocytes and a decrease in their reactivity to paternal antigens on gestation day 9.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Artem'eva
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - I M Bogdanova
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - I I Stepanova
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | - A A Stepanov
- Research Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | - O A Svitich
- I. I. Mechnikov Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera, Moscow, Russia
| | - O V Kalyuzhin
- I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (Sechenov University), Moscow, Russia.
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Clark DA. The importance of being a regulatory T cell in pregnancy. J Reprod Immunol 2016; 116:60-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2016.04.288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Bonney EA, Brown SA. To drive or be driven: the path of a mouse model of recurrent pregnancy loss. Reproduction 2014; 147:R153-67. [PMID: 24472815 DOI: 10.1530/rep-13-0583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This review is an example of the use of an animal model to try to understand the immune biology of pregnancy. A well-known model of recurrent spontaneous pregnancy loss is put in clinical, historical, and theoretical context, with emphasis on T cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Bonney
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Given Building, 89 Beaumont Avenue, Burlington, Vermont 05404, USA
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Maynard TM, Gopalakrishna D, Meechan DW, Paronett EM, Newbern JM, LaMantia AS. 22q11 Gene dosage establishes an adaptive range for sonic hedgehog and retinoic acid signaling during early development. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 22:300-12. [PMID: 23077214 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We asked whether key morphogenetic signaling pathways interact with 22q11 gene dosage to modulate the severity of cranial or cardiac anomalies in DiGeorge/22q1 deletion syndrome (22q11DS). Sonic hedgehog (Shh) and retinoic acid (RA) signaling is altered in the brain and heart-clinically significant 22q11DS phenotypic sites-in LgDel mouse embryos, an established 22q11DS model. LgDel embryos treated with cyclopamine, an Shh inhibitor, or carrying mutations in Gli3(Xtj), an Shh-signaling effector, have morphogenetic anomalies that are either not seen, or seen at significantly lower frequencies in control or single-mutant embryos. Similarly, RA exposure or genetic loss of RA function via heterozygous mutation of the RA synthetic enzyme Raldh2 induces novel cranial anomalies and enhances cardiovascular phenotypes in LgDel but not other genotypes. These changes are not seen in heterozygous Tbx1 mutant embryos-a 22q11 gene thought to explain much of 22q11DS pathogenesis-in which Shh or RA signaling has been similarly modified. Our results suggest that full dosage of 22q11 genes beyond Tbx1 establish an adaptive range for morphogenetic signaling via Shh and RA. When this adaptive range is constricted by diminished dosage of 22q11 genes, embryos are sensitized to otherwise benign changes in Shh and RA signaling. Such sensitization, in the face of environmental or genetic factors that modify Shh or RA signaling, may explain variability in 22q11DS morphogenetic phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Maynard
- GW Institute for Neuroscience and Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA
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Dow TL, Rogers-Nieman G, Holásková I, Elsasser TH, Dailey RA. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and acute-phase proteins in early pregnant ewes after challenge with peptidoglycan-polysaccharide. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2010; 39:147-54. [PMID: 20603027 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 04/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial infection shortly after mating interferes with establishment of pregnancy. Injection of peptidoglycan-polysaccharide (PG-PS), a component of gram-positive bacteria, into sheep on day 5 after mating reduces pregnancy rate. Experiments were designed to evaluate the acute-phase response (APR) in ewes to injection of PG-PS on day 5 after mating (day 0). Catheters were inserted into the jugular and posterior vena cava on day 4. On day 5, ewes were challenged with saline or 30 microg/kg body weight (BW) PG-PS (Exp 1) or 60 microg/kg BW PG-PS (Exp 2). Blood samples were collected every 15 min for 6 h (Exp 1) and every 15 min for 2 h, hourly for 12 h, and at 24, 36, and 48 h (Exp 2). Body temperature and clinical signs of infection were monitored in Exp 2. Plasma was assayed for concentrations of a pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha); 2 APR proteins, serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp); and progesterone (P(4)). Ewes injected with 60 microg/kg BW PG-PS exhibited fever, vaginal discharge, loss of appetite, and lethargy. After challenge with either 30 microg/kg or 60 microg/kg BW PG-PS, TNF-alpha increased in the posterior vena cava. Concentrations of SAA and Hp in the jugular increased after challenge with 60 microg/kg BW PG-PS. Only half (5/10) of the ewes treated with 60 microg/kg BW PG-PS had ultrasonically visible embryos, and none of them had functional corpora lutea (CL) (<1 ng/mL of P(4)) on day 21. On the other hand, 8/9 (88.9%) control ewes had visible embryos and all had functional CL on day 21. Using logistic regression, pregnancy on day 21 was predicted to depend on concentrations of TNF-alpha and Hp on day 5 and concentration of P(4) on day 14. In summary, injection of PG-PS on day 5 after mating resulted in fever; increased concentrations of TNF-alpha, Hp, and SAA on the day of and the day after the PG-PS challenge; and decreased concentrations of P(4) on days 14 and 21. These factors were related to failure to establish pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Dow
- Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6108, USA
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Clark DA, Chaouat G, Banwatt D, Friebe A, Arck PC. Ecology of danger-dependent cytokine-boosted spontaneous abortion in the CBA x DBA/2 mouse model: II. Fecal LPS levels in colonies with different basal abortion rates. Am J Reprod Immunol 2009; 60:529-33. [PMID: 19032614 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2008.00652.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Previous data have shown that 'danger' signals, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) acting via toll-like receptors (TLR), are conditions antecedent to early pregnancy failure in several murine abortion models. Indeed, the abortion rate increased in the CBA x DBA/2 model after injection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) + interferon (IFN-gamma) on gestation day (GD) 7.5 only if the LPS-TLR signaling pathway was intact. High rates of cytokine-boosted abortion >80% loss can be demonstrable in certain animal colonies that have a high endogenous (spontaneous) rate of resorption (30-50%). A specific role for LPS on GD 0.5 determines the endogenous loss rate and on GD 6.5 the responsiveness to cytokine boosting of losses. Th1 cytokines (or the stress that induces these cytokines) increase intestinal permeability and absorption of luminal contents. It was predicted that intestinal availability of LPS was a major factor in the endogenous and cytokine-boosted resorption rates. METHOD OF STUDY A fixed weight of fresh mouse droppings from CBA/J female mice house in a high-abortion-rate (30-40%) colony at Clamart, France was homogenized and filtered. Fresh mouse droppings from a low-abortion-rate (10-15%) colony in Berlin, Germany were similarly processed. LPS was assayed using the Limulus amoebocyte lysate bioassay. RESULTS To our surprise, there was no significant difference in LPS content of fecal samples from the two colonies. CONCLUSION A high endogenous rate of abortion and cytokine (or stress) boosted abortion in the CBA x DBA/2 model is not explained by the LPS content of feces. Possible explanations include: fecal LPS does not reflect small intestinal LPS, there are additional TLR signals besides LPS that are important and endogenous stress levels may be higher in high-abortion-rate colonies, so permeability of the intestine (and Th1 cytokine levels) may be already higher. These data have implications for studies on the role of flora in human pregnancy problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Clark
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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Wimmer G, Pihlstrom BL. A critical assessment of adverse pregnancy outcome and periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 2009; 35:380-97. [PMID: 18724864 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-051x.2008.01284.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pre-term birth is a major cause of infant mortality and morbidity that has considerable societal, medical, and economic costs. The rate of pre-term birth appears to be increasing world-wide and efforts to prevent or reduce its prevalence have been largely unsuccessful. AIM To review the literature for studies investigating periodontal disease as a possible risk factor for pre-term birth and adverse pregnancy outcomes. MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION Variability among studies in definitions of periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes as well as widespread inadequate control for confounding factors and possible effect modification make it difficult to base meaningful conclusions on published data. However, while there are indications of an association between periodontal disease and increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcome in some populations, there is no conclusive evidence that treating periodontal disease improves birth outcome. Based on a critical qualitative review, available evidence from clinical trials indicates that, although non-surgical mechanical periodontal treatment in the second trimester of pregnancy is safe and effective in reducing signs of maternal periodontal disease, it does not reduce the rate of pre-term birth. Clinical trials currently underway will further clarify the potential role of periodontal therapy in preventing adverse birth outcomes. Regardless of the outcomes of these trials, it is recommended that large, prospective cohort studies be conducted to assess risk for adverse pregnancy outcome in populations with periodontal disease. It is critical that periodontal exposure and adverse birth outcomes be clearly defined and the many potential confounding factors and possible effect modifiers for adverse pregnancy outcome be controlled in these studies. If periodontal disease is associated with higher risk of adverse pregnancy outcome in these specific populations, large multicenter randomized-controlled trials will be needed to determine if prevention or treatment of periodontal disease, perhaps combined with other interventions, has an effect on adverse pregnancy outcome in these women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gernot Wimmer
- Department of Dentistry and Maxillofacial Surgery, Division of Prosthodontics, Restorative Dentistry, Periodontology and Implantology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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Kundert JA, Sealey AL, Li Y, Capecchi MR, Schmidt EE. Syngeneic immune-dependent abortions in mice suggest paternal alloantigen-independent mechanisms. Am J Reprod Immunol 2008; 60:290-7. [PMID: 18759828 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2008.00622.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Recurrent immune-associated miscarriages in humans are thought to result from maternal immune responses to paternal alloantigens. We investigated the role of paternal alloantigens in a mouse model of immune-dependent abortion. METHOD OF STUDY Sib-crosses of C57Bl/6J (haplotype b/b) mice heterozygous for a targeted hypomorphic allele of the tbp gene (tbp(deltaN/+)) resulted in selective mid-gestational abortion of 88% of the tbp(deltaN/deltaN) fetuses. In dams lacking mature lymphocytes (rag1-/-), nearly all tbp(deltaN/deltaN) fetuses survived to birth, indicating abortions were immune-dependent. Allogeneic pregnancies bearing tbp(deltaN/deltaN) fetuses were established by either hybridizing the paternal lineage to BALB/cJ (haplotype d/d) and mating hybrid tbp(deltaN/+) sires to haplotype b/b tbp(deltaN/+) C57Bl/6J dams, or by transfer of haplotype b/b zygotes from tbp(deltaN/+)x tbp(deltaN/+) matings into pseudopregnant wild-type CByD2F1/J dams (haplotype d/d). RESULTS Neither hemizygous paternal allogeneic loci nor homozygous allogeneic loci, including a haplotype-mismatched major histocompatibility complex (MHC), increased abortion frequencies. CONCLUSION Results suggested that mechanisms for maternal tolerance of paternal alloantigens, including mismatched MHC antigens, were intact in these pregnancies, yet maternal immune-dependent paternal antigen-independent abortion of mutants occurred. These data indicate that, in some cases of immune-mediated abortions, the presence of paternal alloantigens can be coincidental and superfluous to the compromising rejection response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean A Kundert
- Animal Resources Center, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
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Beldomenico PM, Telfer S, Gebert S, Lukomski L, Bennett M, Begon M. Azurocytes in wild field voles: factors associated with their occurrence. ECOHEALTH 2008; 5:317-27. [PMID: 18704584 PMCID: PMC2742602 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-008-0186-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2008] [Revised: 05/28/2008] [Accepted: 06/08/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of azurocytes (AZ), a type of leukocyte unique to voles and previously described for three Microtus species, is now reported in Microtus agrestis. The goal of this study was to shed new light on the possible function and significance of these cells and on how they play a role in the natural history of rodent species. Individuals from three vole populations were sampled monthly for 2 years. A hemogram was produced for each individual, and AZ counts estimated. The counts of AZ were much higher in pregnant females, and these levels were higher the higher the past vole density. Males had low prevalences and counts, both for breeding and nonbreeding individuals, but they showed a seasonality that varied with age, body condition, and current and past vole density. Also, the occurrence of AZ in males was more likely after they had had low levels of indicators of condition, suggesting that azurocytes may result from a response to infection. Hence, overall our results suggest that, in females, these cells may be important for reproduction and may have a role in inducing abortion when conditions are not favorable, while in males they might be a response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo M Beldomenico
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK.
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Clark DA, Fernandez J, Banwatt D. ORIGINAL ARTICLE: Prevention of Spontaneous Abortion in the CBA × DBA/2 Mouse Model by Intravaginal TGF-β and Local Recruitment of CD4+ 8+ FOXP3+ Cells. Am J Reprod Immunol 2008; 59:525-34. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2008.00582.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Clark DA. REVIEW ARTICLE: Immunological Factors in Pregnancy Wastage: Fact or Fiction. Am J Reprod Immunol 2008; 59:277-300. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2008.00580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Hirschfeld AF, Jiang R, Robinson WP, McFadden DE, Turvey SE. Toll-like receptor 4 polymorphisms and idiopathic chromosomally normal miscarriage. Hum Reprod 2006; 22:440-3. [PMID: 16982657 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/del377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lipopolysaccharide (LPS or endotoxin) exposure resulting from microbial invasion of the endometrium disturbs the Th1/Th2 balance at the feto-maternal interface and has been linked to the risk of idiopathic miscarriage in a range of human and animal studies. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mediates LPS signalling, and the human TLR4 gene harbours two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) known to reduce LPS responsiveness. We hypothesized that genetic variation altering TLR4 function may influence the risk of idiopathic pregnancy loss. METHODS AND RESULTS We examined fetal TLR4 genotypes in a case-control cohort of chromosomally normal miscarriages (n=96) and healthy term newborns (n=113). The allele frequencies of the Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile TLR4 SNPs were determined by quantitative PCR using DNA extracted from extraembryonic tissues and umbilical cord blood, respectively. TLR4 genotype frequencies were not significantly different between cases and controls. CONCLUSIONS There was no association between fetal TLR4 polymorphisms, Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile, known to blunt LPS responsiveness, and the risk of idiopathic, chromosomally normal miscarriage. Nevertheless, TLR4 or perhaps other LPS-binding chaperone molecules are biologically plausible candidate genes that may alter the risk of idiopathic miscarriage.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Hirschfeld
- Department of Paediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and Child & Family Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada
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Arad M, Atzil S, Shakhar K, Adoni A, Ben-Eliyahu S. Poly I-C induces early embryo loss in f344 rats: a potential role for NK cells. Am J Reprod Immunol 2006; 54:49-53. [PMID: 15948772 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2005.00286.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Natural killer (NK) cells were associated with first trimester embryo loss. The current study in the inbred F344 rat assessed the role of NK cells in mediating resorptions caused by poly I-C, a non-specific immunostimulator. METHOD OF STUDY On fifth day of gestation, rats were injected intraperitoneally with anti-NKR-P1 (1.5 mg/kg, i.p.) to deplete NK cells, and with mouse serum or saline to control for non-specific effects. Poly I-C (4 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle were administered 2 days later. Resorptions were assessed on day 13.5. RESULTS Poly I-C significantly elevated resorption rates, and anti-NKR-P1 abolished this effect. Body weight was reduced in all rats treated with poly I-C, including NK-depleted rats. This indicates the ability of NK-depleted rats to respond to poly I-C, yet to refrain from the resorption-promoting effects of poly I-C. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests a role for NK cells in mediating poly I-C-induced resorptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Arad
- Neuroimmunology Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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MacKenzie S, Montserrat N, Mas M, Acerete L, Tort L, Krasnov A, Goetz FW, Planas JV. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide induces apoptosis in the trout ovary. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2006; 4:46. [PMID: 16945135 PMCID: PMC1570353 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-4-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Accepted: 08/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In mammals it is well known that infections can lead to alterations in reproductive function. As part of the innate immune response, a number of cytokines and other immune factors is produced during bacterial infection or after treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and acts on the reproductive system. In fish, LPS can also induce an innate immune response but little is known about the activation of the immune system by LPS on reproduction in fish. Therefore, we conducted studies to examine the in vivo and in vitro effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the reproductive function of sexually mature female trout. METHODS In saline- and LPS -injected brook trout, we measured the concentration of plasma steroids as well as the in vitro steroidogenic response (testosterone and 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone) of ovarian follicles to luteinizing hormone (LH), the ability of 17alpha,20beta-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one to induce germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) in vitro, and that of epinephrine to stimulate follicular contraction in vitro. We also examined the direct effects of LPS in vitro on steroid production, GVBD and contraction in brook trout ovarian follicles. The incidence of apoptosis was evaluated by TUNEL analysis. Furthermore, we examined the gene expression pattern in the ovary of saline- and LPS-injected rainbow trout by microarray analysis. RESULTS LPS treatment in vivo did not affect plasma testosterone concentration or the basal in vitro production of steroids, although a small but significant potentiation of the effects of LH on testosterone production in vitro was observed in ovarian follicles from LPS-treated fish. In addition, LPS increased the plasma concentration of cortisol. LPS treatment in vitro did not affect the basal or LH-stimulated steroid production in brook trout ovarian follicles. In addition, we did not observe any effects of LPS in vivo or in vitro on GVBD or follicular contraction. Therefore, LPS did not appear to impair ovarian steroid production, oocyte final maturation or follicular contraction under the present experimental conditions. Interestingly, LPS administration in vivo induced apoptosis in follicular cells, an observation that correlated with changes in the expression of genes involved in apoptosis, as evidenced by microarray analysis. CONCLUSION These results indicate that female trout are particularly resistant to an acute administration of LPS in terms of ovarian hormone responsiveness. However, LPS caused a marked increase in apoptosis in follicular cells, suggesting that the trout ovary could be sensitive to the pro-apoptotic effects of LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon MacKenzie
- Unitat de Fisiologia Animal, Departament de Biologia Cellular, Fisiologia i d'Immunologia, Facultat de Ciencies, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nuria Montserrat
- Departament de Fisiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mario Mas
- Departament de Fisiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Acerete
- Unitat de Fisiologia Animal, Departament de Biologia Cellular, Fisiologia i d'Immunologia, Facultat de Ciencies, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lluis Tort
- Unitat de Fisiologia Animal, Departament de Biologia Cellular, Fisiologia i d'Immunologia, Facultat de Ciencies, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Aleksei Krasnov
- Institute of Applied Biotechnology, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland
- Akvaforsk, PO Box 5010, N-1432 Ås, Norway
| | - Frederick W Goetz
- Great Lakes Water Institute, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Josep V Planas
- Departament de Fisiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Debnath M, Chaudhuri TK. The role of HLA-G in cytokine homeostasis during early pregnancy complicated with maternal infections: a novel etiopathological approach to the neurodevelopmental understanding of schizophrenia. Med Hypotheses 2005; 66:286-93. [PMID: 16183209 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2005] [Revised: 06/17/2005] [Accepted: 06/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is perhaps the most enigmatic and tragic psychotic disorder with remarkable mortality and morbidity. Schizophrenia is complex and clinically a heterogeneous disorder. The etiological basis of schizophrenia ranges from autoimmune to neurodevelopmental hypothesis in one hand and involvement of different major gene segment with susceptibility loci on the other. Recently, neurodevelopmental hypothesis gained much impetus over the other domain. To support the neurodevelopmental basis, a number of investigations have shown that maternal infections during pregnancy increases the risk of the offspring developing schizophrenia and other neurodevelopmental disorders. The pathological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon is largely unknown. Many have suggested the involvement of different immune markers and shown that cytokines generated in response to maternal infection alter early brain development through their inflammatory activity. However, these findings have escaped discussion on various important issues related to cytokine homeostasis which depends on a large number of immune parameters including non-classical HLA-G molecules. Infections during early stages of pregnancy may alter cytokine regulation by disturbing the whole uterine immune milieu. To elucidate this issue, authors have tried to correlate the possible relationships between maternal infections and aberration of immune networking at the feto-maternal interface and their subsequent influence on the structural and functional abnormalities of the developing brain. The authors hypothesize that there exists a counter regulatory interaction among proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-alpha, HLA-G molecules and different immune cells like NK cells. We emphasize that HLA-G molecules are the novel immune players which maintain the immune homeostasis during early pregnancy in a manner that it can protect developing fetus from maternal immune attack. However, maternal infections may lead to the disturbance of HLA-G expression which in turn may fail to maintain its otherwise inhibitory potential to down regulate the detrimental inflammatory cytokines. Investigation on such interaction may unravel novel molecular mechanisms of neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia. Testing of our proposed hypothesis on animal models and on in vitro derived extravillous trophoblast cell lines holds promise of great insights to usher a new dimension of schizophrenia research and for developing new therapeutic strategies for better treatment and to adopt genetic prediction in schizophrenia management paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Debnath
- Cellular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Raja Rammohan PUR, Siliguri-734430, WB, India
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Abstract
The aim of this review is to discuss the role of Toll-like receptors at the maternal-fetal interface and the capacity of trophoblast cells to initiate innate immune responses towards infection. The maternal-fetal interface represents an immunologically unique site that must promote tolerance to the allogenic fetus, whilst maintaining host defense against a diverse array of possible pathogens. Clinical studies have shown a strong association between certain complications of pregnancy and intrauterine infections. Therefore, innate immune responses against microorganisms at the maternal-fetal interface may have a significant impact on the success of a pregnancy. There is growing evidence that trophoblast cells are able to recognize and respond to pathogens through the expression of Toll-like receptors, an important part of innate immunity. This review will discuss the role of Toll-like receptors at the maternal-fetal interface, the potential for trophoblast cells to function as components of the innate immune system and the impact TLR-mediated trophoblast responses may have on pregnancy outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- V M Abrahams
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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Clark DA, Manuel J, Lee L, Chaouat G, Gorczynski RM, Levy GA. Ecology of Danger-dependent Cytokine-boosted Spontaneous Abortion in the CBA × DBA/2 Mouse Model. I. Synergistic Effect of LPS and (TNF-α + IFN-γ) on Pregnancy Loss. Am J Reprod Immunol 2004; 52:370-8. [PMID: 15663602 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2004.00237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Previous data have shown "danger" signals, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) acting via toll-like (tlr) receptors are required for early pregnancy failure in several murine abortion models. Indeed, the abortion rate increased in the CBA x DBA/2 model after a gestation day (gd) 7.5 injection of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha + interferon (IFN)-gamma only if the LPS-tlr signalling pathway was intact. High rates of cytokine-boosted abortion >80% loss can be achieved in certain animal colonies, that have a high endogenous (spontaneous) rate of resorption (30-50%). A specific role for LPS has been postulated to determine both the endogenous and cytokine-boosted losses. METHODS To test the role of LPS in spontaneous and cytokine-boosted abortions, recombinant TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma, and LPS were injected in different doses and sequences intraperitoneally (i.p.) into CBA x DBA/2 mated mice in the Toronto General Research Institute animal facility where the endogenous abortion rate is <30%. The effects of poly IC, a tlr3 agonist that induces IFN-gamma that can reverse LPS-induced tolerance, and effects of anti-MD-1 on TNF-alpha induction by LPS, poly IC, CPG, or HSP in vitro were also examined. RESULTS A high endogenous rate of loss similar to that seen in Clamart could be achieved by increasing exposure to LPS on the morning after mating (gd 0.5). The magnitude by which the abortion rate could be increased by an i.p. injection of 2000 u TNF-alpha + 1000 u IFN-gamma on gd 7.5 was independent of the endogenous rate of loss, and could not be increased by doubling the dose. One microgram of LPS given on day 7.5 achieved a similar rate of loss, and if given with the cytokines, synergistically boosted the rate of loss to near Clamart rates. LPS given 1 day prior to the cytokines abrogated the cytokine effect, whereas LPS given day 0.5 had no significant effect on the response to day 7.5 cytokine injection. Blocking MD-1 inhibited TNF-alpha stimulation by poly IC, LPS, CPG, or HSP in vitro, and reduced abortion rates. Poly IC did not avert LPS-type tolerance effects in vivo. CONCLUSIONS High endogenous rates of abortion in the CBA x DBA/2 model may be explained by exposure to LPS at the time of mating. Increased rates of loss triggered by cytokines later in pregnancy may depend on increased absorption of LPS from intestinal flora.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Clark
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Room 3V39, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
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Romero R, Espinoza J, Mazor M. Can endometrial infection/inflammation explain implantation failure, spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth after in vitro fertilization? Fertil Steril 2004; 82:799-804. [PMID: 15482749 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2004.05.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2004] [Revised: 05/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The endometrial cavity is frequently invaded by microorganisms, and subclinical endometrial infection or inflammation may play a role in implantation failure after IVF, spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth. Microbial products and host-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines can cause trophoblast apoptosis and the cascade of events leading to expulsion of the embryo or fetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Romero
- Perinatology Research Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Development, National Institutes of Health/Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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Abrahams VM, Bole-Aldo P, Kim YM, Straszewski-Chavez SL, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R, Mor G. Divergent trophoblast responses to bacterial products mediated by TLRs. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:4286-96. [PMID: 15383557 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.7.4286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Intrauterine infections have been associated with pregnancy complications that are also linked with increased trophoblast apoptosis. TLRs are key components of the innate immune system which recognize conserved sequences on the surface of pathogens and trigger effector cell functions. We hypothesize that intrauterine infections may cause the excessive trophoblast cell apoptosis observed in abnormal pregnancies and that TLR may provide a mechanism of pathogenesis. In this study we describe the expression and function of TLR-2 and TLR-4 in first trimester trophoblast cells. Although ligation of TLR4 induced cytokine production by trophoblast cells, TLR-2 activation induced apoptosis. TLR-2 mediated apoptosis was dependent upon the Fas-associated death domain, the inactivation of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis, and the activation of caspases 8, 9, and 3. These results suggest that certain intrauterine infections may directly induce trophoblast cell death through TLR-2. Our findings provide a novel mechanism of pathogenesis for certain pregnancy complications in which there is engagement of the innate immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikki M Abrahams
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Holásková I, Lewis GS, Elliott M, Blemings KP, Dailey RA. Effect of Peptidoglycan-Polysaccharide Complex on Reproductive Efficiency in Sheep. Am J Reprod Immunol 2004; 52:197-203. [PMID: 15373759 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2004.00206.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Spontaneous mastitis or induced infections mimicking mastitis reduce pregnancy rates in ruminants. The effect of immunization with either a mastitis-related pathogen component, peptidoglycan-polysaccharide (PG-PS), or killed Streptococcus pyogenes on pregnancy outcome was investigated. METHOD OF STUDY Ewe lambs were immunized with PG-PS (n = 50) or killed bacteria (n = 50) or were not immunized (control, n = 100). Titers of PG-PS immunoglobulin G (IgG) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Ewes were bred by rams at synchronized estrus. All immunized ewes and half of the ewes not immunized were challenged with PG-PS on day 5 after breeding. Pregnancy maintenance was evaluated. RESULTS Although the proportion of ewes pregnant at day 42 after breeding did not differ among treatments, the probability of pregnancy decreased with total dose of PG-PS (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Immunization of ewe lambs with PG-PS or killed S. pyogenes did not improve pregnancy maintenance. Furthermore, the toxic streptococcal component decreased pregnancy rate in immunized sheep in a dose-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Holásková
- Division of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6108, USA
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Blois S, Alba Soto CD, Olmos S, Chuluyan E, Gentile T, Arck PC, Margni RA. Therapy with dendritic cells influences the spontaneous resorption rate in the CBA/J x DBA/2J mouse model. Am J Reprod Immunol 2004; 51:40-8. [PMID: 14725565 DOI: 10.1046/j.8755-8920.2003.00120.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM DBA/2J-mated CBA/J female mice are prone to a high incidence of fetal abortions. This fetal wastage can be dramatically reduced by immunizing the female mice with BALB/c, but not with DBA/2J spleen cells during early gestation. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Recently, dendritic cells (DC) have been described at the feto-maternal interface in the human uterus. In this work, we studied the effect of adoptive transfer of DC on the maintenance of pregnancy in the CBA/J x DBA/2J model. METHODS Bone marrow-derived DC were generated from virgin female CBA/J mice (6-8 weeks old). CBA/J females were inoculated with DC twice before mating. Four different experimental groups were included: (i) no treatment control, (ii) mice injected with culture medium [granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)], (iii) immunized with DC and (iv) immunized with paternal DBA/2J antigens lisate-pulsed DC, n = 5. RESULTS The control abortion rate was 23.8%, and with GM-CSF alone was 17.6%. Following inoculation of syngeneic DC abortion rates were reduced to 2.2%, but protection was short-lived. Abortion rates with DC pulsed with DBA/2J antigens was 5%. Serum of interleukin (IL)-6 levels were lower in the latter two groups up to the time of abortion. The kinetics of immunoglobulin G asymmetric antibodies synthesis was modified, but there was no correlation between asymmetric antibodies production and the lowering of abortions rates. CONCLUSION Syngeneic DC prevented abortions and this was linked to a decrease in IL-6 levels, but not with levels of asymmetric antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Blois
- IDEHU, Institute of Humoral Immunity Studies, National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Deb K, Chaturvedi MM, Jaiswal YK. A ‘minimum dose’ of lipopolysaccharide required for implantation failure: assessment of its effect on the maternal reproductive organs and interleukin-1α expression in the mouse. Reproduction 2004; 128:87-97. [PMID: 15232066 DOI: 10.1530/rep.1.00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Genital tract infections caused by gram-negative bacteria induce abortion and are one of the most common complications of human pregnancy. This study was carried out to decipher the mechanism of gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pregnancy loss, using a mouse (Park strain) model. Since many of the biological effects of LPS are mediated by interleukin (IL)-1α, the role of IL-1α in LPS-induced pregnancy loss was studied. Pregnant female animals were injected intra-peritoneally (i.p.) with different doses (1 to 50 μg) of LPS from Salmonella minnesota Re-595, on day 0.5 of pregnancy. We found that 250 μg/kg body weight (i.e. 5 μg/female mouse) of LPS when given on day 0.5 of pregnancy was the ‘minimum dose’ (MD) required to completely inhibit the implantation of the blastocyst in the mouse. The effect of this dose on the pathophysiology of the various reproductive organs (i.e. uterus, ectoplacental cones, developing fetus, ovaries etc.) was assessed on day 14 of pregnancy. The effects of this dose on the level and pattern of expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1α in the maternal uterine horns and preimplantation stage embryos were studied by RT-PCR. A single dose (100 ng/mouse) of recombinant mouse IL-1α was given i.p. to pregnant females on day 1 of pregnancy to study its effect on implantation. Our results show that treatment of the pregnant animals with LPS may alter cell proliferation and induce leukocyte infiltration, degeneration of luminal glandular epithelium, and hyperplasia in the various reproductive organs, and may also alter both embryonic and uterine IL-1α expression. IL-1α administration also caused implantation failure similar to that of LPS. The observations suggest that the determined MD of LPS may alter the expression of developmentally important proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1α, which could, in turn, inhibit the normal processes of blastocyst implantation. Therefore, it is proposed that the LPS-induced histopathological alterations in the various reproductive organs of pregnant animals could be mediated by IL-1α and this may be one of the causes of failure of blastocyst implantation in the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushik Deb
- Molecular Biology and Reproductive Immunology Laboratory, School of Studies in Biochemistry, Jiwaji University, Gwalior- 474 011, India.
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Punareewattana K, Sharova LV, Li W, Ward DL, Holladay SD. Reduced birth defects caused by maternal immune stimulation may involve increased expression of growth promoting genes and cytokine GM-CSF in the spleen of diabetic ICR mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2004; 3:1639-55. [PMID: 14555289 DOI: 10.1016/s1567-5769(03)00200-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Maternal immune stimulation in mice decreases fetal abnormalities caused by diverse etiologies. Growth factors produced by activated immune cells were proposed to be key mediators that may exert their effects on placenta or embryo. Diabetes disrupts the secretion of cytokines, which may associate with diabetic embryopathy. Three different methods of maternal immune stimulation that result in approximately equal reduction of diabetic embryopathy were used in the present studies: footpad injection with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), or i.p. injection with interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). A gene microarray was then used to examine expression of a selected gene panel in splenic leukocytes. We hypothesized that maternal immune stimulation may act by overcoming altered gene expression patterns of immune cells in the diabetic mice, which partially mitigates the teratogenic effect of diabetes. It further seemed likely that a shared profile of splenic gene expression changes induced by the different immune stimulation procedures may be identified and related to reduced teratogenesis. The three procedures produced a common altered gene expression profile. Significantly affected genes included apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes, and genes controlling cellular proliferation, and likely reflect a state of immune activation. The GM-CSF gene was up-regulated by all three immune stimulation procedures. The protein product of this gene regulates placental development, and was recently associated with reduced cleft palate in immune-stimulated pregnant mice after exposure to urethane. These data suggest that further studies of GM-CSF as mediator of reduced birth defects in teratogen-challenged, immune-stimulated mice are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Punareewattana
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Phase II, Southgate Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0442, USA
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Clark DA, Yu G, Arck PC, Levy GA, Gorczynski RM. MD-1 is a critical part of the mechanism causing Th1-cytokine-triggered murine fetal loss syndrome. Am J Reprod Immunol 2003; 49:297-307. [PMID: 12854734 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0897.2003.00045.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Fetal loss syndrome (abortion/resorption) occurring on or after gestation day (gd) 9.5 in CBA/JxDBA/2 matings is dependent upon presence of TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma, which act by increasing expression of fg12 prothrombinase at the feto-maternal interface. The magnitude by which the abortion rate can be boosted by an injection of these cytokines on gd 7.5 depends on endogenous rate of loss, and appears to depend on microbial flora. Is cytokine-triggered abortion dependent upon a third signaling pathway that senses 'danger'? METHODS Female CBA/J were mated to DBA/2 males and, C57B1/6 and C57B1/6 TNFalphaR1-/-Mak were mated to C57B1/6 control or TNFalphaR1-/-Mak males. LPS from Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteritidis, or the combination of TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma, was injected to stimulate abortions. The effect of anti-MD-1, which interferes with expression of CD14 and, hence, with signaling by LPS via the CD14-tlr4 complex, on TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma was tested. The presence of MD-1 in the uterus was evaluated by in situ hybridization, and effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on mice lacking TNF-alphaR1 was tested. RESULTS Anti-MD-1 completely abrogated TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma-induced abortions. MD-1 was expressed on trophoblast and in deciduas on gd 8.5 but LPS could not abort mice that lacked the type 1 receptor for TNF-alpha. Pregnant CBA/J females had classical resorptions (abortions) countable on gd 13.5-14.5 in response to LPS from E. coli or S. enteritidis, but C57B1/6 strain mice resorbed only in response to the latter, and E. coli LPS appeared to induce 'occult' losses. 'Occult' loss did not require TNF-alphaR1. CONCLUSIONS TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma could not induce murine abortions without co-presence of a 'danger' signal such as LPS acting via CD14 on toll receptors, and LPS could not act without co-signaling by TNF-alpha. Classical resorptions/abortions and 'occult' losses have a different mechanism in these models as reflected in type of endotoxin and requirement for TNF-alphaR1 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Clark
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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Zhong XH, Zhou ZX, Li TS, Wang EQ, Shi WY, Chu SM. Anti-abortive effect of Radix scutellariae and Rhizoma atractylodis in mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2002; 30:109-17. [PMID: 12067085 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x02000120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to investigate the significance of natural killer (NK) cells and interleukin-2 in uterus in the early embryo loss (or resorption), and to elucidate the immunological modulation of maternal-fetal interface with Chinese herbal medicine Radix scutellariae (huang qin) and Rhizoma atractylodis (bai zhu). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was given via the tail vein to induce abortion in mice at day 7 of gestation. Uterine NK cells and IL-2 contents were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. The number of NK cells was found to be much higher (mean = 180 +/- 39) in the decidua of LPS-treated abortion mice. But when the Chinese herbal medicine was used to prevent LPS-induced abortion, less NK cells (mean = 11 +/- 4) were counted (p < 0.01). The mean value of IL-2 in LPS-treated mice was 5.25 +/- 2.5938 pg/mg protein, higher than (p < 0.05) that of the herb prevention group, which was only 1.86 +/- 0.9789 pg/mg protein. The results therefore indicate that the increase of NK cells in the decidua and IL-2 contents in the uterus in LPS-treated mice is closely related to the embryo loss, and that the Chinese herbal medicine prescription composed of Radix scutellariae and Rhizoma atractylodis has an anti-abortive effect through inhibition of maternal-fetal interface immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Hui Zhong
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding, China.
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Toder V, Carp H, Fein A, Torchinsky A. The role of pro- and anti-apoptotic molecular interactions in embryonic maldevelopment. Am J Reprod Immunol 2002; 48:235-44. [PMID: 12516634 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0897.2002.01130.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Pregnancy loss and the occurrence of inborn structural anomalies are often preceded by excessive apoptosis in targeted embryonic and extraembryonic tissues. Apoptogenic stimuli activate both death and survival, signaling cascades consisting of molecules acting as activators and effectors, or negative regulators of apoptosis. The interplay between these cascades determines whether the cell which is exposed to an apoptogenic stimulus dies or survives. This review summarizes the functioning of pro- and anti-apoptotic molecules in embryos responding to various teratogens. The effect of potentiation of the maternal immune system on these molecules is also discussed. METHODS OF STUDY The data on the functioning of various pro- and anti-apoptotic molecules in embryos exposed to various developmental toxicants, and embryos developing in a diabetic environment are reviewed. Techniques such as the TUNEL method, DNA fragmentation assay, electromobility shift assay (EMSA), fluorometric assay, immunohistochemistry, Western blot, In situ hybridization, have been used in our studies to detect apoptosis, and evaluate the functioning of molecules such as TNFalpha, caspases, NF-kappaB and IkappaB, p53, and bcl-2 in different embryonic and extraembryonic tissues. RESULTS Our and other data summarized in this review have demonstrated that the doses of developmental toxicants required to induce pregnancy loss and gross structural anomalies induce excessive apoptosis shortly after treatment. Depending on the intensity and type of targeted tissues, this apoptosis was accompanied by alterations in the activity of the molecules which act as activators and effectors (e.g. caspase 3, caspase 8, caspase 2, p53) or negative regulators (bcl-2, NF-kappaB) of apoptosis. Maternal immunopotentiation, which decreases the level of induced and spontaneous pregnancy loss and the incidence and severity of teratogen-induced structural anomalies has been shown to modulate the expression of these molecules both in embryonic tissues and at the feto-maternal interface. CONCLUSIONS The data presented in this review suggest that molecules such as TNFalpha, caspase 3, caspase 8, NF-kappaB, p53 and bcl-2, which are involved in the regulation of apoptosis, may also be involved in determining the sensitivity of the embryo to developmental toxicants. Maternal immunopotentiation may modulate the functioning of these molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Toder
- Department of Embryology and Teratology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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Clark DA, Chaouat G, Gorczynski RM. Thinking outside the box: mechanisms of environmental selective pressures on the outcome of the materno-fetal relationship. Am J Reprod Immunol 2002; 47:275-82. [PMID: 12148542 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0897.2002.01093.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Study of mechanisms causing spontaneous abortion of the vascularized placenta have focused primarily on the feto-maternal immunological relationship within the pregnant mother. The Th1 cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha + interferon (IFN)-gamma derived in part from natural killer (NK) and NKgammadeltaT cells have been implicated in causing abortion via up-regulation of the novel prothrombinase fgl2 at the feto-maternal interface; Th2/3 cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-10, progesterone-induced blocking factor (PIBF), and TGF-beta2 derived from gammadeltaT cells stimulated by embryo antigens in the context of the OX-2 (CD200) tolerance signal have been viewed as counteracting the Th1 effect. These mechanisms are distinct from those causing and preventing occult pregnancy loss during the periimplantation phase of pregnancy prior to development of a vascularized placenta. Spontaneous abortions in the CBA/J x DBA/2 can be boosted by injecting TNF-alpha + IFN-gamma, but the boosted abortion rates can range from < or = 30 to > 80%, depending on the loss rate in uninjected mice, and this is not explainable by the endogenous level of these cytokines. Furthermore, there is a poor correlation between Th1/Th2.3 cytokine ratios and abortion rates. Could there be a third factor involved, and if so, what might this mean? METHODS Known precipitants of recurrent abortion in mice were reviewed with particular attention to stress and endotoxin absorption. The effect of antagonizing the response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (endotoxin) was tested. Data on environmental selective pressures were considered (i.e. thinking outside the 'box', which typifies the conventional approach to thinking about materno-fetal interactions). RESULTS Th1 cytokine-triggered abortions appear to depend on availability/presence of LPS. CONCLUSIONS Environmental selective pressures are implicated in eliminating 'genetically weaker' embryos in early pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Clark
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
Recurrent miscarriage may be due to an inherently abnormal embryo (e.g. chromosomal aberrations), or maternal factors (e.g. uterine anomalies or antiphospholipid antibodies). However, there may be another mechanism; fetuses may have anomalies induced by toxic maternal factors. Early ultrasound scanning has revealed structural anomalies in karyotypically normal embryos in pregnancies that have terminated in first-trimester missed abortion. The serum of recurrently miscarrying women is toxic to blastocysts, embryos and fetuses. Teratogens such as cyclophosphamide or toxins such as lipopolysaccharide cause fetal demise by excessive apoptosis. Excessive apoptosis may be mediated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha and other cytokines. Both immunomodulation and hormonal support (progesterone or human chorionic gonadotropin supplements) have been used to improve the live birth rate in recurrently aborting women. Each may modulate the balance between Th1 and Th2 cytokines. Th2 cytokines are thought to benefit the developing embryo by enhancing placental growth and function, and possibly by preventing inappropriate apoptosis. Although neither hormonal support nor immunopotentiation have proved to be beneficial, no trial has limited itself to pregnancies that are karyotypically normal. This review assesses fetal structural anomalies in humans and laboratory animals as causes of pregnancy loss, the role of cytokines in those anomalies and the role of immunomodulation and hormones in modifying these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Carp
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Boulouis HJ, Barrat F, Bermond D, Bernex F, Thibault D, Heller R, Fontaine JJ, Piémont Y, Chomel BB. Kinetics of Bartonella birtlesii infection in experimentally infected mice and pathogenic effect on reproductive functions. Infect Immun 2001; 69:5313-7. [PMID: 11500400 PMCID: PMC98640 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.9.5313-5317.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The kinetics of infection and the pathogenic effects on the reproductive function of laboratory mice infected with Bartonella birtlesii recovered from an Apodemus species are described. B. birtlesii infection, as determined by bacteremia, occurred in BALB/c mice inoculated intravenously. Inoculation with a low-dose inoculum (1.5 x 10(3) CFU) induced bacteremia in only 75% of the mice compared to all of the mice inoculated with higher doses (> or =1.5 x 10(4)). Mice became bacteremic for at least 5 weeks (range, 5 to 8 weeks) with a peak ranging from 2 x 10(3) to 10(5) CFU/ml of blood. The bacteremia level was significantly higher in virgin females than in males but the duration of bacteremia was similar. In mice infected before pregnancy (n = 20), fetal loss was evaluated by enumerating resorption and fetal death on day 18 of gestation. The fetal death and resorption percentage of infected mice was 36.3% versus 14.5% for controls (P < 0.0001). Fetal suffering was evaluated by weighing viable fetuses. The weight of viable fetuses was significantly lower for infected mice than for uninfected mice (P < 0.0002). Transplacental transmission of Bartonella was demonstrated since 76% of the fetal resorptions tested was culture positive for B. birtlesii. The histopathological analysis of the placentas of infected mice showed vascular lesions in the maternal placenta, which could explain the reproductive disorders observed. BALB/c mice appeared to be a useful model for studying Bartonella infection. This study provides the first evidence of reproductive disorders in mice experimentally infected with a Bartonella strain originating from a wild rodent.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Boulouis
- UMR 956 INRA-AFSSA-ENVA/IIAC, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Sharova L, Sura P, Smith BJ, Gogal RM, Sharov AA, Ward DL, Holladay SD. Nonspecific stimulation of the maternal immune system. II. Effects on gene expression in the fetus. TERATOLOGY 2000; 62:420-8. [PMID: 11091364 DOI: 10.1002/1096-9926(200012)62:6<420::aid-tera9>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maternal immune stimulation reduces malformations caused by chemical teratogens. Mechanisms for this effect are not known. Altered expression of regulatory molecules (e.g., transforming growth factor [TGF-beta], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-alpha]) has been reported in fetuses from immunostimulated mice, which may affect gene expression. Expression of selected genes that function to control proliferation, differentiation, or apoptosis was evaluated in chemical-exposed fetuses, with or without maternal immunostimulation. METHODS Ethyl carbamate (urethane) was given to pregnant ICR mice on day 10 of gestation to induce cleft palate. Before teratogen administration, the immune system of the female mice was stimulated by footpad injection with Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) or by intraperitoneal injection with interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). RESULTS Maternal immunostimulation with interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) decreased severity of the cleft palate lesion caused by urethane, while FCA decreased both incidence and severity of cleft palate. Gestation day 14 fetuses from urethane-exposed mothers displayed decreased expression of cell cycle/apoptotic genes bcl2alpha, bcl2beta, pkCalpha, and p53 in fetal heads. Immune stimulation with IFN-gamma-normalized expression of bcl2alpha, bcl2beta, and pkCalpha to control levels. Urethane also decreased the ratio of expression of bclalpha/p53, bclbeta/p53, and pkCalpha/p53, while maternal injection with IFN-gamma restored these expression ratios to control levels. Maternal immunization with FCA also significantly increased bcl2alpha/p53, bcl2beta/p53, and pkCalpha/p53 gene expression ratios. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that (1) the maternal immune system may possess heretofore unrecognized regulatory activity in fetal development, and (2) protection against urethane-induced cleft palate may be mediated through maternal immune regulation of fetal gene expression.
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MESH Headings
- Abnormalities, Drug-Induced/genetics
- Abnormalities, Drug-Induced/prevention & control
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/therapeutic use
- Animals
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Cell Cycle/genetics
- Cleft Palate/chemically induced
- Cleft Palate/embryology
- Cleft Palate/prevention & control
- Embryonic and Fetal Development/drug effects
- Embryonic and Fetal Development/genetics
- Female
- Fetal Proteins/genetics
- Foot
- Freund's Adjuvant/administration & dosage
- Freund's Adjuvant/pharmacology
- Freund's Adjuvant/therapeutic use
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental/drug effects
- Genes, bcl-2
- Genes, p53
- Injections
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Interferon-gamma/administration & dosage
- Interferon-gamma/pharmacology
- Interferon-gamma/therapeutic use
- Isoenzymes/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred ICR
- Pregnancy/immunology
- Protein Kinase C/genetics
- Protein Kinase C-alpha
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Receptors, Retinoic Acid/genetics
- Retinoid X Receptors
- Teratogens/toxicity
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Urethane/toxicity
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Affiliation(s)
- L Sharova
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0442, USA.
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32
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Brill A, Torchinsky A, Carp H, Toder V. The role of apoptosis in normal and abnormal embryonic development. J Assist Reprod Genet 1999; 16:512-9. [PMID: 10575578 PMCID: PMC3455372 DOI: 10.1023/a:1020541019347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death or apoptosis is a widespread biological phenomenon. Apoptosis is characterized by typical cell features such as membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, and DNA fragmentation. It involves a number of membrane receptors (e.g., Fas, TNFR) and a cascade of signal transduction steps resulting in the activation of a number of cysteine proteases known as caspases. Disordered apoptosis may lead to carcinogenesis and participates in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, or AIDS. Programmed cell death plays an important role in the processes of gamete maturation as well as in embryo development, contributing to the appropriate formation of various organs and structures. Apoptosis is one of the mechanisms of action of various cytotoxic agents and teratogens. Teratogen-induced excessive death of embryonic cells is undoubtedly one of the most important events preceding the occurrence of structural abnormalities, regardless of their nature. Therefore understanding the mechanisms involved in physiological as well as in disturbed or dysregulated apoptosis may lead to the development of new methods of preventive treatment of various developmental abnormalities. The present review summarizes data on the mechanisms of programmed cell death and concentrates on apoptosis involved in normal or disturbed gametogenesis and in normal and abnormal embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Brill
- Department of Embryology and Teratology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel
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33
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Marek KW, Vijay IK, Marth JD. A recessive deletion in the GlcNAc-1-phosphotransferase gene results in peri-implantation embryonic lethality. Glycobiology 1999; 9:1263-71. [PMID: 10536042 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/9.11.1263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Formation of the dolichol oligosaccharide precursor is essential for the production of asparagine- (N-) linked oligosaccharides (N-glycans) in eukaryotic cells. The first step in precursor biosynthesis requires the enzyme UDP-GlcNAc: dolichol phosphate N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase (GPT). Without GPT activity, subsequent steps necessary in constructing the oligosaccharide precursor cannot occur. Inhibition of this biosynthetic step using tunicamycin, a GlcNAc analog, produces a deficiency in N-glycosylation in cell lines and embryonic lethality during preimplantation development in vitro, suggesting that N-glycan formation is essential in early embryogenesis. In exploring structure-function relationships among N-glycans, and since tunicamycin has various reported biochemical activities; we have generated a germline deletion in the mouse GPT gene. GPT mutant embryos were analyzed and the phenotypes obtained were compared with previous studies using tunicamycin. We find that embryos homozygous for a deletion in the GPT gene complete preimplantation development and also implant in the uterine epithelium, but die shortly thereafter between days 4-5 postfertilization with cell degeneration apparent among both embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Of cells derived from these early embryos, neither trophoblast nor embryonic endodermal lineages are able to survive in culture in vitro. These results indicate that GPT function is essential in early embryogenesis and suggest that N-glycosylation is needed for the viability of cells comprising the peri-implantation stage embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Marek
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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34
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Nowicki S, Selvarangan R, Anderson G. Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect Immun 1999; 67:4974-6. [PMID: 10456962 PMCID: PMC96840 DOI: 10.1128/iai.67.9.4974-4976.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sprague-Dawley rats were infected on day 20 of pregnancy by intraperitoneal inoculation with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI) and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) strains in the presence of C1q but not in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA) were able to spread from the pregnant rat to the fetus and resulted in fetal mortality. Transmission of DGI and PID strains that are serum resistant (ser(r)) and sac-4 positive but not of a local infection strain that is ser(s) and sac-4 negative was facilitated by the C1q-dependent mechanism. This study provides the first experimental model that may mimic the transmission of gonococcal infection from mother to the fetus during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Nowicki
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, Texas 77555-1062, USA.
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35
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Gorivodsky M, Torchinsky A, Shepshelovich J, Savion S, Fein A, Carp H, Toder V. Colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) expression in the uteroplacental unit of mice with spontaneous and induced pregnancy loss. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 117:540-9. [PMID: 10469060 PMCID: PMC1905371 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1999.00986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CSF-1 plays an important role in female reproduction and normal embryo development. To understand further CSF-1 function in normal and, especially, in compromised pregnancy, we studied the pattern of its mRNA expression as well as expression of its receptor (c-fms) in the uteroplacental units of mice with induced (cyclophosphamide (CY)-treated) and spontaneous (CBA/J x DBA/2J mating combination) pregnancy loss. RNase protection analysis demonstrated the presence of two forms of CSF-1 mRNA in the uteroplacental unit corresponding to 1400- and 263-bp protective fragments. Densitometric analysis demonstrated that the level of 1400-bp mRNA form was decreased by 40% in the uteroplacental units of mice with CY-induced pregnancy loss compared with the control mice. About 20% decrease in 263-bp protective fragment was registered in resorbing versus non-resorbed placenta of CBA/J females mated to DBA/2J males. As judged by in situ hybridization assay, CSF-1 mRNA transcripts were localized in the uterine epithelium and stroma, while c-fms mRNA was found mainly in the trophoblast. The number of metrial gland cells as well as the number of uterine leucocytes expressing CSF-1 and c-fms mRNAs was substantially lower in the uteroplacental unit of mice with pregnancy loss than in control animals. Maternal immunostimulation, while significantly decreasing the resorption rate in mice with CY-induced pregnancy loss, also strengthened CSF-1 mRNA expression at the fetomaternal interface and resulted in reconstitution in the number of CSF-1+ uterine leucocytes and metrial gland cells. These data suggest a role for uterine CSF-1 in the physiology of normal and compromised pregnancy and demonstrate a possible involvement of CSF-1-associated signalling in mechanisms of placenta and endometrium repair following immunopotentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gorivodsky
- Department of Embryology and Teratology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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36
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Abstract
The mammalian fetus has been perceived, paradoxically, as a successful allograft, a successful tumor, and a successful parasite. Success depends on fetal trophoblast cells, which form the interface with the mother. The maternal immune system is involved in the success of pregnancy and in its failure. The discovery that maternal gammadelta T cells may recognize and react to the fetal trophoblast and the definition of a vascular mechanism whereby their Th1 and Th2/3-type cytokines may abort embryos replaces confusion and debate with a new and simple clarity that enables further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Arck
- Charité, Campus Virchow Klinikum, Humbolt University, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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37
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Clark DA, Arck PC, Chaouat G. Why did your mother reject you? Immunogenetic determinants of the response to environmental selective pressure expressed at the uterine level. Am J Reprod Immunol 1999; 41:5-22. [PMID: 10097783 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.1999.tb00071.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Maternal "rejection" of the implanted conceptus is considered to account for a significant proportion of miscarriages (abortions) in both humans and animals. Our understanding of mechanisms has been limited, and hence, explanations for nonrejection have remained largely speculative. Losses, when they occur, could represent either random accidental failure of protective mechanisms or a more purposeful discrimination. METHOD OF STUDY An analysis of the most recent data. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The embryo is most akin to a parasite, and pregnancy is most akin to a host-parasite interaction. If one excludes chromosome abnormalities in the embryo as a cause of death, activation of coagulation mechanisms, leading to vasculitis affecting the maternal blood supply to the implanted embryo, appears to represent a major loss-causing mechanisms--a form of ischemic autoamputation. Proinflammatory T-helper (Th) 1-type cytokines trigger this process via upregulation of a novel prothrombinase, fgl2. Th2/3 cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta 2, may antagonize the processes involved. Cytokine balance is determined by the genetics of the mother, which regulate her response to stress; endotoxin (LPS); and paternal antigens, selectively expressed on the trophoblast of the embryo, via imprinting. Based on studies in abortion-prone mice, where immunity to paternal alloantigens prevents loss, three distinct gene products in the embryo are proposed to determine the cytokine response to maternal lymphomyeloid cells in the uterus.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Clark
- McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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38
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Tuo W, Ott TL, Liu S, Bazer FW. Intrauterine infusion of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) prior to mating has no adverse effect on fertility, fetal survival and fetal development. J Reprod Immunol 1999; 42:31-9. [PMID: 10098830 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0378(98)00078-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS, endotoxin) is a component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and a potent inducer of severe inflammatory reactions. In mice, systemically administered LPS induces fetal resorption and increases fetal mortality. However, effects of intrauterine LPS on fertility, fetal survival and development have not been reported. In the present study, pigs were used to determine the effect of intrauterine infused LPS on fertility, fetal survival and development. Prior to mating, gilts received intrauterine infusion of either a single dose of saline or increasing doses of LPS in saline using an insemination catheter. On day 30 of pregnancy, gilts were hysterectomized and litter size, fetal length, number of corpora lutea (CL), ovarian and placental weights, and allantoic and amniotic fluid volumes were recorded. Blood progesterone levels from days 10-30 of pregnancy were also determined. Results indicated that intrauterine infusion of LPS had no adverse effects on blood progesterone levels, fertility, fetal survival or fetal development. Intrauterine injection of LPS did cause an increase in fetal weight and amniotic fluid volume (P < 0.05). These results suggest that sperm, oocytes and gametes are tolerant of local LPS challenge and, to some extent, this mechanism protects gametes and conceptuses from maternal response to mating introduced bacteria and their potential endotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Tuo
- Center for Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843-2471, USA
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39
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Ramsoondar JJ, Christopherson RJ. Treatment of gilts with leukocytes from the sire does not improve reproductive performance. Anim Reprod Sci 1998; 54:13-21. [PMID: 9877061 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4320(98)00101-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of pretreatment of gilts with leukocyte antigens on reproductive performance was studied. Two experiments were carried out that involved the treatment of gilts with leukocytes prior to artificial or natural insemination. Gilts were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups. Group A gilts received two doses of 2 x 10(8) sire's leukocytes; one injected intra-peritoneal at first estrus and the other infused into the uterus immediately prior to insemination at the second estrus cycle. Group B gilts were similarly treated with the 'gilt's own' (autologous) leukocytes and Group C animals received phosphate buffered saline as controls. The same boars were used as sires across all three treatment groups. Gilts were slaughtered during the fifth week of pregnancy and their reproductive performance assessed. When data from the three groups were compared there were significant differences in embryo survival and placental weights between the sire's leukocyte treatment and PBS control groups. Embryo survival rate (No viable embryos/No corpora lutea x 100) at the fifth week of gestation was lower (p < 0.05) and placental weights were higher in the sire's leukocyte treatment group (p < 0.05). However, the latter may likely be due to fewer developing embryos. Embryo survival and placental weights did not vary significantly between the sire's and autologous leukocytes treatment groups. The treatment of gilts with leukocytes from the boars used as sires showed no improvement on subsequent reproductive outcome over that observed for the autologous leukocytes or PBS control treatments. Consequently, in a healthy well managed herd leukocytes treatment offers no advantage to pig reproductive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Ramsoondar
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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40
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Ivnitsky I, Torchinsky A, Gorivodsky M, Zemliak I, Orenstein H, Savion S, Shepshelovich J, Carp H, Fein A, Toder V. TNF-alpha expression in embryos exposed to a teratogen. Am J Reprod Immunol 1998; 40:431-40. [PMID: 9894568 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.1998.tb00430.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM The role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha produced by embryonic cells in normal and abnormal development is poorly understood. To assess to what extent TNF-alpha may be involved in the process of induced dysmorphogenesis, the expression of TNF-alpha and TNF-alpha receptor (TNFRI) mRNA as well as TNF-alpha protein was evaluated in embryos responding to a cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced teratogenic insult. The effect of maternal immunostimulation increasing the embryo's tolerance to CP on TNF-alpha expression was also investigated. METHOD OF STUDY ICR female mice were treated intraperitoneally with 40 mg/kg CP on day 12 of pregnancy. The immunostimulator, xenogeneic rat splenocytes, was injected intrauterine 21 days before mating. Embryos were collected on days 13, 14, or 15 of pregnancy. TNF-alpha mRNA, TNFRI mRNA, and TNF-alpha protein expression were evaluated by in situ hybridization and immunostaining techniques in control, teratogen-treated, and immuno-stimulated teratogen-treated embryos. RESULTS CP-treated embryos showed severe external brain and craniofacial anomalies already visible on day 14 of pregnancy. TNF-alpha mRNA transcripts were detected in cells of the brain and the head of 13-day embryos, which preceded the occurrence of CP-induced external craniofacial anomalies. On day 15 of pregnancy, when severe craniofacial anomalies increased, a significant increase in the intensity of TNF-alpha, TNFR1 mRNA transcripts, and TNF-alpha protein expression were observed in cells of the malformed regions of the head and the brain. In other nonmalformed organs of CP-treated embryos such as the liver (not macroscopically different from controls), neither TNF-alpha nor TNFR1 transcripts were detected. Immunostimulation substantially diminished the severity of CP-induced brain and craniofacial anomalies, decreased the resorption rate, and was associated with decreased intensity of TNF-alpha mRNA transcripts detected on day 15 of pregnancy in the head and the brain of CP-treated embryos. CONCLUSIONS TNF-alpha expressed in the embryo may be one of the molecules promoting the formation of CP-induced brain and craniofacial anomalies. The decrease of TNF-alpha expression in embryos of immunostimulated females may be one of the mechanisms responsible for the increased tolerance to the teratogenic insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Ivnitsky
- Department of Embryology and Teratology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel
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Katano K, Ogasawara M, Aoyama T, Ozaki Y, Kajiura S, Aoki K. Clinical trial of immunostimulation with a biological response modifier in unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortion patients. J Clin Immunol 1997; 17:472-7. [PMID: 9418187 DOI: 10.1023/a:1027319710387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We determined clinically whether a killed streptococcal preparation (KSP), a biological response modifier, is as effective as paternal lymphocyte immunotherapy for unexplained recurrent pregnancy abortion (RSA) therapy. The success rate of adverse pregnancy in the study group of 23 RSA cases, who were administered low doses of KSP before and during early pregnancy, was statistically compared with that in a control group of 205 women who received paternal lymphocyte immunotherapy. The association of natural killer (NK) cell activity in the peripheral blood with pregnancy outcome was also assessed. The success rate in the study group was 73.9% (17/23), compared to 75.1% (154/ 205) observed for the controls (not significant). Most of the successful cases exhibited low levels of NK cell activity in the peripheral blood. Immunotherapy with low doses of KSP is as effective as that with paternal lymphocytes, providing a simple and safe alternative therapy for unexplained RSA. Suppression of NK cell activity by some immunoregulatory mechanism was also found to have potential benefit in terms of a successful pregnancy outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Katano
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Nagoya City University Medical School, Japan
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Haddad EK, Duclos AJ, Antecka E, Lapp WS, Baines MG. Role of interferon-gamma in the priming of decidual macrophages for nitric oxide production and early pregnancy loss. Cell Immunol 1997; 181:68-75. [PMID: 9344498 DOI: 10.1006/cimm.1997.1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We have previously shown that both priming and triggering signals were needed for nitric oxide production by decidual macrophages and that nitric oxide was responsible for embryo wastage. In this study, we investigated the role of IFN-gamma as the primary signal for macrophage activation in early embryo loss. IFN-gamma-deficient (GKO) and heterozygous F1 control mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at day 7 of gestation. The results showed that the GKO mice were more resistant to LPS-induced embryo loss than the wild type. This suggested that IFN-gamma was needed for LPS-induced embryo resorption and that decidual macrophages from pregnant GKO mice were not primed and could not be activated when given LPS. Further, the results showed that IFN-gamma mRNA was simultaneously expressed in the same embryos that also expressed mRNA markers for macrophage activation (TNF-alpha and iNOS), indicating that macrophage activation could be a consequence of IFN-gamma production. Similarly, we investigated the role of IL-12 as a switch cytokine capable of eliciting TH1-associated cytokine production including IFN-gamma. The results showed that IL-12 mRNA expression was correlated with IFN-gamma expression and macrophage activation. In this in vivo study, we showed for the first time that spontaneously increased decidual IFN-gamma expression is detrimental to embryo survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- E K Haddad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Baines MG, Duclos AJ, Antecka E, Haddad EK. Decidual infiltration and activation of macrophages leads to early embryo loss. Am J Reprod Immunol 1997; 37:471-7. [PMID: 9228304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.1997.tb00262.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM There is considerable controversy concerning the root cause and mechanisms of early embryo loss. It has been suggested that most pregnancy losses occur due to morphogenetic anomalies of the embryo. It has also been suggested that the maternal specific immune system rejects the embryo. METHODS Existing data on the cell and molecular biology of early embryo loss in murine experimental models is reviewed. RESULTS Using the CBA(female) x DBA/2(male) model of early embryo loss, it has been established that maternal inflammatory cells infiltrate the decidua basalis of all implantation sites within 48 hr after implantation. For most embryos, the relatively low numbers of macrophages (Mphi) and natural killer-like (NK-like) cells of maternal origin remain relatively constant after day 8, whereas 20-30% of the embryos show a significant increase in inflammatory cells in the maternal decidua, corresponding to the incidence of early embryo resorption visible at day 12. Evidence will be reviewed to suggest that decidual NK-like cells are not cytolytic but may be producing the Mphi-activating cytokine interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), which activates decidual Mphi and other cells. Furthermore, embryo loss is ameliorated by in vivo treatment with anti-IFNgamma or anti-NK antisera, indicating that NK-like cells and/or IFNgamma are required for embryo loss, but not for embryo survival. In resorbing embryos, the inflammatory Mphi show evidence of having been primed during early pregnancy, in that in vitro incubation with lipopolysaccharide induced the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and nitric oxide. CONCLUSION These findings support the concept that early embryo loss is a nonspecific event mediated by the triggering of cytotoxin production by primed decidual macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Baines
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Abstract
PROBLEM The reproductive process is a major driving force in human evolution. An evolutionary perspective was brought to bear on some aspects of reproduction and its aberrations, and, conversely, some of the insights of modern reproductive genetics were used to investigate problems in evolution. METHOD The data used were obtained from the literature in evolution, anthropology, archeology, linguistics, and genetics. RESULTS The evolutionary line leading to modern humans diverged from that leading to the chimpanzees approximately 5-7 million years ago (Mya). Archaic Homo sapiens emerged ca. 0.3 Mya, and modern Homo sapiens and the development of language ca. 0.1 Mya; thus, modern humans occupy approximately 2% of the evolutionary history of the hominid line. During all of this time, the ancestors of modern humans were migratory hunter-gatherers. It was only during the Neolithic transition ca. 0.01 Mya (approximately 0.2% of hominid evolutionary history) that agriculture was developed, and with it a settled lifestyle that allowed a more stable existence and the development of a different reproductive pattern. Various estimates indicate that the human population increased from 0.05 million at the time of the emergence of modern Homo sapiens to 6,000 million at the present time (120,000-fold increase). CONCLUSIONS These evolutionary considerations were used to explore three areas: (1) the extinction of the Neanderthals, who coexisted for ca. 65,000 years with modern humans; (2) the relatively low and stable rate of human conceptions (20-35% of ova fertilized naturally or fertilized in vitro); and (3) the long postnatal period required for the full maturation of the immune response. From these considerations, a broad view of the human reproductive process was obtained that may provide some insight into the rationale for the development of effective reproductive technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Gill
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, PA 15261, USA
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