Antifibrotic effects of luteolin on hepatic stellate cells and liver fibrosis by targeting AKT/mTOR/p70S6K and TGFβ/Smad signalling pathways

Transient receptor potential channel 6 knockout ameliorates hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting the activation and proliferation of hepatic stellate cells

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Hepatic fibrosis is a common outcome of chronic liver injury and can eventually lead to cirrhosis, which is a major public health concern. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are the major producers of extracellular matrix (ECM) and regulate the synthesis and decomposition of ECM, but the specific mechanism of them remains unclear. Transient receptor potential channel 6 (TRPC6), a non-selective cation channel, plays an important role in organic fibrosis. However, the role of TRPC6 in liver fibrosis is rarely studied.

METHODS

Here, we investigated the function of TRPC6 in the activation of the human hepatic stellate cell line LX-2 in vitro and bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced hepatic fibrosis in vivo by western blot, Ca2+ imaging, and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

We first found that TRPC6 was upregulated in fibrotic liver tissues and TRPC6 knockout inhibited BDL-induced hepatic fibrosis. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) treatment increased TRPC6 expression and thapsigargin (Tg)-mediated SOCE in LX-2 cells, which was decreased by the TRPC6 specific inhibitor SAR7334. Blockage of TRPC6 by SAR7334 or TRPC6-shRNA transfection attenuated TGF-β1-induced LX-2 cell activation and proliferation via the PI3K/AKT/p70S6K signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations suggested that TRPC6 contribute to LX-2 cell activation and hepatic fibrosis, and downregulation of TRPC6 may become a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis in the future.

The possible protective effect of luteolin on cardiovascular and hepatic changes in metabolic syndrome rat model

The metabolic syndrome, or MetS, is currently a global health concern. The anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, and antioxidant properties of luteolin are some of its advantageous pharmacological characteristics. This research was designed to establish a MetS rat model and investigate the possible protective effect of luteolin on cardiovascular, hepatic, and metabolic changes in diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rats. Forty adult male albino rats were split into four groups: a negative control group, a group treated with luteolin, a group induced MetS (fed 20% fructose), and a group treated with luteolin (fed 20% fructose and given luteolin). Following the experiment after 8 weeks, biochemical, histological (light and electron), and immunohistochemistry analyses were performed on liver and heart tissues. Serum levels of cTnI, CK-MB, and LDH were significantly elevated in response to the cardiovascular effect of MetS. Furthermore, compared to the negative control group, the MetS group showed a marked increase in lipid peroxidation in the cardiac and hepatic tissues, as evidenced by elevated levels of MDA and a decline in the antioxidant defense system, as demonstrated by lower activities of GSH and SOD. The fatty liver-induced group exhibited histological alterations, including disrupted hepatic architecture, dilated and congested central veins, blood sinusoids, and portal veins. In addition to nuclear structural alterations, most hepatocytes displayed varying degrees of cytoplasmic vacuolation, mitochondrial alterations, and endoplasmic reticulum dilatation. These alterations were linked to inflammatory cellular infiltrations, collagen fiber deposition, active hepatic stellate cells, and scattered hypertrophied Kupffer cells, as demonstrated by electron microscopy and validated by immunohistochemical analysis. It is interesting to note that eosinophils were seen between the liver cells and in dilated blood sinusoids. Moreover, the biochemical (hepatic and cardiac) and histological (liver) changes were significantly less severe in luteolin-treated rat on a high-fructose diet. These results suggested that luteolin protects against a type of metabolic syndrome that is produced experimentally.

Inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation by nutraceuticals: an emphasis on mechanisms of action

Liver diseases emerge as a serious threat to humans worldwide due to increasing morbidity and mortality. Liver disease related deaths accounts for one third of all disease related death globally. A simple fatty liver if unattended advances further to liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. During liver fibrogenesis, hepatic stellate cells gets activated into myofibroblast like cells and exhibit proliferative and fibrogenic features. Targeting these activated hepatic stellate cells offer promising therapeutic approach towards liver fibrosis management. To date there is no Food and Drug Administration approved treatments for liver fibrosis. However, a large number of clinical trials are being conducted employing monoclonal antibodies, drugs, dietary supplements and herbal medicines. A vast number of research findings demonstrated nutraceuticals to be effective against experimental liver fibrosis both in vitro and in vivo. Nutraceuticals typically regulate key signaling pathways in activated hepatic stellate cells and exhibit anti-fibrotic effect. In this review, the mechanistic action of nutraceuticals targeting activated hepatic stellate cells were summarized to establish them as a possible therapeutic candidate for liver fibrosis.

Acacetin, a Natural Flavone with Potential in Improving Liver Disease Based on Its Anti-Inflammation, Anti-Cancer, Anti-Infection and Other Effects

Liver disease is a global public problem, and the cost of its therapy is a large financial burden to governments. It is well known that drug therapy plays a critical role in the treatment of liver disease. However, present drugs are far from meeting clinical needs. Lots of efforts have been made to find novel agents to treat liver disease in the past several decades. Acacetin is a dihydroxy and monomethoxy flavone, named 5,7-dihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone, which can be found in diverse plants. It has been reported that acacetin exhibits multiple pharmacological activities, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-virus, anti-obesity, and anti-oxidation. These studies indicate the therapeutic potential of acacetin in liver disease. This review discussed the comprehensive information on the pathogenesis of liver disease (cirrhosis, viral hepatitis, drug-induced liver injury, and hepatocellular carcinoma), then introduced the biological source, structural features, and pharmacological properties of acacetin, and the possible application in preventing liver disease along with the pharmacokinetic and toxicity of acacetin, and future research directions. We systemically summarized the latest research progress on the potential therapeutic effect of acacetin on liver disease and existing problems. Based on the present published information, the natural flavone acacetin is an anticipated candidate agent for the treatment of liver disease.

The possible pathogenesis of liver fibrosis: therapeutic potential of natural polyphenols

Liver fibrosis is the formation of a fibrous scar resulting from chronic liver injury, independently from etiology. Although many of the mechanical details remain unknown, activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is a central driver of liver fibrosis. Extracellular mechanisms such as apoptotic bodies, paracrine stimuli, inflammation, and oxidative stress are critical in activating HSCs. The potential for liver fibrosis to reverse after removing the causative agent has heightened interest in developing antifibrotic therapies. Polyphenols, the secondary plant metabolites, have gained attention because of their health-beneficial properties, including well-recognized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, in the setting of liver fibrosis. In this review, we present an overview of the mechanisms underlying liver fibrosis with a specific focus on the activation of resident HSCs. We highlight the therapeutic potential and promising role of natural polyphenols to mitigate liver fibrosis pathogenesis, focusing on HSCs activation. We also discuss the translational gap from preclinical findings to clinical treatments involved in natural polyphenols in liver fibrosis.

Remodeling of white adipose tissue microenvironment against obesity by phytochemicals

Obesity is a kind of chronic disease due to a long-term imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. In recent years, the number of obese people around the world has soared, and obesity problem should not be underestimated. Obesity is characterized by changes in the adipose microenvironment, mainly manifested as hypertrophy, chronic inflammatory status, hypoxia, and fibrosis, thus contributing to the pathological changes of other tissues. A plethora of phytochemicals have been found to improve adipose microenvironment, thus prevent and resist obesity, providing a new research direction for the treatment of obesity and related diseases. This paper discusses remodeling of the adipose tissue microenvironment as a therapeutic avenue and reviews the progress of phytochemicals in fighting obesity by improving the adipose microenvironment.

Biliary fibrosis is an important but neglected pathological feature in hepatobiliary disorders: from molecular mechanisms to clinical implications

Fibrosis resulting from pathological repair secondary to recurrent or persistent tissue damage often leads to organ failure and mortality. Biliary fibrosis is a crucial but easily neglected pathological feature in hepatobiliary disorders, which may promote the development and progression of benign and malignant biliary diseases through pathological healing mechanisms secondary to biliary tract injuries. Elucidating the etiology and pathogenesis of biliary fibrosis is beneficial to the prevention and treatment of biliary diseases. In this review, we emphasized the importance of biliary fibrosis in cholangiopathies and summarized the clinical manifestations, epidemiology, and aberrant cellular composition involving the biliary ductules, cholangiocytes, immune system, fibroblasts, and the microbiome. We also focused on pivotal signaling pathways and offered insights into ongoing clinical trials and proposing a strategic approach for managing biliary fibrosis-related cholangiopathies. This review will offer a comprehensive perspective on biliary fibrosis and provide an important reference for future mechanism research and innovative therapy to prevent or reverse fibrosis.

Computational analysis of phytocompounds in Centella asiatica for its antifibrotic and drug-likeness properties - Herb to drug study

Oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF) is a potentially malignant disorder with no permanent cure that affects the quality of life due to trismus. Computational pharmacology has accelerated the discovery of drug candidates for the treatment of incurable diseases. The present study aimed to screen the compounds of the miracle herb Centella asiatica with drug-likeness properties based on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties. The pharmacological actions of these screened compounds against OSMF were identified by network pharmacology, gene ontology, pathway enrichment analysis, molecular docking, and simulation. Fifteen drug-like ligands were identified after virtual screening viz; asiatic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, bayogenin, gallic acid, isothankunic acid, madecassic acid, madasiatic acid, arjunolic acid, terminolic acid, catechin, epicatechin, and nobiletin. 850 potential targets were predicted for the ligands, which were analyzed against 354 proteins associated with OSMF. Compound pathway analysis and disease pathway analysis identified 53 common proteins. The GO enrichment analysis identified 472 biological process terms, 76 molecular function terms, and 44 cellular component terms. Pathway enrichment analysis predicted 142 KEGG pathways, 35 Biocarta pathways, and 236 Reactome pathways for the target proteins. The analysis revealed that the herb targets crucial events of fibrosis such as inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, collagen deposition, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The common 53 proteins were used for protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, which revealed 4 key proteins interacting with the phytocompounds viz; transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), mothers against decapentaplegic-3 (SMAD-3), mitogen-activated protein kinase-1 (MAPK-1) and proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase (SRC). Molecular docking revealed that all ligands had a good binding affinity to the target proteins. Bayogenin had the highest binding affinity towards MAPK-1 (-9.7 kcal/mol), followed by isothankunic acid towards SRC protein (-9.3 kcal/mol). Madasiatic acid had the highest binding affinity to SMAD-3 (-7.6 kcal/mol) and TGF-β1 (-7.1 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics simulation demonstrated stable ligand protein interactions of bayogenin and MAPK complex, isothankunic acid and SRC complex. This in silico study is the first to identify potential phytochemicals present in Centella asiatica and their target molecules, which might be responsible for reversing OSMF.

Plant-derived flavonoids are a potential source of drugs for the treatment of liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a dynamic pathological process that can be triggered by any chronic liver injury. If left unaddressed, it will inevitably progress to the severe outcomes of liver cirrhosis or even hepatocellular carcinoma. In the past few years, the prevalence and fatality of hepatic fibrosis have been steadily rising on a global scale. As a result of its intricate pathogenesis, the quest for pharmacological interventions targeting liver fibrosis has remained a formidable challenge. Currently, no pharmaceuticals are exhibiting substantial clinical efficacy in the management of hepatic fibrosis. Hence, it is of utmost importance to expedite the development of novel therapeutics for the treatment of this condition. Various research studies have revealed the ability of different natural flavonoid compounds to alleviate or reverse hepatic fibrosis through a range of mechanisms, which are related to the regulation of liver inflammation, oxidative stress, synthesis and secretion of fibrosis-related factors, hepatic stellate cells activation, and proliferation, and extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation by these compounds. This review summarizes the progress of research on different sources of natural flavonoids with inhibitory effects on liver fibrosis over the last decades. The anti-fibrotic effects of natural flavonoids have been increasingly studied, making them a potential source of drugs for the treatment of liver fibrosis due to their good efficacy and biosafety.

The Ameliorative Effect of Litsea martabanica (Kurz) Hook. f. Leaf Water Extract on Chlorpyrifos-Induced Toxicity in Rats and Its Antioxidant Potentials

Litsea martabanica root's antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity showed promise as a pesticide detoxification agent in our previous study. In addition to its root, leaves can help alleviate pesticide exposure, although there is limited scientific evidence supporting their efficacy. However, the use of roots in several countries, such as Thailand, could contribute to environmental degradation, as highland communities traditionally used leaves instead of roots. This study aims to evaluate the antioxidant activity and anti-pesticide potential of water extract from L. martabanica leaves through in vitro and in vivo investigations. In the in vitro study, L. martabanica water extract and its fractions demonstrated antioxidant activity and induced apoptosis in hepatic satellite cells. In the in vivo study, treatment with the leaf extract led to increased AChE activity, decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and reduced glutathione in chlorpyrifos-exposed rats. Histopathological examination revealed that chlorpyrifos-treated rats exhibited liver cell damage, while treatment with the water extract of L. martabanica exhibited a protective effect on the liver. In conclusion, L. martabanica water extract exhibited antioxidant activity, enhanced AChE activity, and improved histopathological abnormalities in the liver.

Luteolin attenuates CCl4-induced hepatic injury by inhibiting ferroptosis via SLC7A11

BACKGROUND

Luteolin (3,4,5,7-tetrahydroxy flavone) is reported to strongly protect from acute carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) -induced liver injury or fibrosis. Ferroptosis can be induced by hepatic injury, and contributes to liver fibrosis development. The exact functional mechanism underlying luteolin inhibition of hepatic injury and whether ferroptosis is involved are unclear.

METHODS

Mice model and cell model of liver injury were constructed or induced to explore the effect and molecular mechanisms of Luteolin in the treatment of hepatic injury using CCl4. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and flow cytometry were used to evaluate HepG2 cell viability and apoptosis. The differential expressed genes involved in liver injury were scanned using RNA-seq and confirmed using functional study. Western blot was used to detect the indicators related to ferroptosis.

RESULTS

Luteolin attenuated hepatic injury by alleviating cell morphology and decreasing serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels in vivo mice models, and increasing cell viability, downregulating arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (ALOX12), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and P21 protein expression, suppressing apoptosis in vitro cell models. Luteolin also inhibited ferroptosis by stimulating glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and mitochondrial ferritin (FTMT) protein expression, increasing glutathione (GSH) content, and minimizing Fe2+ and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Solute carrier family 7a member 11 (SLC7A11) was identified to be a key regulatory gene that participated in luteolin attenuation of CCl4-induced hepatic injuries in HepG2 cells using Microarray assay. Functional study showed that SLC7A11 can alleviate hepatic injury and ferroptosis.

CONCLUSION

Luteolin attenuated CCl4-induced hepatic injury by inhibiting ferroptosis via SLC7A11. SLC7A11 may serve as a novel alternative therapeutic target for hepatic injury.

Loureirin B ameliorates cholestatic liver fibrosis via AKT/mTOR/ATG7-mediated autophagy of hepatic stellate cells

AIM OF THE STUDY

Chronic cholestasis leads to liver fibrosis, which lacks effective treatment. In this study, we investigated the role and mechanisms of action of loureirin B (LB) in cholestatic liver fibrosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced hepatic fibrosis mice were used as in vivo models. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-pretreated HSC-T6 cells were used to explore the mechanism by which LB attenuates liver fibrosis in vitro. RNA sequencing, quantitative PCR (qPCR), western blotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were performed to detect the fibrosis markers and measure autophagy levels. Flow cytometry, cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, and 5'-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay were conducted to detect cell proliferation and viability. GFP-RFP-LC3 adenovirus, autophagy-related protein 7 (ATG7) siRNA, and bafilomycin A1 (BafA1) were used to verify autophagic flux.

RESULTS

Our results showed that LB ameliorates liver injury, inhibits collagen deposition, and decreases the expressions of fibrosis-related markers in BDL-induced mouse livers. In vitro, we found that LB inhibited proliferation and migration, promoted apoptosis, and inhibited the activation of HSC-T6 cells pretreated with TGF-β1. RNA sequencing analysis of HSC-T6 cells showed that LB treatment predominantly targeted autophagy-related pathways. Further protein analysis indicated that LB downregulated the expression of phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT) and phosphorylated mTOR (p-mTOR), and upregulated LC3-II, p62, and ATG7 both in vivo and in vitro. Intriguingly, ATG7 inactivation reversed the antifibrotic effects of LB on HSC-T6 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

LB can improve BDL-induced liver fibrosis by inhibiting the activation and proliferation of HSCs and is expected to be a promising antifibrotic drug.

TCM targets ferroptosis: potential treatments for cancer

Ferroptosis is caused by the accumulation of cellular reactive oxygen species that exceed the antioxidant load that glutathione (GSH) and phospholipid hydroperoxidases with GSH-based substrates can carry When the antioxidant capacity of cells is reduced, lipid reactive oxygen species accumulate, which can cause oxidative death. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent regulatory necrosis pathway, has emerged as a new modality of cell death that is strongly associated with cancer. Surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the main methods of cancer treatment. However, resistance to these mainstream anticancer drugs and strong toxic side effects have forced the development of alternative treatments with high efficiency and low toxicity. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have shown that traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), especially herbs or herbal extracts, can inhibit tumor cell growth and metastasis by inducing ferroptosis, suggesting that they could be promising agents for cancer treatment. This article reviews the current research progress on the antitumor effects of TCMs through the induction of ferroptosis. The aim of these studies was to elucidate the potential mechanisms of targeting ferroptosis in cancer, and the findings could lead to new directions and reference values for developing better cancer treatment strategies.

The role of PI3k/AKT signaling pathway in attenuating liver fibrosis: a comprehensive review

Excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) components within the liver leads to a pathological condition known as liver fibrosis. Alcohol abuse, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), autoimmune issues, and viral hepatitis cause chronic liver injury. Exploring potential therapeutic targets and understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in liver fibrosis are essential for the development of effective interventions. The goal of this comprehensive review is to explain how the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway contributes to the reduction of liver fibrosis. The potential of this pathway as a therapeutic target is investigated through a summary of results from in vivo and in vitro studies. Studies focusing on PI3K/AKT activation have shown a significant decrease in fibrosis markers and a significant improvement in liver function. The review emphasizes how this pathway may prevent ECM synthesis and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, ultimately reducing the fibrotic response. The specific mechanisms and downstream effectors of the PI3K/AKT pathway in liver fibrosis constitute a rapidly developing field of study. In conclusion, the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway plays a significant role in attenuating liver fibrosis. Its complex role in regulating HSC activation and ECM production, demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo, underscores its potential as a effective therapeutic approach for managing liver fibrosis and slowing disease progression. A comprehensive review of this field provides valuable insights into its future developments and implications for clinical applications.

Luteolin blocks the ROS/PI3K/AKT pathway to inhibit mesothelial-mesenchymal transition and reduce abdominal adhesions

BACKGROUND

Postoperative abdominal adhesion (PAA) is a common postoperative complication. Clinically, various methods have been used to prevent the occurrence of PAA, such as drugs and physiotherapy; however, no satisfactory results have been obtained. Luteolin (LUT) is a natural flavonoid that reduces inflammation and acts as an antioxidant. This research aimed to examine the impact and mechanism of LUT in reducing PAA.

METHODS

C57/BL6 mice were used in vivo experiments. PAA model was established using a brush friction method. Visual scoring and hematoxylin and eosin staining were used to score the severity of adhesions. Network pharmacology was used to infer potential targets and core pathways of LUT. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was used to induce oxidative stress in vitro, while the reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay kit was used to evaluate oxidative stress levels. Western blotting, cell immunofluorescence, and multiple immunofluorescence assays were used to detect α-SMA, vimentin, E-cadherin, collagen I, or AKT phosphorylation level. Scratch assay was used to detect cell migration.

RESULTS

LUT reduced the degree of PAA in mice. It attenuated H2O2-induced ROS production and reversed mesothelial-mesenchymal transition (MMT) in HMrSV5 cells. Network pharmacology analysis showed that LUT likely exerted anti-adhesion activity by regulating the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Phosphorylated Akt levels were significantly reduced in LUT-treated HMrSV5 cells. LUT also significantly reduced the expression of vimentin and collagen I in adherent tissues and upregulated E-cadherin expression.

CONCLUSION

LUT blocks the ROS/PI3K/AKT pathway, thereby inhibiting MMT and reducing PAA. To this end, LUT has potential in PAA therapy.

Human diet-derived polyphenolic compounds and hepatic diseases: From therapeutic mechanisms to clinical utilization

This review focuses on the potential ameliorative effects of polyphenolic compounds derived from human diet on hepatic diseases. It discusses the molecular mechanisms and recent advancements in clinical applications. Edible polyphenols have been found to play a therapeutic role, particularly in liver injury, liver fibrosis, NAFLD/NASH, and HCC. In the regulation of liver injury, polyphenols exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, primarily targeting the TGF-β, NF-κB/TLR4, PI3K/AKT, and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. In the regulation of liver fibrosis, polyphenolic compounds effectively reverse the fibrotic process by inhibiting the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSC). Furthermore, polyphenolic compounds show efficacy against NAFLD/NASH by inhibiting lipid oxidation and accumulation, mediated through the AMPK, SIRT, and PPARγ pathways. Moreover, several polyphenolic compounds exhibit anti-HCC activity by suppressing tumor cell proliferation and metastasis. This inhibition primarily involves blocking Akt and Wnt signaling, as well as inhibiting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Additionally, clinical trials and nutritional evidence support the notion that certain polyphenols can improve liver disease and associated metabolic disorders. However, further fundamental research and clinical trials are warranted to validate the efficacy of dietary polyphenols.

Research Progress Regarding the Effect and Mechanism of Dietary Polyphenols in Liver Fibrosis

The development of liver fibrosis is a result of chronic liver injuries may progress to liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. In recent years, liver fibrosis has become a major global problem, and the incidence rate and mortality are increasing year by year. However, there are currently no approved treatments. Research on anti-liver-fibrosis drugs is a top priority. Dietary polyphenols, such as plant secondary metabolites, have remarkable abilities to reduce lipid metabolism, insulin resistance and inflammation, and are attracting more and more attention as potential drugs for the treatment of liver diseases. Gradually, dietary polyphenols are becoming the focus for providing an improvement in the treatment of liver fibrosis. The impact of dietary polyphenols on the composition of intestinal microbiota and the subsequent production of intestinal microbial metabolites has been observed to indirectly modulate signaling pathways in the liver, thereby exerting regulatory effects on liver disease. In conclusion, there is evidence that dietary polyphenols can be therapeutically useful in preventing and treating liver fibrosis, and we highlight new perspectives and key questions for future drug development.

Luteolin as a potential hepatoprotective drug: Molecular mechanisms and treatment strategies

Luteolin is a flavonoid widely present in various traditional Chinese medicines. In recent years, luteolin has received more attention due to its impressive liver protective effect, such as metabolic associated fatty liver disease, hepatic fibrosis and hepatoma. This article summarizes the pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetic characteristics, and toxicity of luteolin against liver diseases, and provides prospect. The results indicate that luteolin improves liver lesions through various mechanisms, including inhibiting inflammatory factors, reducing oxidative stress, regulating lipid balance, slowing down excessive aggregation of extracellular matrix, inducing apoptosis and autophagy of liver cancer cells. Pharmacokinetics research manifested that due to metabolic effects, the bioavailability of luteolin is relatively low. It is worth noting that appropriate modification, new delivery systems, and derivatives can enhance its bioavailability. Although many studies have shown that the toxicity of luteolin is minimal, strict toxicity experiments are still needed to evaluate its safety and promote its reasonable development. In addition, this study also discussed the clinical applications related to luteolin, indicating that it is a key component of commonly used liver protective drugs in clinical practice. In view of its excellent pharmacological effects, luteolin is expected to become a potential drug for the treatment of various liver diseases.

Integrated network analysis and metabolomics reveal the molecular mechanism of Yinchen Sini decoction in CCl4-induced acute liver injury

Objective: Yinchen Sini decoction (YCSND), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, plays a crucial role in the treatment of liver disease. However, the bioactive constituents and pharmacological mechanisms of action remain unclear. The present study aimed to reveal the molecular mechanism of YCSND in the treatment of acute liver injury (ALI) using integrated network analysis and metabolomics. Methods: Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-Exactive focus mass spectrum (UHPLC-QE-MS) was utilized to identify metabolites in YCSND, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was applied to evaluate the quality of four botanical drugs in YCSND. Cell damage and ALI models in mice were established using CCl4. 1H-NMR metabolomics approach, along with histopathological observation using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), biochemical measurements, and reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), was applied to evaluate the effect of YCSND on CCl4- induced ALI. Network analysis was conducted to predict the potential targets of YCSND in ALI. Result: Our results showed that 89 metabolites in YCSND were identified using UHPLC-QE-MS. YCSND protected against ALI by reducing the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents and increasing those of superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH) both in vivo and in vitro. The 1H-NMRmetabolic pattern revealed that YCSND reversed CCl4-induced metabolic abnormalities in the liver. Additionally, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis identified five pathways related to liver injury, including the PI3K-AKT, MAPK, HIF-1, apoptosis, and TNF signaling pathways. Moreover, RT-qPCR showed YCSND regulated the inflammatory response (Tlr4, Il6, Tnfα, Nfκb1, Ptgs2, and Mmp9) and apoptosis (Bcl2, Caspase3, Bax, and Mapk3), and inhibited PI3K-AKT signaling pathway (Pi3k and Akt1). Combined network analysis and metabolomics showed a link between the key targets (Tlr4, Ptgs2, and Mmp9) and vital metabolites (choline, xanthine, lactate, and 3-hydroxybutyric acid) of YCSND in ALI. Conclusion: Overall, the results contribute to the understanding of the therapeutic effects of YCSND on ALI, and indicate that the integrated network analysis and metabolomics could be a powerful strategy to reveal the pharmacological effects of TCM.

Isolation and Biological Evaluation of Alfa-Mangostin as Potential Therapeutic Agents against Liver Fibrosis

The increased proliferation and activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are associated with liver fibrosis development. To date, there are no FDA-approved drugs for the treatment of liver cirrhosis. Augmentation of HSCs apoptosis is one of the resolutions for liver fibrosis. In this study, we extracted α-mangostin (1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-9H-xanthen-9-one) from the fruit waste components of mangosteen pericarp. The isolated α-mangostin structure was determined and characterized with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and compared with those known compounds. The intracellular signaling pathway activities of α-mangostin on Transforming growth factors-beta 1 (TGF-β1) or Platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (PDGF-BB) induced HSCs activation and were analyzed via Western blot and Real-time Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (Q-PCR). α-Mangostin-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in HSCs were measured by seahorse assay and caspase-dependent cleavage. The in vivo anti-fibrotic effect of α-mangostin was assessed by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) treatment mouse model. The data showed that α-mangostin treatment inhibited TGF-β1-induced Smad2/3 phosphorylation and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression in HSCs in a dose-dependent manner. Regarding the PDGF-BB-induced HSCs proliferation signaling pathways, α-mangostin pretreatment suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38. The activation of caspase-dependent apoptosis and dysfunction of mitochondrial respiration (such as oxygen consumption rate, ATP production, and maximal respiratory capacity) were observed in α-mangostin-treated HSCs. The CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mouse model showed that the administration of α-mangostin significantly decreased the expression of the fibrosis markers (α-SMA, collagen-a2 (col1a2), desmin and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2)) as well as attenuated hepatic collagen deposition and liver damage. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that α-mangostin attenuates the progression of liver fibrosis through inhibiting the proliferation of HSCs and triggering apoptosis signals. Thus, α-mangostin may be used as a potential novel therapeutic agent against liver fibrosis.

Phytobioactive compounds as therapeutic agents for human diseases: A review

Phytobioactive compounds are plant secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds abundantly present in medicinal plants and have remarkable therapeutic potential. Oxidative stress and antibiotic resistance are major causes of present-day ailments such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and inflammation. The data for this review were collected from Google Scholar, PubMed, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and Science Direct by using keywords: "Medicinal plants, Phytobioactive compounds, Polyphenols, Alkaloids, Carotenoids etc." Several studies have reported the pharmacological and therapeutic potential of the phytobioactives. Polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenes, and polysaccharides isolated from medicinal plants showed remarkable antioxidant, anticancer, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and antidiabetic activities. This literature review was planned to provide comprehensive insight into the biopharmacological and therapeutic potential of phytobioactive compounds. The techniques used for the extraction and isolation of phytobioactive compounds, and bioassays required for their biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities, have been discussed. Characterization techniques for the structural elucidation of phytobioactive compounds such as HPLC, TLC, FTIR, GC-MS/MS, and NMR have also been discussed. This review concludes that phytobioactive compounds may be used as potential alternative to synthetic compounds as therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases.

Luteolin inhibits subretinal fibrosis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in laser-induced mouse model via suppression of Smad2/3 and YAP signaling

BACKGROUND

Subretinal fibrosis (SF) accounts for vision loss in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) even treated with adequate intravitreal injection of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) drugs. Currently, there is no treatment available to prevent or treat SF caused by nAMD.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate the potential effects of luteolin on SF and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as well as the underlying molecular pathways both in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

Seven-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were employed to establish laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and SF. One day after the laser induction, luteolin was administered intravitreally. SF and CNV were assessed with the immunolabeling of collagen type I (collagen I) and isolectin B4 (IB4), respectively. RPE65 and α-SMA colocalization in the lesions was used to evaluate the extent of EMT in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells by using immunofluorescence. In vitro, luteolin was administered to TGFβ1-treated primary human RPE (phRPE) cells. RT-qPCR, Western blot and immunofluorescence were employed to evaluate the change of EMT-related molecules, epithelial markers, and relevant signaling pathways. The functional changes associated with EMT were investigated using the scratch assay, Transwell migration assay, and collagen gel contraction assay. CCK-8 was used to determine the cell viability of phRPE cells.

RESULTS

On day 7 and 14 after laser induction in mice, intravitreal injection of luteolin dramatically decreased the immunolabeled sizes of both collagen I and IB4, as well as the amount of colocalized double immunostaining of α-SMA and RPE65 in laser-induced SF lesions. In vitro, TGFβ1-treated phRPE cells demonstrated increased cell migration and contraction capacity, accompanied with considerable overexpression of fibronectin, α-SMA, N-cadherin and vimentin, as well as downregulation of E-cadherin and ZO-1. The above changes were largely inhibited by luteolin co-incubation. Mechanistically, luteolin could evidently decrease the phosphorylation of Smad2/3, whereas increase the phosphorylation of YAP in TGFβ1-treated phRPE cells.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that luteolin exhibits the anti-fibrotic effect in a laser-induced mouse model by inhibiting EMT of RPE cells via deactivating Smad2/3 and YAP signaling, which provides a potential natural compound for the prevention and treatment of SF and fibrosis-related diseases.

Engineered fibrotic liver-targeted truncated transforming growth factor β receptor type II variant for superior anti-liver fibrosis therapy

Truncated transforming growth factor β receptor type II (tTβRII) is a promising anti-liver fibrotic candidate because it serves as a trap for binding excessive TGF-β1 by means of competing with wild type TβRII (wtTβRII). However, the widespread application of tTβRII for the treatment of liver fibrosis has been limited by its poor fibrotic liver-homing capacity. Herein, we designed a novel tTβRII variant Z-tTβRII by fusing the platelet-derived growth factor β receptor (PDGFβR)-specific affibody Z_PDGFβR to the N-terminus of tTβRII. The target protein Z-tTβRII was produced using Escherichia coli expression system. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that Z-tTβRII has a superior specific fibrotic liver-targeting potential via the engagement of PDGFβR-overexpressing activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) in liver fibrosis. Moreover, Z-tTβRII significantly inhibited cell migration and invasion, and downregulated fibrosis- and TGF-β1/Smad pathway-related protein levels in TGF-β1-stimiluated HSC-T6 cells. Furthermore, Z-tTβRII remarkably ameliorated liver histopathology, mitigated the fibrosis responses and blocked TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway in CCl₄-induced liver fibrotic mice. More importantly, Z-tTβRII exhibits a higher fibrotic liver-targeting potential and stronger anti-fibrotic effects than either its parent tTβRII or former variant BiPPB-tTβRII (PDGFβR-binding peptide BiPPB modified tTβRII). In addition, Z-tTβRII shows no significant sign of potential side effects in other vital organs in liver fibrotic mice. Taken together, we conclude that Z-tTβRII with its a high fibrotic liver-homing potential, holds a superior anti-fibrotic activity in liver fibrosis in vitro and in vivo, which may be a potential candidate for targeted therapy for liver fibrosis.

The total polyphenolic glycoside extract of Lamiophlomis rotata ameliorates hepatic fibrosis through apoptosis by TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Hepatic fibrosis is characterized by the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) which is mainly secreted by activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Lamiophlomis rotata (L. rotata) was recorded to treat jaundice in the traditional Tibetan medical system with the potential of hepatoprotection. However, the bioactivities and the possible mechanism of L. rotata on hepatic fibrosis is still largely unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of bioactivities in L. rotata and the probable mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Herein, total polyphenolic glycosides of L. rotata (TPLR) was purified with the selectivity adsorption resin and was analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF/MSⁿ). The anti-hepatic fibrosis effect of TPLR was evaluated by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis, and was evaluated with the apoptosis of activated HSCs.

RESULTS

In total, sixteen compounds, including nine phenylpropanoids and six flavonoids, were identified in the UPLC-TOF-MSⁿ profile of the extracts. TPLR significantly ameliorated hepatic fibrosis in CCl₄-induced mice and inhibited HSCs proliferation, Moreover, TPLR notably increased the apoptosis of activated HSCs along with up-regulated caspase-3, -8, -9, and -10. Furthermore, TPLR inhibited TGF-β/Smad pathway ameliorating hepatic fibrosis though downregulation the expression of Smad2/3, Smad4, and upregulation the expression of Smad7 in vivo and in vitro. Simultaneously, the expression of fibronectin (FN), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and Collagen I (Col1α1) were decreased in tissues and in cells with TPLR administration.

CONCLUSION

These results initially demonstrated that TPLR has the potential to ameliorate hepatic fibrosis through an apoptosis mechanism via TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway.

Biejiajian pill inhibits progression of hepatocellular carcinoma by downregulating PDGFRβ signaling in cancer-associated fibroblasts

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Biejiajian pill (BJJP) is a canonical formula that is clinically used to treat chronic liver disease, especially to decrease the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the mechanisms underlying the prevention of HCC progression by BJJP remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to determine whether BJJP inhibits HCC progression by downregulating platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRβ) signaling in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in a mouse model of diethylnitrosamine (DEN)/carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced HCC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57BL/6 male mice were intraperitoneally injected with DEN 2 weeks after birth, followed by repeated injections of CCl₄ weekly from 6 weeks of age onwards, to recapitulate features of HCC. At week 14, BJJP was orally administered to mice. The effects of BJJP on HCC progression were evaluated using histology, immunohistochemistry, and serum biochemical marker levels. Transcriptome analysis, molecular docking, quantitative real-time PCR, and Western blot were used to study the genes targeted by BJJP and the associated signaling pathway. The effects of BJJP on PDGFRβ signaling in CAFs and the underlying mechanism were demonstrated.

RESULTS

BJJP treatment significantly suppressed carcinogenesis and cancer progression, and it ameliorated liver inflammation in mice with HCC. A total of 176 genes, including PDGFRβ, were significantly downregulated after BJJP treatment and five components of BJJP with high binding affinity to PDGFRβ were identified. BJJP inhibited the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) by suppressing PDGFRβ expression in CAFs, and it also downregulated the expression of the downstream proteins hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A). Furthermore, BJJP-containing serum consistently reduced PDGFRβ, HGF, and VEGF-A expression levels in HSC-derived CAFs in vitro. Importantly, PDGF-BB induced PDGFRβ activation in CAFs and both BJJP and sunitinib (a kinase inhibitor) inhibited PDGF-BB/PDGFRβ signaling.

CONCLUSION

BJJP inhibits the progression of HCC through suppressing VEGF-A and HGF expression in CAFs by downregulating PDGFRβ signaling.

Luteolin-loaded exosomes derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells: a promising therapy for liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a global life-threatening disorder with no approved treatment. It leads to serious hepatic complications when progressive, such as cirrhosis and carcinoma. Luteolin (LUT) is a plant flavonoid possessing a promising therapeutic potential in various liver diseases particularly, liver fibrosis. It was reported to have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. It also suppresses the proliferation of activated hepatic stellate cells (HSC) and induces their apoptosis. However, its poor aqueous solubility and exposure to metabolism hinder its clinical use. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-derived exosomes, nano-sized extracellular vesicles, have recently emerged as natural biocompatible drug delivery vehicles permitting efficient drug delivery. Accordingly, the present study aimed for the first time to investigate the potential of bone marrow MSCs-derived exosomes to improve LUTs antifibrotic effectiveness. LUT-loaded exosomes (LUT-Ex) were successfully developed, optimized and subjected to both in vitro and in vivo characterization. The elaborated LUT-Ex presented good colloidal properties (size; 150 nm, PDI; 0.3 and ζ-potential; -28 mV), typical vesicular shape, reasonable drug entrapment efficiency (40%) with sustained drug release over 72 h. Additionally, the cellular uptake study of coumarin-6-loaded exosomes in HEP-G2 revealed a significant enhancement in their uptake by 78.4% versus free coumarin-6 solution (p ≤ 0.001). Following a single intraperitoneal injection, LUT-Ex revealed a superior antifibrotic activity compared with either LUT-suspension or blank exosomes as evidenced by the results of biochemical and histopathological evaluation. In conclusion, the elaborated LUT-Ex could be addressed as a promising nanocarrier for effective treatment of liver fibrosis.

Traditional Chinese medicine: An important source for discovering candidate agents against hepatic fibrosis

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) refers to the pathophysiological process of connective tissue dysplasia in the liver caused by various pathogenic factors. Nowadays, HF is becoming a severe threat to the health of human being. However, the drugs available for treating HF are limited. Currently, increasing natural agents derived from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been found to be beneficial for HF. A systemic literature search was conducted from PubMed, GeenMedical, Sci-Hub, CNKI, Google Scholar and Baidu Scholar, with the keywords of "traditional Chinese medicine," "herbal medicine," "natural agents," "liver diseases," and "hepatic fibrosis." So far, more than 76 natural monomers have been isolated and identified from the TCMs with inhibitory effect on HF, including alkaloids, flavones, quinones, terpenoids, saponins, phenylpropanoids, and polysaccharides, etc. The anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of these compounds include hepatoprotection, inhibition of hepatic stellate cells (HSC) activation, regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis & secretion, regulation of autophagy, and antioxidant & anti-inflammation, etc. Natural compounds and extracts from TCMs are promising agents for the prevention and treatment of HF, and this review would be of great significance to development of novel drugs for treating HF.

The combination of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos and Forsythiae Fructus herb-pair alleviated inflammation in liver fibrosis

Objective: To explore the active components and epigenetic regulation mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos and Forsythiae Fructus herb-pair (LFP) in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced rat liver fibrosis.

Methods: The main active ingredients and disease-related gene targets of LFP were determined using TCMSP and UniProt, and liver fibrosis disease targets were screened in the GeneCards database. A network was constructed with Cytoscape 3.8.0 and the STRING database, and potential protein functions were analyzed using bioinformatics analysis. Based on these analyses, we determined the main active ingredients of LFP and evaluated their effects in a CCl₄-induced rat liver fibrosis model. Serum biochemical indices were measured using commercial kits, hepatocyte tissue damage and collagen deposition were evaluated by histopathological studies, and myofibroblast activation and inflammation were detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blotting. High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was performed to determine the levels of homocysteine, reduced glutathione, and oxidized glutathione, which are involved in inflammation and oxidative stress.

Results: The main active components of LFP were quercetin, kaempferol, and luteolin, and its main targets were α-smooth muscle actin, cyclooxygenase-2, formyl-peptide receptor-2, prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1, nuclear receptor coactivator-2, interleukinβ, tumor necrosis factor α, CXC motif chemokine ligand 14, and transforming growth factor β1. A combination of quercetin, kaempferol, and luteolin alleviated the symptoms of liver fibrosis.

Conclusion: The results of this study support the role of LFP in the treatment of liver fibrosis, and reveal that LFP reduces collagen formation, inflammation, and oxidative stress. This study suggests a potential mechanism of action of LFP in the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Exploring mechanisms of Chaihu-Shugan-San against liver fibrosis by integrated multi-omics and network pharmacology approach

Chaihu-Shugan-San (CHSGS), a noted traditional Chinese medicine formula, has been used as a complementary and alternative therapy for liver fibrosis. However, the antifibrotic mechanisms of CHSGS still remain unclear. Thus, we used network pharmacology approach in combination with single cell and bulk transcriptomics to elucidate the antifibrotic mechanisms of CHSGS. We first screened out 134 bioactive ingredients of CHSGS through the defined criteria. Then, 1,150 genes were predicted to be targets for CHSGS, while 625 liver fibrosis-associated genes were identified by single cell transcriptomics analysis. Next, 71 intersecting genes of CHSGS and liver fibrosis were defined as the therapeutic targets in CHSGS against liver fibrosis. Further, 21 core targets and 12 core ingredients of CHSGS against liver fibrosis were also identified. Meanwhile, enrichment analyses of core targets highlighted that the key mechanisms of CHSGS against liver fibrosis include modulation of inflammation responses, inhibition of angiogenesis, and regulation of ECM remodeling, of which the most important mechanism was the regulation of ECM remodeling. The molecular docking simulation validated strong binding affinity between the core targets and core ingredients. Furthermore, 62-gene signature may be used for determining the prognosis in cirrhotic patients based on the results of ssGSEA-Cox analysis. In conclusion, this study revealed the multiple pharmacological targets and therapeutic mechanisms of CHSGS against liver fibrosis, which may thus serve as an effective antifibrotic therapy. Meanwhile, CHSGS may improve survival of patients with liver cirrhosis by the interaction of 62-gene signature.

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans-mediated targeted delivery of TGF-β1-binding peptide to liver for improved anti-liver fibrotic activity in vitro and in vivo

Elevated expressions of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, thus attenuating the excessive TGF-β1's activity by TGF-β1-binding peptide is an ideal strategy for the treatment of liver fibrosis. However, the application of small peptide as a pharmaceutical agent is obstacle due to difficult preparation and non-selective delivery. The I-plus sequences of circumsporozoite protein (CSP-I) possesses high affinity for heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which are primarily located on liver tissues. TGF-β1-binding peptide P15 holds specific ability of binding to TGF-β1. In this study, we describe an approach to efficiently preparing liver-targeting peptide P15-CSP-I, which is conjugation of the sequences of P15 to the N-terminus of CSP-I, from the cleavage of biological macromolecule SUMO-tagged P15-CSP-I. In vitro and ex vivo binding assay showed that P15-CSP-I specifically targeted to the hepatocytes and liver tissues. Moreover, P15-CSP-I inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and decreased fibrosis-related proteins expression in TGF-β1-activated HSCs in vitro. Furthermore, P15-CSP-I ameliorated liver morphology and decreased the fibrosis responses in vivo. Taken together, P15-CSP-I may be a potential candidate for targeting therapy on liver fibrosis due to its high efficient preparation, specific liver-targeting potential and improved anti-liver fibrotic activity.

Tormentic Acid Ameliorates Hepatic Fibrosis in vivo by Inhibiting Glycerophospholipids Metabolism and PI3K/Akt/mTOR and NF-κB Pathways: Based on Transcriptomics and Metabolomics

This study aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of tormentic acid (TA) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis in rats. The rats were intragastrically administered with 50% CCl₄ for 9 weeks to induce hepatic fibrosis, followed by various agents for 6 weeks. Transcriptomic analysis was carried out to predict the potential targets, and then multiple examinations were performed to verify the prediction. The results showed that TA significantly alleviated liver injury and fibrosis, as evidenced by the ameliorative pathological tissue, low transaminase activity, and decreased collagen accumulation. Besides, TA markedly reduced hepatocyte apoptosis by regulating the expression of caspase-3 and Bcl-2 families. The transcriptomic analysis revealed 2,173 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the TA and model groups, which could be enriched in the metabolic pathways and the PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways. The metabolomics analysis showed that TA could regulate the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway by regulating the synthesis of phosphatidylserines, phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylcholines. Moreover, the integrative analysis of the transcriptomics and metabolomics data indicated that TA inhibited the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway by inhibiting the expression of LPCAT4, PTDSS2, PLA2G2A and CEPT1. In addition, the relevant signaling pathways analysis confirmed that TA inhibited HSCs activation by blocking the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and ameliorated inflammatory injury by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, TA significantly alleviates liver fibrosis in vivo by inhibiting the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and NF-κB signaling pathways.

Luteolin can ameliorate renal interstitial fibrosis-induced renal anaemia through the SIRT1/FOXO3 pathway

Luteolin is a natural flavonoid exhibiting multiple pharmacological activities.

ZIP10 is a negative determinant for anti-tumor effect of mannose in thyroid cancer by activating phosphate mannose isomerase

BACKGROUND

Mannose, a natural hexose existing in daily food, has been demonstrated to preferentially inhibit the progression of tumors with low expression of phosphate mannose isomerase (PMI). However, its function in thyroid cancer still remains elusive.

METHODS

MTT, colony formation and flow cytometry assays were performed to determine the response of thyroid cancer cells to mannose. Meanwhile, mouse models of subcutaneous xenograft and primary papillary thyroid cancer were established to determine in vivo anti-tumor activity of mannose. The underlying mechanism of mannose selectively killing thyroid cancer cells was clarified by a series of molecular and biochemical experiments.

RESULTS

Our data demonstrated that mannose selectively suppressed the growth of thyroid cancer cells, and found that enzyme activity of PMI rather than its protein expression was negatively associated with the response of thyroid cancer cells to mannose. Besides, our data showed that zinc ion (Zn2+) chelator TPEN clearly increased the response of mannose-insensitive cells to mannose by inhibiting enzyme activity of PMI, while Zn2+ supplement could effectively reverse this effect. Further studies found that the expression of zinc transport protein ZIP10, which transport Zn2+ from extracellular area into cells, was negatively related to the response of thyroid cancer cells to mannose. Knocking down ZIP10 in mannose-insensitive cells significantly inhibited in vitro and in vivo growth of these cells by decreasing intracellular Zn2+ concentration and enzyme activity of PMI. Moreover, ectopic expression of ZIP10 in mannose-sensitive cells decrease their cellular response to mannose. Mechanistically, mannose exerted its anti-tumor effect by inhibiting cellular glycolysis; however, this effect was highly dependent on expression status of ZIP10.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrate that mannose selectively kills thyroid cancer cells dependent on enzyme activity of PMI rather than its expression, and provide a mechanistic rationale for exploring clinical use of mannose in thyroid cancer therapy.

Exploring the Gamut of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases for Their Promise in the Management of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Recently, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has emerged as a predominant health concern affecting approximately a quarter of the world's population. NAFLD is a spectrum of liver ailments arising from nascent lipid accumulation and leading to inflammation, fibrosis or even carcinogenesis. Despite its prevalence and severity, no targeted pharmacological intervention is approved to date. Thus, it is imperative to identify suitable drug targets critical to the development and progression of NAFLD. In this quest, a ray of hope is nestled within a group of proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), as targets to contain or even reverse NAFLD. RTKs control numerous vital biological processes and their selective expression and activity in specific diseases have rendered them useful as drug targets. In this review, we discuss the recent advancements in characterizing the role of RTKs in NAFLD progression and qualify their suitability as pharmacological targets. Available data suggests inhibition of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor, AXL, Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 4 and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor, and activation of cellular mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor and Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 1 could pave the way for novel NAFLD therapeutics. Thus, it is important to characterize these RTKs for target validation and proof-of-concept through clinical trials.

Hepatectomy-Induced Alterations in Hepatic Perfusion and Function - Toward Multi-Scale Computational Modeling for a Better Prediction of Post-hepatectomy Liver Function

Liver resection causes marked perfusion alterations in the liver remnant both on the organ scale (vascular anatomy) and on the microscale (sinusoidal blood flow on tissue level). These changes in perfusion affect hepatic functions via direct alterations in blood supply and drainage, followed by indirect changes of biomechanical tissue properties and cellular function. Changes in blood flow impose compression, tension and shear forces on the liver tissue. These forces are perceived by mechanosensors on parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells of the liver and regulate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions as well as cellular signaling and metabolism. These interactions are key players in tissue growth and remodeling, a prerequisite to restore tissue function after PHx. Their dysregulation is associated with metabolic impairment of the liver eventually leading to liver failure, a serious post-hepatectomy complication with high morbidity and mortality. Though certain links are known, the overall functional change after liver surgery is not understood due to complex feedback loops, non-linearities, spatial heterogeneities and different time-scales of events. Computational modeling is a unique approach to gain a better understanding of complex biomedical systems. This approach allows (i) integration of heterogeneous data and knowledge on multiple scales into a consistent view of how perfusion is related to hepatic function; (ii) testing and generating hypotheses based on predictive models, which must be validated experimentally and clinically. In the long term, computational modeling will (iii) support surgical planning by predicting surgery-induced perfusion perturbations and their functional (metabolic) consequences; and thereby (iv) allow minimizing surgical risks for the individual patient. Here, we review the alterations of hepatic perfusion, biomechanical properties and function associated with hepatectomy. Specifically, we provide an overview over the clinical problem, preoperative diagnostics, functional imaging approaches, experimental approaches in animal models, mechanoperception in the liver and impact on cellular metabolism, omics approaches with a focus on transcriptomics, data integration and uncertainty analysis, and computational modeling on multiple scales. Finally, we provide a perspective on how multi-scale computational models, which couple perfusion changes to hepatic function, could become part of clinical workflows to predict and optimize patient outcome after complex liver surgery.

MyD88 in Macrophages Enhances Liver Fibrosis by Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome in HSCs

Chronic liver disease mediated by the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) leads to liver fibrosis. The signal adaptor MyD88 of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is involved during the progression of liver fibrosis. However, the specific role of MyD88 in myeloid cells in liver fibrosis has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we used a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced mouse fibrosis model in which MyD88 was selectively depleted in myeloid cells. MyD88 deficiency in myeloid cells attenuated liver fibrosis in mice and decreased inflammatory cell infiltration. Furthermore, deficiency of MyD88 in macrophages inhibits the secretion of CXC motif chemokine 2 (CXCL2), which restrains the activation of HSCs characterized by NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation. Moreover, targeting CXCL2 by CXCR2 inhibitors attenuated the activation of HSCs and reduced liver fibrosis. Thus, MyD88 may represent a potential candidate target for the prevention and treatment of liver fibrosis.

Loss of RAR-α and RXR-α and enhanced caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in N-acetyl-p-aminophenol-induced liver injury in mice is tissue factor dependent

Tissue factor (TF) activates the coagulation system and has an important role in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Our previous study stated that retinoid receptors (RAR-α and RXR-α) are released as a lipid droplet in monocrotaline/ lipopolysaccharide-induced idiosyncratic liver toxicity in mice. Herein, the interdependence between the release of retinoid receptors RAR-α and RXR-α and TF in Nacetyl-p-aminophenol (APAP)-induced mice liver toxicity, is investigated. Serum alanine transaminase (ALT) level, platelet and white blood cells (WBCs) counts, protein expression of fibrin, TF, cyclin D1 and cleaved caspase-3 in liver tissues are analyzed. In addition, histopathological evaluation and survival study are also performed. The results indicate that using of TF-antisense (TF-AS) deoxyoligonucleotide (ODN) injection (6 mg/kg), to block TF protein synthesis, significantly restores the elevated level of ALT and WBCs and corrects thrombocytopenia in mice injected with APAP. TF-AS prevents the peri-central overexpression of liver TF, fibrin, cyclin D1 and cleaved caspase- 3. The release of RXR-α and RAR-α droplets, in APAP treated sections, is inhibited upon treatment with TF-AS. In conclusion, the above findings designate that the released RXR-α and RAR-α in APAP liver toxicity is TF dependent. Additionally, the enhancement of cyclin D1 to caspase-3-dependent apoptosis can be prevented by blocking of TF protein synthesis.

Antifibrotic Effects of Kangxian Ruangan Capsule on Rats with Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Fibrosis and Hepatic Stellate Cells through Regulation of TGF-β and TLR4 Signaling Pathways

Kangxian ruangan (KXRG) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula consisting of 12 herbs. TCM syndrome differentiation proposes that KXRG exerts pharmacological effects against nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) fibrosis. This work investigates the effect of KXRG on NAFLD fibrosis in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, the NAFLD fibrosis model was constructed in Wistar rats using methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) diet, followed by KXRG (0.92 g/kg/d) treatment for 8 weeks. In vitro, primary hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) were activated using platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and treated with KXRG. Molecular mechanisms underlying fibrosis were investigated. After 8 weeks, compared with the control groups, the histological lesions, degree of fibrosis, and inflammatory reaction increased with the MCD diet as demonstrated by histological changes and increased fibrosis-related (α-SMA, TGF-β, COL1A1, and desmin, P < 0.01) and inflammation-related factors (TNF-α, MCP-1, and F4/80, P < 0.01), whereas they decreased with KXRG treatment (P < 0.01). KXRG not only inhibited the proliferation of activated HSCs and promoted their apoptosis but also resulted in G0-G1 arrest. Furthermore, KXRG suppressed HSC activation (P < 0.01), collagen synthesis (P < 0.01), and α-SMA expression (P < 0.01) with PDGF stimulation. In both the MCD diet-induced animal model and PDGF-induced cell model, KXRG inhibited TGF-β and TLR4 signaling (P < 0.01), similar to corresponding small-molecule inhibitors. These results demonstrated that KXRG might exert suppressive effects against NAFLD fibrosis via regulating TGF-β and TLR4 signaling. KXRG may act as a natural and potent therapeutic agent against NAFLD.

Luteolin Alleviates AflatoxinB1-Induced Apoptosis and Oxidative Stress in the Liver of Mice through Activation of Nrf2 Signaling Pathway

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a threatening mycotoxin, usually provokes oxidative stress and causes hepatotoxicity in animals and humans. Luteolin (LUTN), well-known as an active phytochemical agent, acts as a strong antioxidant. This research was designed to investigate whether LUTN exerts protective effects against AFB1-induced hepatotoxicity and explore the possible molecular mechanism in mice. A total of forty-eight mice were randomly allocated following four treatment groups (n = 12): Group 1, physiological saline (CON). Group 2, treated with 0.75 mg/kg BW aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Group 3, treated with 50 mg/kg BW luteolin (LUTN), and Group 4, treated with 0.75 mg/kg BW aflatoxin B1 + 50 mg/kg BW luteolin (AFB1 + LUTN). Our findings revealed that LUTN treatment significantly alleviated growth retardation and rescued liver injury by relieving the pathological and serum biochemical alterations (ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT) under AFB1 exposure. LUTN ameliorated AFB1-induced oxidative stress by scavenging ROS and MDA accumulation and boosting the capacity of the antioxidant enzyme (CAT, T-SOD, GSH-Px and T-AOC). Moreover, LUTN treatment considerably attenuates the AFB1-induced apoptosis in mouse liver, as demonstrated by declined apoptotic cells percentage, decreased Bax, Cyt-c, caspase-3 and caspase-9 transcription and protein with increased Bcl-2 expression. Notably, administration of LUTN up-regulated the Nrf2 and its associated downstream molecules (HO-1, NQO1, GCLC, SOD1) at mRNA and protein levels under AFB1 exposure. Our results indicated that LUTN effectively alleviated AFB1-induced liver injury, and the underlying mechanisms were associated with the activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Taken together, LUTN may serve as a potential mitigator against AFB1-induced liver injury and could be helpful for the development of novel treatment to combat liver diseases in humans and/or animals.

Exploring the Pharmacological Mechanism of Radix Salvia Miltiorrhizae in the Treatment of Radiation Pneumonia by Using Network Pharmacology

Background

Radiation pneumonia (RP) is the most common complication of radiotherapy to the thorax and seriously affects the survival rate and quality of life of patients. Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae (RSM) is an ancient Chinese medicine, whose main pharmacological effect is to promote blood circulation and remove stasis. A growing number of studies have proved that RSM has a good effect on RP. However, the underlying mechanism is still unclear and needs to be fully elucidated.

Methods

The effective components and predictive targets of RSM were analyzed by Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database, and the related targets of RP were predicted by GeneCards database. The common targets of the two targets mentioned above were analyzed by protein-protein interaction on the STRING website, GO and KEGG analysis on the DAVID website, visualization by CytoScape3.7.0, and screening for Hubber gene by cytoHubber plug-in.

Results

A search of the TCMSP database revealed that RSM contains 65 chemical constituents and 165 potential protein targets. A total of 2,162 protein targets were found to be associated with RP. The top 10 hub genes were obtained by MCC algorithm for 70 common genes, including TP53, CASP3, MAPK1, JUN, VEGFA, STAT3, PTGS2, IL6, AKT1, and FOS. By analyzing the Gene Ontology, The anti-radiation pneumonia effect of RSM is that it performs molecular functions (protein homodimerization activity) in the nucleus through three biological processes (positive regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter,Extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in absence of ligand and lipopolysaccharide-mediated signaling pathway). Through KEGG analysis, the mechanism of RSM treatment of radiation pneumonia may be through PI3K-Akt, HIF-1, TNF signaling pathways.

Conclusions

Through network pharmacology analysis, we found the possible target genes of RSM on RP and revealed the most likely signaling pathway, providing theoretical basis for further elucidating the potential mechanism of RSM on RP.

Network Pharmacological Analysis and Experimental Validation of the Mechanisms of Action of Si-Ni-San Against Liver Fibrosis

Background: Si-Ni-San (SNS), a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, has potency against liver diseases, such as hepatitis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the therapeutic efficacy and pharmacological mechanisms of action of SNS against liver fibrosis remain largely unclear. Methods: A carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis mouse model was adopted for the first time to investigate the beneficial effects of SNS on liver fibrosis. The potential mechanisms of action of SNS were explored using the network pharmacology-based strategy and validated with the aid of diverse assays. Results: SNS treatment reduced collagen and ECM deposition, downregulated fibrosis-related factor (hyaluronic acid and laminin) contents in serum, maintained the morphological structure of liver tissue, and improved liver function in the liver fibrosis model. Based on network pharmacology results, apoptosis, inflammation and angiogenesis, together with the associated pathways (including VEGF, TNF, caspase, PPAR-γ and NF-κB), were identified as the mechanisms underlying the effects of SNS on liver fibrosis. Further in vivo experiments validated the significant mitigatory effects of SNS on inflammatory infiltration and pro-inflammatory cytokine contents (IFNγ, IL-1β and TGF-β1) in liver tissues of mice with liver fibrosis. SNS suppressed pathologic neovascularization as well as levels of VEGFR1, VEGF and VEGFR2 in liver tissues. SNS treatment additionally inhibited hepatic parenchyma cell apoptosis in liver tissues of mice with liver fibrosis and regulated apoptin expression while protecting L02 cells against apoptosis induced by TNF-α and Act D in vitro. Activation of hepatic stellate cells was suppressed and the balance between MMP13 and TIMP1 maintained in vitro by SNS. These activities may be associated with SNS-induced NF-κB suppression and PPAR-γ activation. Conclusion: SNS effectively impedes liver fibrosis progression through alleviating inflammation, ECM accumulation, aberrant angiogenesis and apoptosis of hepatic parenchymal cells along with inhibiting activation of hepatic stellate cells through effects on multiple targets and may thus serve as a novel therapeutic regimen for this condition.

Luteolin ameliorates LPS-induced acute liver injury by inhibiting TXNIP-NLRP3 inflammasome in mice

BACKGROUND

Chemical liver injury is one of the main causes of acute liver failure and death. To date, however, treatment strategies for acute liver injury have been limited. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find new therapeutic targets and effective drugs. NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a complex of multiple proteins that has been shown to induce cell death under inflammatory and stress pathologic conditions and is thought to provide new targets for the treatment of a variety of diseases.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether luteolin has a protective effect on the liver and further elucidate whether it is realized through the thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP)-NLRP3 axis.

STUDY DESIGN

Acute hepatic injury in mice caused by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was treated with or without luteolin.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6 mice and mouse primary hepatocytes were selected. TXNIP protein knockdown was achieved by siRNA, qPCR and Western blot were performed to explore the mechanism of luteolin in alleviating acute liver injury.

RESULTS

The results indicated that luteolin had a markedly protective effect on acute liver injury induced by LPS in mice by inhibiting the TXNIP-NLRP3 axis. Luteolin inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation by suppressing TXNIP, apoptosis associated speck-like protein containing a CARD domain (ASC), caspase-1, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 to reduce liver injury. In addition, luteolin inhibits LPS-induced liver inflammation by inhibiting the production of inflammation-related gene tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-10, and IL-6. What's more, luteolin alleviated LPS-induced hepatocyte injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and regulating MDA, SOD, and GSH levels. However, the protective effect of luteolin on acute LPS-induced liver injury in mice was blocked by si-TXNIP in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

These combined data showed that luteolin may alleviate LPS-induced liver injury through the TXNIP-NLPR3 axis, providing new therapeutic targets and therapeutic drugs for subsequent studies.

Wild Bitter Melon Extract Regulates LPS-Induced Hepatic Stellate Cell Activation, Inflammation, Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, and Ferroptosis

The activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is a key component of liver fibrosis. Two antifibrosis pathways have been identified, the reversion to quiescent-type HSCs and the clearance of HSCs through apoptosis. Lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced HSCs activation and proliferation have been associated with the development of liver fibrosis. We determined the pharmacological effects of wild bitter melon (WM) on HSC activation following LPS treatment and investigated whether WM treatment affected cell death pathways under LPS-treated conditions, including ferroptosis. WM treatment caused cell death, both with and without LPS treatment. WM treatment caused reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation without LPS treatment and reversed the decrease in lipid ROS production in HSCs after LPS treatment. We examined the effects of WM treatment on fibrosis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, inflammation, and ferroptosis in LPS-activated HSCs. The western blotting analysis revealed that the WM treatment of LPS-activated HSCs induced the downregulation of the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), integrin-β1, phospho-JNK (p-JNK), glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), and cystine/glutamate transporter (SLC7A11) and the upregulation of CCAAT enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP). These results support WM as an antifibrotic agent that may represent a potential therapeutic solution for the management of liver fibrosis.

Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss. Ameliorates Liver Fibrosis by Inducing Autophagy via PI3K/AKT/mTOR/p70S6K Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the anti-hepatic fibrosis activity of ethyl acetate fraction Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss. (EDC) in human hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in vitro and in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatic fibrosis mouse model in vivo.

METHODS

For in vitro study, HSCs were pre-treated with platelet-derived growth factor (10 ng/mL) for 2 h to ensure activation and treated with EDC for 24 h and 48 h, respectively. The effect of EDC on HSCs was assessed using cell counting kit-8 assay, EdU staining, transmission electron microscopy, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot, respectively. For in vivo experiments, mice were intraperitoneally injected with CCl₄ (2 ° L/g, adjusted to a 25% concentration in olive oil), 3 times per week for 6 weeks, to develop a hepatic fibrosis model. Forty 8-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were divided into 4 groups using a random number table (n=10), including control, model, positive control and EDC treatment groups. Mice in the EDC and colchicine groups were intragastrically administered EDC (0.5 g/kg) or colchicine (0.2 mg/kg) once per day for 6 weeks. Mice in the control and model groups received an equal volume of saline. Biochemical assays and histological examinations were used to assess liver damage. Protein expression levels of α -smooth muscle actin (α -SMA) and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B) were measured by Western blot.

RESULTS

EDC reduced pathological damage associated with liver fibrosis, downregulated the expression of α -SMA and upregulated the expression of LC3B (P<0.05), both in HSCs and the CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis mouse model. The intervention of bafilomycin A1 and rapamycin in HSCs strongly supported the notion that inhibition of autophagy enhanced α -SMA protein expression levels (P<0.01). The results also found that the levels of phosphoinositide (PI3K), p-PI3K, AKT, p-AKT, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), p-mTOR, and p-p70S6K all decreased after EDC treatment (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

EDC has anti-hepatic fibrosis activity by inducing autophagy and might be a potential drug to be further developed for human liver fibrosis therapy.

Bioavailability and Pharmaco-therapeutic Potential of Luteolin in Overcoming Alzheimer's Disease

Luteolin is a naturally occurring, yellow crystalline flavonoid found in numerous dietary supplements we frequently have in our meals. Studies in the last 2 decades have revealed its therapeutic potential to reduce the Alzheimer's disease (AD) symptoms in various in vitro and in vivo models. The anti-Alzheimer's potential of luteolin is attributed to its ability to suppress Aβ as well as tau aggregation or promote their disaggregation, down-regulate the expression of COX-2, NOS, MMP-9, TNF-α, interleukins and chemokines, reduce oxidative stress by scavenging ROS, modulate the activities of transcription factors CREB, cJun, Nrf-1, NF-κB, p38, p53, AP-1 and β-catenine and inhibiting the activities of various protein kinases. In several systems, luteolin has been described as a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. In addition, we have also discussed about the bio-availability of the luteolin in the plasma. After being metabolized luteolin persists in plasma as glucuronides and sulphate-conjugates. Human clinical trials indicated no dose limiting toxicity when administered at a dose of 100 mg/day. Improvements in the formulations and drug delivery systems may further enhance the bioavailability and potency of luteolin. The current review describes in detail the data supporting these studies.

Tβ4 suppresses lincRNA-p21-mediated hepatic apoptosis and fibrosis by inhibiting PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathway

Hepatic injury is one of the most challenging diseases in clinical medicine. Hepatic injury is accompanied by hepatocyte apoptosis and leads to hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis, which may cause liver cancer and increased mortality. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the regulation mechanism and therapeutic strategies for hepatic injury. In the study, the effects of Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) on Long intergenic noncoding RNA-p21 (lincRNA-p21)-mediated liver injury were investigated. Results showed that lincRNA-p21 overexpression promoted hepatocytes apoptosis, which was blocked by Tβ4. Besides, Tβ4 reversed the levels of cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-9 induced by lincRNA-p21. LincRNA-p21 overexpression also caused the pathological injury and fibrosis in hepatic tissues and increased the levels of fibrosis-related proteins (Collagen I, α-SMA and TIMP-1), and induced hydroxyproline and ALT production. However, Tβ4 reversed the effects of overexpression of lincRNA-p21 on hepatic injury and fibrosis. In vitro experiments, after lincRNA-p21 was overexpressed in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the proliferation ability and the levels of HSCs markers α-SMA and Desmin were increased. However, Tβ4 reversed the effects of lincRNA-p21 on HSCs. Furthermore, the PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathway was activated by lincRNA-p21, which was then reversed by the Tβ4 administration. After the mice treated by insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) (the activator of PI3K-AKT), the inhibitory effect of Tβ4 on activated the PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathway was abrogated. Besides, IGF-1 abolished the protective effects of Tβ4 on hepatic apoptosis and fibrosis induced by lincRNA-p21. Therefore, Tβ4 reversed. lincRNA-p21-mediated liver injury through inhibiting PI3K-AKT-NF-κB pathway. Tβ4 may be a promising drug for fibrosis therapy.

The CD200-CD200R cross-talk helps Leishmania donovani to down regulate macrophage and CD4+CD44+ T cells effector functions in an NFκB independent manner

The lacuna in the knowledge of immunobiology, especially in visceral infections that are fatal if left untreated, are a major hurdle in getting a vaccine candidate for leishmaniasis. Till date, only a few drugs are available to combat human leishmaniasis and a vaccine candidate either prophylactic or preventive is still awaited. Therefore, identification of host and parasitic factors involved in the regulation of specific immune mechanisms are essentially needed. In this study, we observed that CD200-CD200R immune inhibitory axis regulates host macrophages effectors properties and helps antigen experienced T cells (CD4⁺CD44⁺ T cells) to acquire anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β, IL-27) producing abilities in an NFkB independent manner. After CD200 blocking the macrophages effectively inhibited proliferation of Leishmania amastigotes and also induced the production of IL-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α and nitric oxide (NOx). Further, the blocking of CD200 signaling also restored macrophages MHC-II expression and helped CD4⁺CD44⁺ T cells to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-2, IL-12 and IFN-γ. The finding of this study suggested the importance of immune inhibitory mechanisms in controlling Leishmania growth and survival and therefore, requires more studies to understand its role in vaccine induced immunity.