Root-knot nematodes induce gall formation by recruiting developmental pathways of post-embryonic organogenesis and regeneration to promote transient pluripotency

Application of array tomography to elucidate nuclear clustering architecture in giant-feeding cells induced by root-knot nematodes

Plant-parasitic nematodes like root-knot nematodes (RKN; Meloidogyne spp.) cause great losses in agriculture by inducing root swellings, named galls, in host roots disturbing plant growth and development. Previous two-dimensional studies using different microscopy techniques revealed the presence of numerous nuclear clusters in nematode-induced giant cells within galls. Here, we show in three dimensions (3D) that nuclear clustering occurring in giant cells is revealed to be much more complex, illustrating subclusters built of multiple nuclear lobes. These nuclear subclusters are unveiled to be interconnected and likely communicate via nucleotubes, highlighting the potential relevance of this nuclear transfer for disease. In addition, microtubules and microtubule organizing centers are profusely present between the densely packed nuclear lobes, suggesting that the cytoskeleton might be involved in anchoring nuclear clusters in giant cells. This study illustrates that it is possible to apply volume electron microscopy (EM) approaches such as array tomography (AT) to roots infected by nematodes using basic equipment found in most EM facilities. The application of AT was valuable to observe the cellular ultrastructure in 3D, revealing the remarkable nuclear architecture of giant cells in the model host Arabidopsis thaliana. The discovery of nucleotubes, as a unique component of nuclear clusters present in giant cells, can be potentially exploited as a novel strategy to develop alternative approaches for RKN control in crop species.

Damage activates EXG1 and RLP44 to suppress vascular differentiation during regeneration in Arabidopsis

Plants possess remarkable regenerative abilities to form de novo vasculature after damage and in response to pathogens that invade and withdraw nutrients. To identify common factors that affect vascular formation upon stress, we searched for Arabidopsis thaliana genes differentially expressed upon Agrobacterium infection, nematode infection, and plant grafting. One such gene is cell wall-related and highly induced by all three stresses, which we named ENHANCED XYLEM AND GRAFTING1 (EXG1), since its mutations promote ectopic xylem formation in a vascular cell induction system and enhance graft formation. Further observations revealed that exg1 mutants show inhibited cambium development and callus formation but enhanced tissue attachment, syncytium size, phloem reconnection, and xylem formation. Given that brassinosteroids also promote xylem differentiation, we analyzed brassinosteroid-related genes and found that mutations in RLP44 encoding a receptor-like protein cause similar regeneration-related phenotypes as mutations in EXG1. Like EXG1, RLP44 expression is also induced by grafting and wounding. Mutations in EXG1 and RLP44 affect the expression of many genes in common, including those related to cell walls and genes important for vascular regeneration. Our results suggest that EXG1 integrates information from wounding or pathogen stress and functions with RLP44 to suppress vascular differentiation during regeneration and healing.

Regulation and function of a polarly localized lignin barrier in the exodermis

Multicellular organisms control environmental interactions through specialized barriers in specific cell types. A conserved barrier in plant roots is the endodermal Casparian strip (CS), a ring-like structure made of polymerized lignin that seals the endodermal apoplastic space. Most angiosperms have another root cell type, the exodermis, that is reported to form a barrier. Our understanding of exodermal developmental and molecular regulation and function is limited as this cell type is absent from Arabidopsis thaliana. We demonstrate that in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), the exodermis does not form a CS. Instead, it forms a polar lignin cap (PLC) with equivalent barrier function to the endodermal CS but distinct genetic control. Repression of the exodermal PLC in inner cortical layers is conferred by the SlSCZ and SlEXO1 transcription factors, and these two factors genetically interact to control its polar deposition. Several target genes that act downstream of SlSCZ and SlEXO1 in the exodermis are identified. Although the exodermis and endodermis produce barriers that restrict mineral ion uptake, the exodermal PLC is unable to fully compensate for the lack of a CS. The presence of distinct lignin structures acting as apoplastic barriers has exciting implications for a root's response to abiotic and biotic stimuli.

CLE peptide signaling in plant-microbe interactions

Cell-cell communication is essential for both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Secreted peptides that act as diffusive ligands are utilized by eukaryotic organisms to transduce information between cells to coordinate developmental and physiological processes. In plants, The CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION-RELATED (CLE) genes encode a family of secreted small peptides which play pivotal roles in stem cell homeostasis in various types of meristems. Accumulated evidence has revealed that CLE peptides mediate trans-kingdom interactions between plants and microbes, including pathogens and symbionts. This review highlights the emerging roles of CLE peptide signaling in plant-microbe interactions, focusing on their involvement in nodulation, immunity, and symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Understanding these interactions provides insights into the sophisticated regulatory networks to balance plant growth and defense, enhancing our knowledge of plant biology and potential agricultural applications.

Evaluation of Chemical-Inducible Gene Expression Systems for Beet Cyst Nematode Infection Assays in Arabidopsis thaliana

Cyst nematodes co-opt plant developmental programs for the establishment of a permanent feeding site called a syncytium in plant roots. In recent years, the role of plant developmental genes in syncytium formation has gained much attention. One main obstacle in studying the function of development-related genes in syncytium formation is that mutation or ectopic expression of such genes can cause pleiotropic phenotypes, making it difficult to interpret nematode-related phenotypes or, in some cases, impossible to carry out infection assays due to aberrant root development. Here, we tested three commonly used inducible gene expression systems for their application in beet cyst nematode infection assays of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. We found that even a low amount of ethanol diminished nematode development, deeming the ethanol-based system unsuitable for use in cyst nematode infection assays, whereas treatment with estradiol or dexamethasone did not negatively affect cyst nematode viability. Dose and time course responses showed that in both systems, a relatively low dose of inducer (1 μM) is sufficient to induce high transgene expression within 24 h of treatment. Transgene expression peaked at 3 to 5 days post-induction and began to decline thereafter, providing a perfect window for inducible transgenes to interfere with syncytium establishment while minimizing any adverse effects on root development. These results indicate that both estradiol- and dexamethasone-based inducible gene expression systems are suitable for cyst nematode infection assays. The employment of such systems provides a powerful tool to investigate the function of essential plant developmental genes in syncytium formation. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Switching perspectives: The roles of plant cellular reprogramming during nematode parasitism

We propose exploring plant biotrophic parasitism from both a pathogen‐centred and a plant‐centred perspective. This can generate novel research questions and reveal common plant mitigation strategies in response to biotrophic pathogens.

Harnessing Walnut-Based Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: A Sustainable Approach to Combat the Disease Complex of Meloidogyne arenaria and Macrophomina phaseolina in Cowpea

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) exhibit diverse applications, including antimicrobial, UV-blocking, and catalytic properties, due to their unique structure and properties. This study focused on the characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) synthesized from Juglans regia leaves and their application in mitigating the impact of simultaneous infection by Meloidogyne arenaria (root-knot nematode) and Macrophomina phaseolina (root-rot fungus) in cowpea plants. The characterization of ZnO NPs was carried out through various analytical techniques, including UV-visible spectrophotometry, Powder-XRD analysis, FT-IR spectroscopy, and SEM-EDX analysis. The study confirmed the successful synthesis of ZnO NPs with a hexagonal wurtzite structure and exceptional purity. Under in vitro conditions, ZnO NPs exhibited significant nematicidal and antifungal activities. The mortality of M. arenaria juveniles increased with rising ZnO NP concentrations, and a similar trend was observed in the inhibition of M. phaseolina mycelial growth. SEM studies revealed physical damage to nematodes and structural distortions in fungal hyphae due to ZnO NP treatment. In infected cowpea plants, ZnO NPs significantly improved plant growth parameters, including plant length, fresh mass, and dry mass, especially at higher concentrations. Leghemoglobin content and the number of root nodules also increased after ZnO NP treatment. Additionally, ZnO NPs reduced gall formation and egg mass production by M. arenaria nematodes and effectively inhibited the growth of M. phaseolina in the roots. Furthermore, histochemical analyses demonstrated a reduction in oxidative stress, as indicated by decreased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation in ZnO NP-treated plants. These findings highlight the potential of green-synthesized ZnO NPs as an eco-friendly and effective solution to manage disease complex in cowpea caused by simultaneous nematode and fungal infections.

Functional studies of plant transcription factors and their relevance in the plant root-knot nematode interaction

Root-knot nematodes are polyphagous parasitic nematodes that cause severe losses in the agriculture worldwide. They enter the root in the elongation zone and subtly migrate to the root meristem where they reach the vascular cylinder and establish a feeding site called gall. Inside the galls they induce a group of transfer cells that serve to nurture them along their parasitic stage, the giant cells. Galls and giant cells develop through a process of post-embryogenic organogenesis that involves manipulating different genetic regulatory networks within the cells, some of them through hijacking some molecular transducers of established plant developmental processes, such as lateral root formation or root regeneration. Galls/giant cells formation involves different mechanisms orchestrated by the nematode´s effectors that generate diverse plant responses in different plant tissues, some of them include sophisticated mechanisms to overcome plant defenses. Yet, the plant-nematode interaction is normally accompanied to dramatic transcriptomic changes within the galls and giant cells. It is therefore expected a key regulatory role of plant-transcription factors, coordinating both, the new organogenesis process induced by the RKNs and the plant response against the nematode. Knowing the role of plant-transcription factors participating in this process becomes essential for a clear understanding of the plant-RKNs interaction and provides an opportunity for the future development and design of directed control strategies. In this review, we present the existing knowledge of the TFs with a functional role in the plant-RKN interaction through a comprehensive analysis of current scientific literature and available transcriptomic data.

Transcription factor WOX11 modulates tolerance to cyst nematodes via adventitious lateral root formation

The transcription factor WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 11 (WOX11) in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) initiates the formation of adventitious lateral roots upon mechanical injury in primary roots. Root-invading nematodes also induce de novo root organogenesis leading to excessive root branching, but it is not known if this symptom of disease involves mediation by WOX11 and if it benefits the plant. Here, we show with targeted transcriptional repression and reporter gene analyses in Arabidopsis that the beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii activates WOX11-mediated adventitious lateral rooting from primary roots close to infection sites. The activation of WOX11 in nematode-infected roots occurs downstream of jasmonic acid-dependent damage signaling via ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR109, linking adventitious lateral root formation to nematode damage to host tissues. By measuring different root system components, we found that WOX11-mediated formation of adventitious lateral roots compensates for nematode-induced inhibition of primary root growth. Our observations further demonstrate that WOX11-mediated rooting reduces the impact of nematode infections on aboveground plant development and growth. Altogether, we conclude that the transcriptional regulation by WOX11 modulates root system plasticity under biotic stress, which is one of the key mechanisms underlying the tolerance of Arabidopsis to cyst nematode infections.

Tipping the balance: The dynamics of stem cell maintenance and stress responses in plant meristems

Plant meristems contain pools of dividing stem cells that produce new organs for plant growth and development. Environmental factors, including biotic and abiotic stresses and nutrient availability, affect meristem activity and thus the architecture of roots and shoots; understanding how meristems react to changing environmental conditions will shed light on how plants optimize nutrient acquisition and acclimate to different environmental conditions. This review highlights recent exciting advances in this field, mainly in Arabidopsis. We discuss the signaling pathways, genetic regulators, and molecular mechanisms involved in the response of plant meristems to environmental and nutrient cues, and compare the similarities and differences of stress responses between the shoot and root apical meristems.

GATA family transcription factors in alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

GATA family transcription factors (GATA-TFs) are metalloproteins that regulate many metabolic pathways. These conserved proteins recognize the consensus sequence (A/T)GATA(A/G) in the promoter regions of many genes and regulate their transcription in response to environmental signals. Currently, the study of GATA-TFs is of increasing interest. GATA genes and their proteins are most actively studied in vascular plants and fungi. Based on the results of numerous studies, it has been shown that GATA factors regulate the metabolic pathways of nitrogen and carbon, and also play a major role in the processes induced by light and circadian rhythms. In algae, GATA-TFs remain poorly studied, and information about them is scattered. In this work, all known data on GATA-TFs in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been collected and systematized. The genome of this alga contains 12 GATA coding genes. Using the phylogenetic analysis, we identified three classes of GATA factors in C. reinhardtii according to the structure of the zinc finger domain and showed their difference from the classification of GATA factors developed on vascular plants.

The root-knot nematode effector Mi2G02 hijacks a host plant trihelix transcription factor to promote nematode parasitism

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) cause huge agricultural losses every year. They secrete a repertoire of effectors to facilitate parasitism through the induction of plant-derived giant feeding cells, which serve as their sole source of nutrients. However, the mode of action of these effectors and their targeted host proteins remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the role of the effector Mi2G02 in Meloidogyne incognita parasitism. Host-derived Mi2G02 RNA interference in Arabidopsis thaliana affected giant cell development, whereas ectopic expression of Mi2G02 promoted root growth and increased plant susceptibility to M. incognita. We used various combinations of approaches to study the specific interactions between Mi2G02 and A. thaliana GT-3a, a trihelix transcription factor. GT-3a knockout in A. thaliana affected feeding-site development, resulting in production of fewer egg masses, whereas GT-3a overexpression in A. thaliana increased susceptibility to M. incognita and also root growth. Moreover, we demonstrated that Mi2G02 plays a role in maintaining GT-3a protein stabilization by inhibiting the 26S proteasome-dependent pathway, leading to suppression of TOZ and RAD23C expression and thus promoting nematode parasitism. This work enhances our understanding of how a pathogen effector manipulates the role and regulation of a transcription factor by interfering with a proteolysis pathway to reprogram gene expression for development of nematode feeding cells.

Microbiome and plant cell transformation trigger insect gall induction in cassava

Several specialised insects can manipulate normal plant development to induce a highly organised structure known as a gall, which represents one of the most complex interactions between insects and plants. Thus far, the mechanism for insect-induced plant galls has remained elusive. To study the induction mechanism of insect galls, we selected the gall induced by Iatrophobia brasiliensis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in cassava (Euphorbiaceae: Manihot esculenta Crantz) as our model. PCR-based molecular markers and deep metagenomic sequencing data were employed to analyse the gall microbiome and to test the hypothesis that gall cells are genetically transformed by insect vectored bacteria. A shotgun sequencing discrimination approach was implemented to selectively discriminate between foreign DNA and the reference host plant genome. Several known candidate insertion sequences were identified, the most significant being DNA sequences found in bacterial genes related to the transcription regulatory factor CadR, cadmium-transporting ATPase encoded by the cadA gene, nitrate transport permease protein (nrtB gene), and arsenical pump ATPase (arsA gene). In addition, a DNA fragment associated with ubiquitin-like gene E2 was identified as a potential accessory genetic element involved in gall induction mechanism. Furthermore, our results suggest that the increased quality and rapid development of gall tissue are mostly driven by microbiome enrichment and the acquisition of critical endophytes. An initial gall-like structure was experimentally obtained in M. esculenta cultured tissues through inoculation assays using a Rhodococcus bacterial strain that originated from the inducing insect, which we related to the gall induction process. We provide evidence that the modification of the endophytic microbiome and the genetic transformation of plant cells in M. esculenta are two essential requirements for insect-induced gall formation. Based on these findings and having observed the same potential DNA marker in galls from other plant species (ubiquitin-like gene E2), we speculate that bacterially mediated genetic transformation of plant cells may represent a more widespread gall induction mechanism found in nature.

SCHIZORIZA domain-function analysis identifies requirements for its specific role in cell fate segregation

Plant development continues postembryonically with a lifelong ability to form new tissues and organs. Asymmetric cell division, coupled with fate segregation, is essential to create cellular diversity during tissue and organ formation. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants harboring mutations in the SCHIZORIZA (SCZ) gene display fate segregation defects in their roots, resulting in the presence of an additional layer of endodermis, production of root hairs from subepidermal tissue, and misexpression of several tissue identity markers. Some of these defects are observed in tissues where SCZ is not expressed, indicating that part of the SCZ function is nonautonomous. As a class B HEAT-SHOCK TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR (HSFB), the SCZ protein contains several conserved domains and motifs. However, which domain(s) discriminates SCZ from its family members to obtain a role in development remains unknown. Here, we investigate how each domain contributes to SCZ function in Arabidopsis root patterning by generating altered versions of SCZ by domain swapping and mutation. We show that the SCZ DNA-binding domain is the main factor for its developmental function, and that SCZ likely acts as a nonmotile transcriptional repressor. Our results demonstrate how members of the HSF family can evolve toward functions beyond stress response.

Loss of susceptibility, an underexplored approach for durable resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes

This article comments on:

Noureddine Y, da Rocha M, An J, Médina C, Mejias J, Mulet K, Quentin M, Abad P, Zouine M, Favery B, Jaubert-Possamai S. 2023. AUXIN RESPONSIVE FACTOR8 regulates development of the feeding site induced by root-knot nematodes in tomato. Journal of Experimental Botany 74, 5752–5766.

From root to shoot: quantifying nematode tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana by high-throughput phenotyping of plant development

Nematode migration, feeding site formation, withdrawal of plant assimilates, and activation of plant defence responses have a significant impact on plant growth and development. Plants display intraspecific variation in tolerance limits for root-feeding nematodes. Although disease tolerance has been recognized as a distinct trait in biotic interactions of mainly crops, we lack mechanistic insights. Progress is hampered by difficulties in quantification and laborious screening methods. We turned to the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, since it offers extensive resources to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying nematode-plant interactions. Through imaging of tolerance-related parameters, the green canopy area was identified as an accessible and robust measure for assessing damage due to cyst nematode infection. Subsequently, a high-throughput phenotyping platform simultaneously measuring the green canopy area growth of 960 A. thaliana plants was developed. This platform can accurately measure cyst nematode and root-knot nematode tolerance limits in A. thaliana through classical modelling approaches. Furthermore, real-time monitoring provided data for a novel view of tolerance, identifying a compensatory growth response. These findings show that our phenotyping platform will enable a new mechanistic understanding of tolerance to below-ground biotic stress.

AUXIN RESPONSIVE FACTOR8 regulates development of the feeding site induced by root-knot nematodes in tomato

Root-knot nematodes (RKN) from the genus Meloidogyne induce the dedifferentiation of root vascular cells into giant multinucleate feeding cells. These feeding cells result from an extensive reprogramming of gene expression, and auxin is known to be a key player in their development. However, little is known about how the auxin signal is transmitted during giant cell development. Integrative analyses combining transcriptome and small non-coding RNA datasets with the specific sequencing of cleaved transcripts identified genes targeted by miRNAs in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) galls. The two auxin-responsive transcription factors ARF8A and ARF8B, and their miRNA167 regulators, were identified as robust gene-miRNA pair candidates to be involved in the tomato response to M. incognita. Spatiotemporal expression analysis using promoter-β-glucuronidase (GUS) fusions showed the up-regulation of ARF8A and ARF8B in RKN-induced feeding cells and surrounding cells. The generation and phenotyping of CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats) mutants demonstrated the role of ARF8A and ARF8B in giant cell development and allowed the characterization of their downstream regulated genes.

The root-knot nematode effector MiMSP32 targets host 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 2 to regulate plant susceptibility

To establish persistent infections in host plants, herbivorous invaders, such as root-knot nematodes, must rely on effectors for suppressing damage-induced jasmonate-dependent host defenses. However, at present, the effector mechanisms targeting the biosynthesis of biologically active jasmonates to avoid adverse host responses are unknown. Using yeast two-hybrid, in planta co-immunoprecipitation, and mutant analyses, we identified 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 2 (OPR2) as an important host target of the stylet-secreted effector MiMSP32 of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. MiMSP32 has no informative sequence similarities with other functionally annotated genes but was selected for the discovery of novel effector mechanisms based on evidence of positive, diversifying selection. OPR2 catalyzes the conversion of a derivative of 12-oxophytodienoate to jasmonic acid (JA) and operates parallel to 12-oxophytodienoate reductase 3 (OPR3), which controls the main pathway in the biosynthesis of jasmonates. We show that MiMSP32 targets OPR2 to promote parasitism of M. incognita in host plants independent of OPR3-mediated JA biosynthesis. Artificially manipulating the conversion of the 12-oxophytodienoate by OPRs increases susceptibility to multiple unrelated plant invaders. Our study is the first to shed light on a novel effector mechanism targeting this process to regulate the susceptibility of host plants.

Divergent regulation of auxin responsive genes in root-knot and cyst nematodes feeding sites formed in Arabidopsis

Cysts (CNs) and root-knot nematodes (RKNs) induce specialized feeding cells, syncytia, and giant cells (GCs), respectively, within plant roots. The plant tissues around the GCs usually by respond forming a root swelling called a gall that contains the GCs. The ontogenesis of feeding cells is different. GC formation is a process of new organogenesis from vascular cells, which are still not well characterized, that differentiate into GCs. In contrast, syncytia formation involves the fusion of adjacent cells that have already differentiated. Nonetheless, both feeding sites show an auxin maximum pertinent to feeding site formation. However, data on the molecular divergences and similarities between the formation of both feeding sites regarding auxin-responsive genes are still scarce. We studied genes from the auxin transduction pathways that are crucial during gall and lateral root (LR) development in the CN interaction by using promoter-reporter (GUS/LUC)transgenic lines, as well as loss of function lines of Arabidopsis. The promoters pGATA23 and several deletions of pmiR390a were active in syncytia, as were in galls, but pAHP6 or putative up-stream regulators as ARF5/7/19 were not active in syncytia. Additionally, none of these genes seemed to play a key role during cyst nematode establishment in Arabidopsis, as the infection rates in loss of function lines did not show significant differences compared to control Col-0 plants. Furthermore, the presence of only canonical AuxRe elements in their proximal promoter regions is highly correlated with their activation in galls/GCs (AHP6, LBD16), but those promoters active in syncytia (miR390, GATA23) carry AuxRe overlapping core cis-elements for other transcription factor families (i.e., bHLH, bZIP). Strikingly, in silico transcriptomic analysis showed very few genes upregulated by auxins common to those induced in GCs and syncytia, despite the high number of upregulated IAA responsive genes in syncytia and galls. The complex regulation of auxin transduction pathways, where different members of the auxin response factor (ARF) family may interact with other factors, and the differences in auxin sensitivity, as indicated by the lower induction of the DR5 sensor in syncytia than galls, among other factors, may explain the divergent regulation of auxin responsive genes in the two types of nematode feeding sites.

Getting to the root of a club - Understanding developmental manipulation by the clubroot pathogen

Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor., the clubroot pathogen, is the perfect example of an "atypical" plant pathogen. This soil-borne protist and obligate biotrophic parasite infects the roots of cruciferous crops, inducing galls or clubs that lead to wilting, loss of productivity, and plant death. Unlike many other agriculturally relevant pathosystems, research into the molecular mechanisms that underlie clubroot disease and Plasmodiophora-host interactions is limited. After release of the first P. brassicae genome sequence and subsequent availability of transcriptomic data, the clubroot research community have implicated the involvement of phytohormones during the clubroot pathogen's manipulation of host development. Herein we review the main events leading to the formation of root galls and describe how modulation of select phytohormones may be key to modulating development of the plant host to the benefit of the pathogen. Effector-host interactions are at the base of different strategies employed by pathogens to hijack plant cellular processes. This is how we suspect the clubroot pathogen hijacks host plant metabolism and development to induce nutrient-sink roots galls, emphasizing a need to deepen our understanding of this master manipulator.

Exogenous brassinosteroids promotes root growth, enhances stress tolerance, and increases yield in maize

Brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate of maize (Zea mays L.) growth, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we used a multi-disciplinary approach to determine how BRs regulate maize morphology and physiology during development. Treatment with the BRs promoted primary root the elongation and growth during germination, and the early development of lateral roots. BRs treatment during the middle growth stage increased the levels of various stress resistance factors, and enhanced resistance to lodging, likely by protecting the plant against stem rot and sheath rot. BRs had no significant effect on plant height during late growth, but it increased leaf angle and photosynthetic efficiency, as well as yield and quality traits. Our findings increase our understanding of the regulatory effects of BR on maize root growth and development and the mechanism by which BR improves disease resistance, which could further the potential for using BR to improve maize yield.

The DNA methylation landscape of the root-knot nematode-induced pseudo-organ, the gall, in Arabidopsis, is dynamic, contrasting over time, and critically important for successful parasitism

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) induce giant cells (GCs) within galls which are characterized by large-scale gene repression at early stages. However, the epigenetic mechanism(s) underlying gene silencing is (are) still poorly characterized. DNA methylation in Arabidopsis galls induced by Meloidogyne javanica was studied at crucial infection stages (3 d post-infection (dpi) and 14 dpi) using enzymatic, cytological, and sequencing approaches. DNA methyltransferase mutants (met1, cmt2, cmt3, cmt2/3, drm1/2, ddc) and a DNA demethylase mutant (ros1), were analyzed for RKN resistance/tolerance, and galls were characterized by confocal microscopy and RNA-seq. Early galls were hypermethylated, and the GCs were found to be the major contributors to this hypermethylation, consistent with the very high degree of gene repression they exhibit. By contrast, medium/late galls showed no global increase in DNA methylation compared to uninfected roots, but exhibited large-scale redistribution of differentially methylated regions (DMRs). In line with these findings, it was also shown that DNA methylation and demethylation mutants showed impaired nematode reproduction and gall/GC-development. Moreover, siRNAs that were exclusively present in early galls accumulated at hypermethylated DMRs, overlapping mostly with retrotransposons in the CHG/CG contexts that might be involved in their repression, contributing to their stability/genome integrity. Promoter/gene methylation correlated with differentially expressed genes encoding proteins with basic cell functions. Both mechanisms are consistent with reprogramming host tissues for gall/GC formation. In conclusion, RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM; DRM2/1) pathways, maintenance methyltransferases (MET1/CMT3) and demethylation (ROS1) appear to be prominent mechanisms driving a dynamic regulation of the epigenetic landscape during RKN infection.

Local auxin synthesis mediated by YUCCA4 induced during root-knot nematode infection positively regulates gall growth and nematode development

Parasites and pathogens are known to manipulate the host's endogenous signaling pathways to facilitate the infection process. In particular, plant-parasitic root-knot nematodes (RKN) are known to elicit auxin response at the infection sites, to aid the development of root galls as feeding sites for the parasites. Here we describe the role of local auxin synthesis induced during RKN infection. Exogenous application of auxin synthesis inhibitors decreased RKN gall formation rates, gall size and auxin response in galls, while auxin and auxin analogues produced the opposite effects, re-enforcing the notion that auxin positively regulates RKN gall formation. Among the auxin biosynthesis enzymes, YUCCA4 (YUC4) was found to be dramatically up-regulated during RKN infection, suggesting it may be a major contributor to the auxin accumulation during gall formation. However, yuc4-1 showed only very transient decrease in gall auxin levels and did not show significant changes in RKN infection rates, implying the loss of YUC4 is likely compensated by other auxin sources. Nevertheless, yuc4-1 plants produced significantly smaller galls with fewer mature females and egg masses, confirming that auxin synthesized by YUC4 is required for proper gall formation and RKN development within. Interestingly, YUC4 promoter was also activated during cyst nematode infection. These lines of evidence imply auxin biosynthesis from multiple sources, one of them being YUC4, is induced upon plant endoparasitic nematode invasion and likely contribute to their infections. The coordination of these different auxins adds another layer of complexity of hormonal regulations during plant parasitic nematode interaction.

Silencing the conserved small nuclear ribonucleoprotein SmD1 target gene alters susceptibility to root-knot nematodes in plants

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) are among the most damaging pests of agricultural crops. Meloidogyne is an extremely polyphagous genus of nematodes that can infect thousands of plant species. A few genes for resistance (R-genes) to RKN suitable for use in crop breeding have been identified, but virulent strains and species of RKN have emerged that render these R-genes ineffective. Secretion of RKN effectors targeting plant functions mediates the reprogramming of root cells into specialized feeding cells, the giant cells, essential for RKN development and reproduction. Conserved targets among plant species define the more relevant strategies for controlling nematode infection. The EFFECTOR18 (EFF18) protein from M. incognita interacts with the spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoprotein D1 (SmD1) in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), disrupting its function in alternative splicing regulation and modulating the giant cell transcriptome. We show here that EFF18 is a conserved RKN-specific effector that targets this conserved spliceosomal SmD1 protein in Solanaceae. This interaction modulates alternative splicing events produced by tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) in response to M. incognita infection. The alteration of SmD1 expression by virus-induced gene silencing in Solanaceae affects giant cell formation and nematode development. Thus, our work defines a promising conserved SmD1 target gene to develop broad resistance for the control of Meloidogyne spp. in plants.

PIF4 Promotes Expression of HSFA2 to Enhance Basal Thermotolerance in Arabidopsis

Heat stress (HS) seriously restricts the growth and development of plants. When plants are exposed to extreme high temperature, the heat stress response (HSR) is activated to enable plants to survive. Sessile plants have evolved multiple strategies to sense and cope with HS. Previous studies have established that PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR 4 (PIF4) acts as a key component in thermomorphogenesis; however, whether PIF4 regulates plant thermotolerance and the molecular mechanism linking this light transcriptional factor and HSR remain unclear. Here, we show that the overexpression of PIF4 indeed provides plants with a stronger basal thermotolerance and greatly improves the survival ability of Arabidopsis under severe HS. Via phylogenetic analysis, we identified two sets (six) of PIF4 homologs in wheat, and the expression patterns of the PIF4 homologs were conservatively induced by heat treatment in both wheat and Arabidopsis. Furthermore, the PIF4 protein was accumulated under heat stress and had an identical expression level. Additionally, we found that the core regulator of HSR, HEAT SHOCK TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR A2 (HSFA2), was highly responsive to light and heat. Followed by promoter analysis and ChIP-qPCR, we further found that PIF4 can bind directly to the G-box motifs of the HSFA2 promoter. Via effector–reporter assays, we found that PIF4 binding could activate HSFA2 gene expression, thereby resulting in the activation of other HS-inducible genes, such as heat shock proteins. Finally, the overexpression of PIF4 led to a stronger basal thermotolerance under non-heat-treatment conditions, thereby resulting in an enhanced tolerance to severe heat stress. Taken together, our findings propose that PIF4 is linked to heat stress signaling by directly binding to the HSFA2 promoter and triggering the HSR at normal temperature conditions to promote the basal thermotolerance. These functions of PIF4 provide a candidate direction for breeding heat-resistant crop cultivars.

Genome-Wide Identification of the Eucalyptus urophylla GATA Gene Family and Its Diverse Roles in Chlorophyll Biosynthesis

GATA transcription factors have been demonstrated to play key regulatory roles in plant growth, development, and hormonal response. However, the knowledge concerning the evolution of GATA genes in Eucalyptus urophylla and their trans-regulatory interaction is indistinct. Phylogenetic analysis and study of conserved motifs, exon structures, and expression patterns resolved the evolutionary relationships of these GATA proteins. Phylogenetic analysis showed that EgrGATAs are broadly distributed in four subfamilies. Cis-element analysis of promoters revealed that EgrGATA genes respond to light and are influenced by multiple hormones and abiotic stresses. Transcriptome analysis revealed distinct temporal and spatial expression patterns of EgrGATA genes in various tissues of E. urophylla S.T.Blake, which was confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Further research revealed that EurGNC and EurCGA1 were localized in the nucleus, and EurGNC directly binds to the cis-element of the EurGUN5 promoter, implying its potential roles in the regulation of chlorophyll synthesis. This comprehensive study provides new insights into the evolution of GATAs and could help to improve the photosynthetic assimilation and vegetative growth of E. urophylla at the genetic level.

Morphological characterization reveals new insights into giant cell development of Meloidogyne graminicola on rice

Three types of nematode-feeding sites (NFSs) caused by M. graminicola on rice were suggested, and the NFS polarized expansion stops before the full NFS maturation that occurs at adult female stage. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., secrete effectors and recruit host genes to establish their feeding sites giant cells, ensuring their nutrient acquisition. There is still a limited understanding of the mechanism underlying giant cell development. Here, the three-dimensional structures of M. graminicola-caused nematode-feeding sites (NFSs) on rice as well as changes in morphological features and cytoplasm density of the giant cells (GCs) during nematode parasitism were reconstructed and characterized by confocal microscopy and the Fiji software. Characterization of morphological features showed that three types of M. graminicola-caused NFSs, type I-III, were detected during parasitism at the second juvenile (J2), the third juvenile (J3), the fourth juvenile (J4) and adult female stages. Type I is the majority at all stages and type II develops into type I at J3 stage marked by its longitudinal growth. Meanwhile, NFSs underwent polarized expansion, where the lateral and longitudinal expansion ceased at later parasitic J2 stage and the non-feeding J4 stage, respectively. The investigation of giant cell cytoplasm density indicates that it reaches a peak at the midpoint of early parasitic J2 and adult female stages. Our data suggest the formation of three types of NFSs caused by M. graminicola on rice and the NFS polarized expansion stopping before full NFS maturation, which provides unprecedented spatio-temporal characterization of development of giant cells caused by a root-knot nematode.

Missense mutation of a class B heat shock factor is responsible for the tomato bushy root-2 phenotype

The bushy root-2 (brt-2) tomato mutant has twisting roots, and slower plant development. Here we used whole genome resequencing and genetic mapping to show that brt-2 is caused by a serine to cysteine (S75C) substitution in the DNA binding domain (DBD) of a heat shock factor class B (HsfB) encoded by SolycHsfB4a. This gene is orthologous to the Arabidopsis SCHIZORIZA gene, also known as AtHsfB4. The brt-2 phenotype is very similar to Arabidopsis lines in which the function of AtHsfB4 is altered: a proliferation of lateral root cap and root meristematic tissues, and a tendency for lateral root cap cells to easily separate. The brt-2 S75C mutation is unusual because all other reported amino acid substitutions in the highly conserved DBD of eukaryotic heat shock factors are dominant negative mutations, but brt-2 is recessive. We further show through reciprocal grafting that brt-2 exerts its effects predominantly through the root genotype even through BRT-2 is expressed at similar levels in both root and shoot meristems. Since AtHsfB4 is induced by root knot nematodes (RKN), and loss-of-function mutants of this gene are resistant to RKNs, BRT-2 could be a target gene for RKN resistance, an important trait in tomato rootstock breeding.Gene & accession numbersSolycHsfB4a - Solyc04g078770.

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) a threat to agriculture in Mexico: biology, current control strategies, and perspectives

Root-knot nematodes (RKN) are sedentary parasites of the roots of plants and are considered some of the most damaging pests in agriculture. Since RKN target the root vascular system, they provoke host nutrient deprivation and defective water transport, causing above-ground symptoms of growth stunting, wilting, chlorosis, and reduced crop yields. In Mexico RKN infestations are primarily dealt with by treating with synthetic chemically based nematicides that are preferred by farmers over available bioproducts. However, due to environmental and human health concerns chemical control is increasingly restricted. Biological control of RKNs can help reduce the use of chemical nematicides as it is achieved with antagonistic organisms, mainly bacteria, fungi, other nematodes, or consortia of diverse microorganisms, which control nematodes directly by predation and parasitism at different stages: eggs, juveniles, or adults; or indirectly by the action of toxic diffusible inhibitory metabolites. The need to increase agricultural production and reduce negative environmental impact creates an opportunity for optimizing biological control agents to suppress nematode populations, but this endeavour remains challenging as researchers around the world try to understand diverse control mechanisms, nematode and microbe life cycles, ecology, metabolite production, predatory behaviours, molecular and biochemical interactions, in order to generate attractive products with the approval of local regulatory bodies. Here, we provide a brief review of the biology of the genus Meloidogyne, biological control strategies, and a comparison between chemical and bioproducts in the Mexican market, and guidelines emitted by national agencies to ensure safety and effectiveness of new developments.

Identification of the Complex Interplay Between Nematode-Related lncRNAs and Their Target Genes in Glycine max L

Soybean (Glycine max) is a major plant protein source and oilseed crop. However, plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) affect its annual yield. In the current study, in order to better understand the regulation of defense mechanism against PPNs in soybean, we investigated the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in response to two nematode species, Heterodera glycines (SCN: soybean cyst nematode) and Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform). To this end, two publicly available RNA-seq data sets (SCN data set and RAD: reniform-associated data set) were employed to discover the lncRNAome profile of soybean under SCN and reniform infection, respectively. Upon identification of unannotated transcripts in these data sets, a seven-step pipeline was utilized to sieve these transcripts, which ended up in 384 and 283 potential lncRNAs in SCN data set and RAD, respectively. These transcripts were then used to predict cis and trans nematode-related targets in soybean genome. Computational prediction of target genes function, some of which were also among differentially expressed genes, revealed the involvement of putative nematode-responsive genes as well as enrichment of multiple stress responses in both data sets. Finally, 15 and six lncRNAs were proposed to be involved in microRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression in soybean in response to SNC and reniform infection, respectively. Collectively, this study provides a novel insight into the signaling and regulatory network of soybean-pathogen interactions and opens a new window for further research.

PUCHI Regulates Giant Cell Morphology During Root-Knot Nematode Infection in Arabidopsis thaliana

Parasitic root-knot nematodes transform the host's vascular cells into permanent feeding giant cells (GCs) to withdraw nutrients from the host plants. GCs are multinucleated metabolically active cells with distinctive cell wall structures; however, the genetic regulation of GC formation is largely unknown. In this study, the functions of the Arabidopsis thaliana transcription factor PUCHI during GC development were investigated. PUCHI expression was shown to be induced in early developing galls, suggesting the importance of the PUCHI gene in gall formation. Despite the puchi mutant not differing significantly from the wild type in nematode invasion and reproduction rates, puchi GC cell walls appeared to be thicker and lobate when compared to the wild type, while the cell membrane sometimes formed invaginations. In three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of puchi GCs, they appeared to be more irregularly shaped than those in the wild type, with noticeable cell-surface protrusions and folds. Interestingly, the loss-of-function mutant of 3-KETOACYL-COA SYNTHASE 1 showed GC morphology and cell wall defects similar to those of the puchi mutant, suggesting that PUCHI may regulate GC development via very long chain fatty acid synthesis.

Integrating the Roles for Cytokinin and Auxin in De Novo Shoot Organogenesis: From Hormone Uptake to Signaling Outputs

De novo shoot organogenesis (DNSO) is a procedure commonly used for the in vitro regeneration of shoots from a variety of plant tissues. Shoot regeneration occurs on nutrient media supplemented with the plant hormones cytokinin (CK) and auxin, which play essential roles in this process, and genes involved in their signaling cascades act as master regulators of the different phases of shoot regeneration. In the last 20 years, the genetic regulation of DNSO has been characterized in detail. However, as of today, the CK and auxin signaling events associated with shoot regeneration are often interpreted as a consequence of these hormones simply being present in the regeneration media, whereas the roles for their prior uptake and transport into the cultivated plant tissues are generally overlooked. Additionally, sucrose, commonly added to the regeneration media as a carbon source, plays a signaling role and has been recently shown to interact with CK and auxin and to affect the efficiency of shoot regeneration. In this review, we provide an integrative interpretation of the roles for CK and auxin in the process of DNSO, adding emphasis on their uptake from the regeneration media and their interaction with sucrose present in the media to their complex signaling outputs that mediate shoot regeneration.

Genome-Wide Identification, Phylogenetic and Expression Pattern Analysis of GATA Family Genes in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

GATA transcription factors are a class of transcriptional regulatory proteins that contain a characteristic type-IV zinc finger DNA-binding domain, which play important roles in plant growth and development. The GATA gene family has been characterized in various plant species. However, GATA family genes have not been identified in cucumber. In this study, 26 GATA family genes were identified in cucumber genome, whose physicochemical characteristics, chromosomal distributions, phylogenetic tree, gene structures conserved motifs, cis-regulatory elements in promoters, homologous gene pairs, downstream target genes were analyzed. Tissue expression profiles of cucumber GATA family genes exhibited that 17 GATA genes showed constitutive expression, and some GATA genes showed tissue-specific expression patterns. RNA-seq analysis of green and virescent leaves revealed that seven GATA genes might be involved in the chloroplast development and chlorophyll biosynthesis. Importantly, expression patterns analysis of GATA genes in response to abiotic and biotic stresses indicated that some GATA genes respond to either abiotic stress or biotic stress, some GATA genes such as Csa2G162660, Csa3G017200, Csa3G165640, Csa4G646060, Csa5G622830 and Csa6G312540 were simultaneously functional in resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Overall, this study will provide useful information for further analysis of the biological functions of GATA factors in cucumber.

Sedentary Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Alter Auxin Homeostasis via Multiple Strategies

Sedentary endoparasites such as cyst and root-knot nematodes infect many important food crops and are major agro-economical pests worldwide. These plant-parasitic nematodes exploit endogenous molecular and physiological pathways in the roots of their host to establish unique feeding structures. These structures function as highly active transfer cells and metabolic sinks and are essential for the parasites' growth and reproduction. Plant hormones like indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) are a fundamental component in the formation of these feeding complexes. However, their underlying molecular and biochemical mechanisms are still elusive despite recent advances in the field. This review presents a comprehensive overview of known functions of various auxins in plant-parasitic nematode infection sites, based on a systematic analysis of current literature. We evaluate multiple aspects involved in auxin homeostasis in plants, including anabolism, catabolism, transport, and signalling. From these analyses, a picture emerges that plant-parasitic nematodes have evolved multiple strategies to manipulate auxin homeostasis to establish a successful parasitic relationship with their host. Additionally, there appears to be a potential role for auxins other than IAA in plant-parasitic nematode infections that might be of interest to be further elucidated.

Analysis of unigenes involved in lateral root development in Bupleurum chinense and B. scorzonerifolium

We identified IAA13 negatively associated with lateral root number by comparing the differential expressed genes between Bupleurum chinense and B. scorzonerifolium. Dried roots of the genus Bupleurum L. are used as a herbal medicine for diseases in Asia. Bupleurum chinense has a greater number of lateral roots than B. scorzonerifolium, but the genetic mechanisms for such differences are largely unknown. We (a) compared the transcriptome profiles of the two species and (b) identified a subset of candidate genes involved in auxin signal transduction and explored their functions in lateral root development. By isoform sequencing (Iso-Seq) analyses of the whole plant, more unigenes were found in B. scorzonerifolium (118,868) than in B. chinense (93,485). Given the overarching role of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) as one of the major regulators of lateral root development, we identified 539 unigenes associated with auxin signal transduction. Fourteen and 44 unigenes in the pathway were differentially expressed in B. chinense and B. scorzonerifolium, respectively, and 3 unigenes (LAX2, LAX4, and IAA13) were expressed in both species. The number of lateral root primordia increased after exogenous auxin application at 8 h and 12 h in B. scorzonerifolium and B. chinense, respectively. Since overexpression of IAA13 in Arabidopsis reduced the number of lateral roots, we hypothesized that IAA13 is involved in the reduction of the number of lateral roots in B. scorzonerifolium.

Interaction of Symbiotic Rhizobia and Parasitic Root-Knot Nematodes in Legume Roots: From Molecular Regulation to Field Application

Legumes form two types of root organs in response to signals from microbes, namely, nodules and root galls. In the field, these interactions occur concurrently and often interact with each other. The outcomes of these interactions vary and can depend on natural variation in rhizobia and nematode populations in the soil as well as abiotic conditions. While rhizobia are symbionts that contribute fixed nitrogen to their hosts, parasitic root-knot nematodes (RKN) cause galls as feeding structures that consume plant resources without a contribution to the plant. Yet, the two interactions share similarities, including rhizosphere signaling, repression of host defense responses, activation of host cell division, and differentiation, nutrient exchange, and alteration of root architecture. Rhizobia activate changes in defense and development through Nod factor signaling, with additional functions of effector proteins and exopolysaccharides. RKN inject large numbers of protein effectors into plant cells that directly suppress immune signaling and manipulate developmental pathways. This review examines the molecular control of legume interactions with rhizobia and RKN to elucidate shared and distinct mechanisms of these root-microbe interactions. Many of the molecular pathways targeted by both organisms overlap, yet recent discoveries have singled out differences in the spatial control of expression of developmental regulators that may have enabled activation of cortical cell division during nodulation in legumes. The interaction of legumes with symbionts and parasites highlights the importance of a comprehensive view of root-microbe interactions for future crop management and breeding strategies.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Small RNA and degradome deep sequencing reveals important roles of microRNAs in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) response to root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita infection

Investigation of cotton response to nematode infection will allow us to better understand the cotton immune defense mechanism and design a better biotechnological approach for efficiently managing pest nematodes in cotton. In this study, we firstly treated cotton by root knot nematode (RKN, Meloidogyne incognita) infections, then we employed the high throughput deep sequencing technology to sequence and genome-widely identify all miRNAs in cotton; finally, we analyzed the functions of these miRNAs in cotton response to RKN infections. A total of 266 miRNAs, including 193 known and 73 novel miRNAs, were identified by deep sequencing technology, which belong to 67 conserved and 66 novel miRNA families, respectively. A majority of identified miRNA families only contain one miRNA; however, miR482 family contains 14 members and some others contain 2-13 members. Certain miRNAs were specifically expressed in RKN-infected cotton roots and others were completely inhibited by RKN infection. A total of 50 miRNAs were differentially expressed after RKN infection, in which 28 miRNAs were up-regulated and 22 were inhibited by RKN treatment. Based on degradome sequencing, 87 gene targets were identified to be targeted by 57 miRNAs. These miRNA-targeted genes are involved in the interaction of cotton plants and nematode infection. Based on GO (gene ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) analysis, 466 genes from all 636 miRNA targets were mapped to 6340 GO terms, 181 genes from 228 targets of differentially expressed miRNAs were mapped to 1588 GO terms. The GO terms were then categorized into the three main GO classes: biological processes, cellular components, and molecular functions. The targets of differentially expressed miRNAs were enriched in 43 GO terms, including 22 biological processes, 10 cellular components, and 11 molecular functions (p < 0.05). Many identified processes were associated with organism responses to the environmental stresses, including regulation of nematode larval development, response to nematode, and response to flooding. Our results will enhance the study and application of developing new cotton cultivars for nematode resistance.

The root-knot nematode effector MiEFF18 interacts with the plant core spliceosomal protein SmD1 required for giant cell formation

The root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita secretes specific effectors (MiEFF) and induces the redifferentiation of plant root cells into enlarged multinucleate feeding 'giant cells' essential for nematode development. Immunolocalizations revealed the presence of the MiEFF18 protein in the salivary glands of M. incognita juveniles. In planta, MiEFF18 localizes to the nuclei of giant cells demonstrating its secretion during plant-nematode interactions. A yeast two-hybrid approach identified the nuclear ribonucleoprotein SmD1 as a MiEFF18 partner in tomato and Arabidopsis. SmD1 is an essential component of the spliceosome, a complex involved in pre-mRNA splicing and alternative splicing. RNA-seq analyses of Arabidopsis roots ectopically expressing MiEFF18 or partially impaired in SmD1 function (smd1b mutant) revealed the contribution of the effector and its target to alternative splicing and proteome diversity. The comparison with Arabidopsis galls data showed that MiEFF18 modifies the expression of genes important for giant cell ontogenesis, indicating that MiEFF18 modulates SmD1 functions to facilitate giant cell formation. Finally, Arabidopsis smd1b mutants exhibited less susceptibility to M. incognita infection, and the giant cells formed on these mutants displayed developmental defects, suggesting that SmD1 plays an important role in the formation of giant cells and is required for successful nematode infection.

Roles of plant retinoblastoma protein: cell cycle and beyond

The human retinoblastoma (RB1) protein is a tumor suppressor that negatively regulates cell cycle progression through its interaction with members of the E2F/DP family of transcription factors. However, RB-related (RBR) proteins are an early acquisition during eukaryote evolution present in plant lineages, including unicellular algae, ancient plants (ferns, lycophytes, liverworts, mosses), gymnosperms, and angiosperms. The main RBR protein domains and interactions with E2Fs are conserved in all eukaryotes and not only regulate the G1/S transition but also the G2/M transition, as part of DREAM complexes. RBR proteins are also important for asymmetric cell division, stem cell maintenance, and the DNA damage response (DDR). RBR proteins play crucial roles at every developmental phase transition, in association with chromatin factors, as well as during the reproductive phase during female and male gametes production and embryo development. Here, we review the processes where plant RBR proteins play a role and discuss possible avenues of research to obtain a full picture of the multifunctional roles of RBR for plant life.