Fusion of an Fc chain to a VHH boosts the accumulation levels in Arabidopsis seeds

Research trends in the use of nanobodies for cancer therapy

Although there are many challenges in using nanobodies for treating various complex tumor diseases, including rapid renal clearance and the complex blood-brain barrier environment, nanobodies have shown great potential due to their high antigen affinity, excellent tumor penetration ability, and favorable safety profile. Since the discovery of the variable domain (VHH) of camelid heavy-chain antibodies in 1993, nanobodies have been progressively applied to various cancer therapy platforms, such as antagonistic drugs and targeting agents for effector domains. In recent years, several nanobody-based drugs, including Caplacizumab, KN-035, and Ozoralizumab, have been approved for clinical use. Among them, KN-035 is used for treating advanced solid tumors, and these advancements have propelled nanobody development to new heights. Currently, nanobodies are being rapidly applied to the treatment of a wide range of diseases, from viral infections to cancer, demonstrating strong advantages in areas such as targeted protein degradation, bioimaging, nanobody-drug conjugation, bispecific T-cell engagers, and vaccine applications. Bibliometric tools, including CiteSpace, HisCite Pro, and Alluvial Generator, were employed to trace the historical development of nanobodies in cancer research. The contributions of authors, countries, and institutions in this field were analyzed, and research hotspots and emerging trends were identified through keyword analysis and influential articles. Future trends were also predicted. This study provides a unique, comprehensive, and objective perspective on the use of nanobodies in tumor research, laying a foundation for future research directions and offering valuable insights for researchers in the field.

Applications of Nanobodies in Biological Imaging

Background: Nanobodies (Nbs), derived from Camelidae heavy-chain antibodies, are single-domain fragments (15 kDa) with high antigen-binding specificity, enhanced tissue penetration, and low immunogenicity. These attributes address limitations of conventional antibodies, positioning Nbs as pivotal tools for targeted molecular imaging in diagnostics and therapeutics. Methods: Nbs are screened through phage/mRNA display or single B-cell sequencing, expressed in prokaryotic or yeast systems, and humanized via CDR grafting. Functional probes are engineered by conjugating Nbs with radionuclides (68Ga, 99mTc) or fluorophores (IRDye 800CW) for compatibility with PET, SPECT, NIRF, and ultrasound modalities. Results: Clinical trials validated Nb efficacy: 68Ga-HER2-Nb PET/CT achieved tumor-specific uptake in HER2+ cancers (NCT04467515), while 99mTc-PD-L1-Nb enabled quantitative SPECT-guided immunotherapy in NSCLC. NIRF-Nb conjugates (e.g., 11A4-800CW) enhanced intraoperative tumor delineation in murine models. Dual-targeted ultrasound microbubbles demonstrated multi-biomarker imaging via acoustic pressure modulation. Conclusion: Nbs advance biological imaging through superior resolution and rapid pharmacokinetics. Challenges persist in optimizing probe stability, minimizing immunogenicity, and scaling production. Future priorities include integrating multi-modal platforms, expanding applications to neurodegenerative disorders, and refining personalized diagnostic paradigms, underscoring their transformative potential in precision medicine.

Anti-CTLA-4 nanobody as a promising approach in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer is one of the most common diseases and causes of death worldwide. Since common treatment approaches do not yield acceptable results in many patients, developing innovative strategies for effective treatment is necessary. Immunotherapy is one of the promising approaches that has been highly regarded for preventing tumor recurrence and new metastases. Meanwhile, inhibiting immune checkpoints is one of the most attractive methods of cancer immunotherapy. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein-4 (CTLA-4) is an essential immune molecule that plays a vital role in cell cycle modulation, regulation of T cell proliferation, and cytokine production. This molecule is classically expressed by stimulated T cells. Inhibition of overexpression of immune checkpoints such as CTLA-4 receptors has been confirmed as an effective strategy. In cancer immunotherapy, immune checkpoint-blocking drugs can be enhanced with nanobodies that target immune checkpoint molecules. Nanobodies are derived from the variable domain of heavy antibody chains. These small protein fragments have evolved entirely without a light chain and can be used as a powerful tool in imaging and treating diseases with their unique structure. They have a low molecular weight, which makes them smaller than conventional antibodies while still being able to bind to specific antigens. In addition to low molecular weight, specific binding to targets, resistance to temperature, pH, and enzymes, high ability to penetrate tumor tissues, and low toxicity make nanobodies an ideal approach to overcome the disadvantages of monoclonal antibody-based immunotherapy. In this article, while reviewing the cellular and molecular functions of CTLA-4, the structure and mechanisms of nanobodies' activity, and their delivery methods, we will explain the advantages and challenges of using nanobodies, emphasizing immunotherapy treatments based on anti-CTLA-4 nanobodies.

Immunotherapeutic effects of recombinant colorectal cancer antigen produced in tomato fruits

The production of pharmacological vaccines in plants has been an important goal in the field of plant biotechnology. GA733-2, the protein that is also known as colorectal carcinoma (CRC)-associated antigen, is a strong candidate to produce a colorectal cancer vaccine. Tomato is the one of the major targets for production of an edible vaccine, as tomato is a fruit consumed in fresh form. It also contains high content of vitamins that aid activation of immune response. In order to develop an edible colorectal cancer vaccine, the transgene rGA733-Fc that encodes a fusion protein of GA733-2, the fragment crystallizable (Fc) domain, and the ER retention motif (rGA733-Fc) was introduced into tomato plants (Solanumlycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom). The transgenic plants producing rGA733-Fc (rGA733-Fc^OX) protein were screened based on stable integration of transgene expression cassette and expression level of rGA733-Fc protein. Further glycosylation pattern analysis revealed that plant derived rGA733-Fc protein contains an oligomannose glycan structure, which is a typical glycosylation pattern found on ER-processing proteins. The red fruits of rGA733-Fc^OX transgenic tomato plants containing approximately 270 ng/g FW of rGA733-Fc protein were orally administered to C57BL/6 mice. Oral administration of tomato fruits of the rGA733-Fc expressing transgenic plants delayed colorectal cancer growth and stimulated immune responses compared to oral administration of tomato fruits of the h-Fc expressing transgenic plants in the C57BL/6J mice. This is the first study showing the possibility of producing an edible colorectal cancer vaccine using tomato plants. This research would be helpful for development of plant-derived cancer edible vaccines.

A review of plant-based expression systems as a platform for single-domain recombinant antibody production

Monoclonal antibodies have contributed to improving the treatment of several diseases. However, limitations related to pharmacokinetic parameters and production costs have instigated the search for alternative products. Camelids produce functional immunoglobulins G devoid of light chains and CH1 domains, in which the antigenic recognition site is formed by a single domain called VHH or nanobody. VHHs' small size and similarity to the human VH domain contribute to high tissue penetration and low immunogenicity. In addition, VHHs provide superior antigen recognition compared to human antibodies, better solubility and stability. Due to these characteristics and the possibility of obtaining gene-encoding VHHs, applications of this biological tool, whether as a monomer or in related recombinant constructs, have been reported. To ensure antibody efficacy and cost-effectiveness, strategies for their expression, either using prokaryotic or eukaryotic systems, have been utilized. Plant-based expression systems are useful for VHH related constructs that require post-translational modifications. This system has exhibited versatility, low-cost upstream production, and safety. This article presents the main advances associated to the heterologous expression of VHHs in plant systems. Besides, we show insights related to the use of VHHs as a strategy for plant pathogen control and a tool for genomic manipulation in plant systems.

Reteplase Fc-fusions produced in N. benthamiana are able to dissolve blood clots ex vivo

Thrombolytic and fibrinolytic therapies are effective treatments to dissolve blood clots in stroke therapy. Thrombolytic drugs activate plasminogen to its cleaved form plasmin, a proteolytic enzyme that breaks the crosslinks between fibrin molecules. The FDA-approved human tissue plasminogen activator Reteplase (rPA) is a non-glycosylated protein produced in E. coli. rPA is a deletion mutant of the wild-type Alteplase that benefits from an extended plasma half-life, reduced fibrin specificity and the ability to better penetrate into blood clots. Different methods have been proposed to improve the production of rPA. Here we show for the first time the transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana of rPA fused to the immunoglobulin fragment crystallizable (Fc) domain on an IgG1, a strategy commonly used to improve the stability of therapeutic proteins. Despite our success on the expression and purification of dimeric rPA-Fc fusions, protein instability results in high amounts of Fc-derived degradation products. We hypothesize that the "Y"- shape of dimeric Fc fusions cause steric hindrance between protein domains and leads to physical instability. Indeed, mutations of critical residues in the Fc dimerization interface allowed the expression of fully stable rPA monomeric Fc-fusions. The ability of rPA-Fc to convert plasminogen into plasmin was demonstrated by plasminogen zymography and clot lysis assay shows that rPA-Fc is able to dissolve blood clots ex vivo. Finally, we addressed concerns with the plant-specific glycosylation by modulating rPA-Fc glycosylation towards serum-like structures including α2,6-sialylated and α1,6-core fucosylated N-glycans completely devoid of plant core fucose and xylose residues.

Applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology

Present review summarizes the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, including plant expression of nanobodies, plant biotechnological applications, nanobody-based immunodetection, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens. Nanobodies (Nbs) are variable domains of heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) isolated from camelids. In spite of their single domain structure, nanobodies display many unique features, such as small size, high stability, and cryptic epitopes accessibility, which make them ideal for sophisticated applications in plants and animals. In this review, we summarize the current applications of nanobodies in plant science and biotechnology, focusing on nanobody expression in plants, plant biotechnological applications, determination of plant toxins and pathogens, and nanobody-mediated resistance against plant pathogens. Prospects and challenges of nanobody applications in plants are also discussed.

Optimization of the human colorectal carcinoma antigen GA733-2 production in tobacco plants

The colorectal carcinoma-associated protein GA733-2 is one of the representative candidate protein for the development of plant-derived colorectal cancer vaccine. Despite of its significant importance for colorectal vaccine development, low efficiency of GA733-2 production limits its wide applications. To improve productivity of GA733-2 in plants, we here tested multiple factors that affect expression of recombinant GA733-2 (rGA733-2) and rGA733 fused to fragment crystallizable (Fc) domain (rGA733-Fc) protein. The rGA733-2 and rGA733-Fc proteins were highly expressed when the pBINPLUS vector system was used for transient expression in tobacco plants. In addition, the length of interval between rGA733-2 and left border of T-DNA affected the expression of rGA733 protein. Transient expression analysis using various combinations of Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains (C58C1, LBA4404, and GV3101) and tobacco species (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi nc and Nicotiana benthamiana) revealed that higher accumulation of rGA733-2 and rGA733-Fc proteins were obtained by combination of A. tumefaciens LBA4404 and Nicotiana benthamiana. Transgenic plants generated by introduction of the rGA733-2 and rGA733-Fc expression cassettes also significantly accumulated corresponding recombinant proteins. Bioactivity and stability of the plant-derived rGA733 and rGA733-Fc were evaluated by further in vitro assay, western blot and N-glycosylation analysis. Collectively, we here suggest the optimal condition for efficient production of functional rGA733-2 protein in tobacco system.

The Instability of Dimeric Fc-Fusions Expressed in Plants Can Be Solved by Monomeric Fc Technology

The potential therapeutic value of many proteins is ultimately limited by their rapid in vivo clearance. One strategy to limit clearance by metabolism and excretion, and improving the stability of therapeutic proteins, is their fusion to the immunoglobulin fragment crystallizable region (Fc). The Fc region plays multiple roles in (i) dimerization for the formation of "Y"-shaped structure of Ig, (ii) Fc-mediated effector functions, (iii) extension of serum half-life, and (iv) a cost-effective purification tag. Plants and in particular Nicotiana benthamiana have proven to be suitable expression platforms for several recombinant therapeutic proteins. Despite the enormous success of their use for the production of full-length monoclonal antibodies, the expression of Fc-fused therapeutic proteins in plants has shown limitations. Many Fc-fusion proteins expressed in plants show different degrees of instability resulting in high amounts of Fc-derived degradation products. To address this issue, we used erythropoietin (EPO) as a reporter protein and evaluated the efforts to enhance the expression of full-length EPO-Fc targeted to the apoplast of N. benthamiana. Our results show that the instability of the fusion protein is independent from the Fc origin or IgG subclass and from the peptide sequence used to link the two domains. We also show that a similar instability occurs upon the expression of individual heavy chains of monoclonal antibodies and ScFv-Fc that mimic the "Y"-shape of antibodies but lack the light chain. We propose that in this configuration, steric hindrance between the protein domains leads to physical instability. Indeed, mutations of critical residues located on the Fc dimerization interface allowed the expression of fully stable EPO monomeric Fc-fusion proteins. We discuss the limitations of Fc-fusion technology in N. benthamiana transient expression systems and suggest strategies to optimize the Fc-based scaffolds on their folding and aggregation resistance in order to improve the stability.

Seed-produced anti-globulin VHH-Fc antibodies retrieve globulin precursors in the insoluble fraction and modulate the Arabidopsis thaliana seed subcellular morphology

Nanobody-heavy chain (VHH-Fc) antibody formats have the potential to immunomodulate even highly accumulating proteins and provide a valuable tool to experimentally modulate the subcellular distribution of seed storage proteins. Recombinant antibodies often obtain high accumulation levels in plants, and thus, besides being the actual end-product, antibodies targeting endogenous host proteins can be used to interfere with the localization and functioning of their corresponding antigens. Here, we compared the effect of a seed-expressed nanobody-heavy chain (VHH-Fc) antibody against the highly abundant Arabidopsis thaliana globulin seed storage protein cruciferin with that of a VHH-Fc antibody without endogenous target. Both antibodies reached high accumulation levels of around 10% of total soluble protein, but strikingly, another significant part was present in the insoluble protein fraction and was recovered only after extraction under denaturing conditions. In seeds containing the anti-cruciferin antibodies but not the antibody without endogenous target, the amount of soluble, processed globulin subunits was severely reduced and a major part of the cruciferin molecules was found as precursor in the insoluble fraction. Moreover, in these seeds, aberrant vacuolar phenotypes were observed that were different from the effects caused by the depletion of globulins in knock-out seeds. Remarkably, the seeds with strongly reduced globulin amounts are fully viable and germinate with frequencies similar to wild type, illustrating how flexible seeds can retrieve amino acids from the stored proteins to start germination.

Site-specific C-terminal dinitrophenylation to reconstitute the antibody Fc functions for nanobodies

Nanobodies are a class of camelid-derived single-domain antibodies that have many potential advantages over conventional antibodies and have been utilized to develop new therapeutic strategies for cancer and other diseases. However, nanobodies lack the Fc region of a conventional antibody, which possesses many functions, e.g., eliciting antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), essential for effective immunotherapy. The small molecular size of nanobodies also leads to poor pharmacokinetics, such as short in vivo half-life. To address these deficiencies, an endogenous antibody-based strategy to reconstitute the Fc functions for nanobodies was developed. As a proof-of-principle, an anti-human EGFR nanobody, 7D12, was selected to conduct C-terminal modification with the dinitrophenyl (DNP) hapten through Sortase A-mediated site-specific ligation. It was expected that the DNP motif would recruit endogenous human anti-DNP antibodies to indirectly reinstate the Fc functions. The resultant nanobody-DNP conjugates were shown to exhibit specific and high affinity binding to human EGFR expressed on target cancer cells. It was further proved that in the presence of anti-DNP antibody, these conjugates could mediate potent ADCC and CDC in vitro and exhibit significantly elongated half-life in vivo. Ultimately, it was proven in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice that treatment with the nanobody 7D12-DNP conjugate and anti-DNP mouse serum could inhibit xenograft tumor growth efficiently. In view of the abundance of anti-DNP and other endogenous antibodies in the human blood system, this could be a generally applicable approach employed to reconstitute the Fc functions for nanobodies and develop nanobody-based cancer immunotherapy and other therapies.

Pyramiding of nine transgenes in maize generates high-level resistance against necrotrophic maize pathogens

Key message Nine transgenes from different categories, viz. plant defense response genes and anti-apoptosis genes, played combined roles in maize to inhibit the necrotrophic pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Bipolaris maydis. Maize sheath blight and southern corn leaf blight are major global threats to maize production. The management of these necrotrophic pathogens has encountered limited success due to the characteristics of their lifestyle. Here, we presented a transgenic pyramiding breeding strategy to achieve nine different resistance genes integrated in one transgenic maize line to combat different aspects of necrotrophic pathogens. These nine genes, selected from two different categories, plant defense response genes (Chi, Glu, Ace-AMP1, Tlp, Rs-AFP2, ZmPROPEP1 and Pti4), and anti-apoptosis genes (Iap and p35), were successfully transferred into maize and further implicated in resistance against the necrotrophic pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Bipolaris maydis. Furthermore, the transgenic maize line 910, with high expression levels of the nine integrated genes, was selected from 49 lines. Under greenhouse and field trial conditions, line 910 showed significant resistance against maize sheath blight and southern corn leaf blight diseases. Higher-level resistance was obtained after the pyramiding of more resistance transgenes from different categories that function via different mechanisms. The present study provides a successful strategy for the management of necrotrophic pathogens.

In planta expression of nanobody-based designer chicken antibodies targeting Campylobacter

Campylobacteriosis is a widespread infectious disease, leading to a major health and economic burden. Chickens are considered as the most common infection source for humans. Campylobacter mainly multiplies in the mucus layer of their caeca. No effective control measures are currently available, but passive immunisation of chickens with pathogen-specific maternal IgY antibodies, present in egg yolk of immunised chickens, reduces Campylobacter colonisation. To explore this strategy further, anti-Campylobacter nanobodies, directed against the flagella and major outer membrane proteins, were fused to the constant domains of chicken IgA and IgY, combining the benefits of nanobodies and the effector functions of the Fc-domains. The designer chimeric antibodies were effectively produced in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana and seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana. Stable expression of the chimeric antibodies in seeds resulted in production levels between 1% and 8% of the total soluble protein. These in planta produced antibodies do not only bind to their purified antigens but also to Campylobacter bacterial cells. In addition, the anti-flagellin chimeric antibodies are reducing the motility of Campylobacter bacteria. These antibody-containing Arabidopsis seeds can be tested for oral passive immunisation of chickens and, if effective, the chimeric antibodies can be produced in crop seeds.

Nanobodies as novel therapeutic agents in envenomation

BACKGROUND

An effective therapy against envenoming should be a priority in view of the high number scorpion stings and snakebites. Serum therapy is still widely applied to treat the envenomation victims; however this approach suffers from several shortcomings. The employment of monoclonal antibodies might be an outcome as these molecules are at the core of a variety of applications from protein structure determination to cancer treatment. The progress of activities in the twilight zone between genetic and antibody engineering have led to the development of a unique class of antibody fragments. These molecules possess several benefits and lack many possible disadvantages over classical antibodies. Within recombinant antibody formats, nanobodies or single domain antigen binding fragments derived from heavy chain only antibodies in camelids occupy a privileged position.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

In this paper we will briefly review the common methods of envenomation treatment and focus on details of various in vivo research activities that investigate the performance of recombinant, monoclonal nanobodies in venom neutralization.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Nanobodies bind to their cognate target with high specificity and affinity, they can be produced in large quantities from microbial expression systems and are very robust even when challenged with harsh environmental conditions. Upon administering, they rapidly distribute throughout the body and seem to be well tolerated in humans posing low immunogenicity.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Scorpion and snake envenomation is a major issue in developing countries and nanobodies as a venom-neutralizing agent can be considered as a valuable and promising candidate in envenomation therapy.

Seed-specific expression and analysis of recombinant anti-HER2 single-chain variable fragment (scFv-Fc) in Arabidopsis thaliana

Antibodies to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) are a key element of breast cancer therapy; however, they are expensive to produce and their availability is limited. A seed-specific expression system can be used to produce recombinant proteins. We report a seed-specific expression system for the manufacture of anti-HER2 ScFv-Fc in Arabidopsis thaliana, driven by the Phaseolus vulgaris β-phaseolin promoter. Recombinant anti-HER2 ScFv-Fc was successfully and specifically expressed in seeds, and identified by protein analysis. The highest protein accumulation level, with a maximum of 1.1% of total soluble protein, was observed in mature seeds. We also demonstrated the anti-tumor potency of the plant-derived antibody against SK-BR-3 cells. These results suggest that seed-expression systems could contribute to the manufacture of commercial antibodies such as anti-HER2 ScFv-Fc.

Nanobodies to Study G Protein-Coupled Receptor Structure and Function

Ligand-induced activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is a key mechanism permitting communication between cells and organs. Enormous progress has recently elucidated the structural and dynamic features of GPCR transmembrane signaling. Nanobodies, the recombinant antigen-binding fragments of camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies, have emerged as important research tools to lock GPCRs in particular conformational states. Active-state stabilizing nanobodies have elucidated several agonist-bound structures of hormone-activated GPCRs and have provided insight into the dynamic character of receptors. Nanobodies have also been used to stabilize transient GPCR transmembrane signaling complexes, yielding the first structural insights into GPCR signal transduction across the cellular membrane. Beyond their in vitro uses, nanobodies have served as conformational biosensors in living systems and have provided novel ways to modulate GPCR function. Here, we highlight several examples of how nanobodies have enabled the study of GPCR function and give insights into potential future uses of these important tools.

Nanobodies as Versatile Tools to Understand, Diagnose, Visualize and Treat Cancer

Since their discovery, nanobodies have been used extensively in the fields of research, diagnostics and therapy. These antigen binding fragments, originating from Camelid heavy-chain antibodies, possess unusual hallmarks in terms of (small) size, stability, solubility and specificity, hence allowing cost-effective production and sometimes outperforming monoclonal antibodies. In this review, we evaluate the current status of nanobodies to study, diagnose, visualize or inhibit cancer-specific proteins and processes. Nanobodies are highly adaptable tools for cancer research as they enable specific modulation of targets, enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins alike. Molecular imaging studies benefit from the rapid, homogeneous tumor accumulation of nanobodies and their fast blood clearance, permitting previously unattainable fast tumor visualization. Moreover, they are endowed with considerable therapeutic potential as inhibitors of receptor-ligand pairs and deliverers of drugs or drug-loaded nanoparticles towards tumors. More in vivo and clinical studies are however eagerly awaited to unleash their full potential.

Construction and expression of an anti-VEGFR2 Nanobody-Fc fusionbody in NS0 host cell

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels which is involved in migration, growth and differentiation of endothelial cells. This process regularly occurs during growth and development in children however, in adults is usually part of a disease process such as cancer. The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a vital player in the vascular development and angiogenesis in physiological and pathological processes. Camelid's immune system has unique antibodies which are composed of only a heavy chain homodimer and the variable domain (VHH, Nanobody). Nanobodies are small, around 15 kDa and stable. In this study, we engineered and constructed a new Nanobody-Fc fusion protein (fusionbody) composed of an anti-VEGFR2 Nanobody and an Fc fragment of human IgG1 antibody. The recombinant vector was transfected into NS0 host cells. Stable producer clones were developed and the recombinant fusionbody was expressed and purified. Functional assay showed the anti-VEGFR2 fusionbody could bind to VEGFR2 on cell surface via VHH part and could mediate killing the targeted cells through direct cell death and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC).

A Chimeric Affinity Tag for Efficient Expression and Chromatographic Purification of Heterologous Proteins from Plants

The use of plants as expression hosts for recombinant proteins is an increasingly attractive option for the production of complex and challenging biopharmaceuticals. Tools are needed at present to marry recent developments in high-yielding gene vectors for heterologous expression with routine protein purification techniques. In this study, we designed the Cysta-tag, a new purification tag for immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) of plant-made proteins based on the protein-stabilizing fusion partner SlCYS8. We show that the Cysta-tag may be used to readily purify proteins under native conditions, and then be removed enzymatically to isolate the protein of interest. We also show that commonly used protease recognition sites for linking purification tags are differentially stable in leaves of the commonly used expression host Nicotiana benthamiana, with those linkers susceptible to cysteine proteases being less stable then serine protease-cleavable linkers. As an example, we describe a Cysta-tag experimental scheme for the one-step purification of a clinically useful protein, human α1-antitrypsin, transiently expressed in N. benthamiana. With potential applicability to the variety of chromatography formats commercially available for IMAC-based protein purification, the Cysta-tag provides a convenient means for the efficient and cost-effective purification of recombinant proteins from plant tissues.

Recombinant antibody production evolves into multiple options aimed at yielding reagents suitable for application-specific needs

BACKGROUND

Antibodies have been a pillar of basic research, while their relevance in clinical diagnostics and therapy is constantly growing. Consequently, the production of both conventional and fragment antibodies constantly faces more demanding challenges for the improvement of their quantity and quality. The answer to such an increasing need has been the development of a wide array of formats and alternative production platforms. This review offers a critical comparison and evaluation of the different options to help the researchers interested in expressing recombinant antibodies in their choice.

RESULTS

Rather than the compilation of an exhaustive list of the recent publications in the field, this review intendeds to analyze the development of the most innovative or fast-growing strategies. These have been illustrated with some significant examples and, when possible, compared with the existing alternatives. Space has also been given to those solutions that might represent interesting opportunities or that investigate critical aspects of the production optimization but for which the available data as yet do not allow for a definitive judgment.

CONCLUSIONS

The take-home message is that there is a clear process of progressive diversification concerning the antibody expression platforms and an effort to yield directly application-adapted immune-reagents rather than generic naked antibodies that need further in vitro modification steps before becoming usable.

Comparison of VHH-Fc antibody production in Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana benthamiana and Pichia pastoris

VHHs or nanobodies are widely acknowledged as interesting diagnostic and therapeutic tools. However, for some applications, multivalent antibody formats, such as the dimeric VHH-Fc format, are desired to increase the functional affinity. The scope of this study was to compare transient expression of diagnostic VHH-Fc antibodies in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves with their stable expression in Arabidopsis thaliana seeds and Pichia pastoris. To this end, VHH-Fc antibodies targeting green fluorescent protein or the A. thaliana seed storage proteins (albumin and globulin) were produced in the three platforms. Differences were mainly observed in the accumulation levels and glycosylation patterns. Interestingly, although in plants oligomannosidic N-glycans were expected for KDEL-tagged VHH-Fcs, several VHH-Fcs with an intact KDEL-tag carried complex-type N-glycans, suggesting a dysfunctional retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. All VHH-Fcs were equally functional across expression platforms and several outperformed their corresponding VHH in terms of sensitivity in ELISA.

Fusion of hIgG1-Fc to 111In-anti-amyloid single domain antibody fragment VHH-pa2H prolongs blood residential time in APP/PS1 mice but does not increase brain uptake

INTRODUCTION

Llama single domain antibody fragments (VHH), which can pass endothelial barriers, are being investigated for targeting amyloid plaque load in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Contrary to conventional human or murine antibodies consisting of IgG or F(ab')2 antibody fragments, VHH are able to effectively pass the blood brain barrier (BBB) in vitro. However, in earlier in vivo studies, anti-amyloid VHH showed poor BBB passage due to their short serum half-lives. It would be of interest to develop a VHH based protein with elongated serum half-life to enhance BBB passage, allowing the VHH to more easily reach the cerebral amyloid deposits.

METHODS

To increase serum persistence, the Fc portion of the human IgG1 antibody (hinge plus CH2 and CH3 domains) was fused to the C-terminus of the VHH (VHH-pa2H-Fc). To determine the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution profile of the fusion protein, the chelator p-SCN-Bz-DTPA was linked to the protein and thereafter labeled with radioactive indium-111 ((111)In). Double transgenic APPswe/PS1dE9 and wild type littermates were injected with 20 μg VHH-pa2H-Fc-DTPA-(111)In (10-20 MBq). Pharmacokinetics of the tracer was determined in blood samples at 10 intervals after injection and imaging using microSPECT was performed. The biodistribution of the radioactivity in various excised tissues was measured at 48 h after injection.

RESULTS

We succeeded in the expression of the fusion protein VHH-pa2H-Fc in HEK293T cells with a yield of 50mg/L growth medium. The fusion protein showed homodimerization - necessary for successful Fc neonatal receptor recycling. Compared to VHH-pa2H, the Fc tailed protein retained high affinity for amyloid beta on human AD patient brain tissue sections, and significantly improved serum retention of the VHH. However, at 48 h after systemic injection of the non-fused VHH-DTPA-(111)In and the VHH-Fc-DTPA-(111)In fusion protein in transgenic mice, the specific brain uptake of VHH-Fc-DTPA-(111)In was not improved compared to non-fused VHH-DTPA-(111)In.

CONCLUSION

Using VHH-Fc conjugates increases the blood half-life of the protein. However, purely extending the time window for brain uptake does not increase BBB passage. Nevertheless, VHH-Fc holds promise for therapeutic applications where a sustained systemic circulation of VHH is advantageous.

Expression of bioactive anti-CD20 antibody fragments and induction of ER stress response in Arabidopsis seeds

Seed-based expression system is an attractive platform for the production of recombinant proteins in molecular farming. Despite the many advantages of molecular farming, little is known about the effect of the different subcellular accumulation of recombinant proteins on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control system in host plants. In this study, we analyzed the expression of anti-CD20 antibody fragments in seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana (ecotype Columbia) and corresponding glycosylation mutants, and evaluated the influence of three different signal sequences on the expression levels of scFv-Fc of C2B8. The highest protein accumulation level, with a maximum of 6.12 % total soluble proteins, was observed upon fusing proteins to the signal peptide of Arabidopsis seed storage albumin 2. The ER stress responses in developing seeds at 13 days post-anthesis were also compared across different transgenic lines under normal and heat shock conditions. Based on the gene expression profiles of ER stress transducers, our results suggest that accumulation of antibody fragments in the ER exerts more stress on ER homeostasis. In addition, quantitative PCR results also implicate enhanced activation of ER-associated degradation in transgenic lines. Last but not the least, we also demonstrate the anti-tumor potency of plant-derived proteins by showing the anti-tumor activity of purified scFv-Fc proteins against Daudi cells. Together, our data implies that better understanding of the interaction between exogenous protein production and the cellular quality control system of the host plant is necessary for the development of an optimal expression strategy that will be especially beneficial to commercial protein manufacturing.

Camelid nanobodies with high affinity for broad bean mottle virus: a possible promising tool to immunomodulate plant resistance against viruses

Worldwide, plant viral infections decrease seriously the crop production yield, boosting the demand to develop new strategies to control viral diseases. One of these strategies to prevent viral infections, based on the immunomodulation faces many problems related to the ectopic expression of specific antibodies in planta. Camelid nanobodies, expressed in plants, may offer a solution as they are an attractive tool to bind efficiently to viral epitopes, cryptic or not accessible to conventional antibodies. Here, we report a novel, generic approach that might lead to virus resistance based on the expression of camelid specific nanobodies against Broad bean mottle virus (BBMV). Eight nanobodies, recognizing BBMV with high specificity and affinity, were retrieved after phage display from a large 'immune' library constructed from an immunized Arabic camel. By an in vitro assay we demonstrate how three nanobodies attenuate the BBMV spreading in inoculated Vicia faba plants. Furthermore, the in planta transient expression of these three selected nanobodies confirms their virus neutralizing capacity. In conclusion, this report supports that plant resistance against viral infections can be achieved by the in vivo expression of camelid nanobodies.

Single-domain antibodies targeting neuraminidase protect against an H5N1 influenza virus challenge

Influenza virus neuraminidase (NA) is an interesting target of small-molecule antiviral drugs. We isolated a set of H5N1 NA-specific single-domain antibodies (N1-VHHm) and evaluated their in vitro and in vivo antiviral potential. Two of them inhibited the NA activity and in vitro replication of clade 1 and 2 H5N1 viruses. We then generated bivalent derivatives of N1-VHHm by two methods. First, we made N1-VHHb by genetically joining two N1-VHHm moieties with a flexible linker. Second, bivalent N1-VHH-Fc proteins were obtained by genetic fusion of the N1-VHHm moiety with the crystallizable region of mouse IgG2a (Fc). The in vitro antiviral potency against H5N1 of both bivalent N1-VHHb formats was 30- to 240-fold higher than that of their monovalent counterparts, with 50% inhibitory concentrations in the low nanomolar range. Moreover, single-dose prophylactic treatment with bivalent N1-VHHb or N1-VHH-Fc protected BALB/c mice against a lethal challenge with H5N1 virus, including an oseltamivir-resistant H5N1 variant. Surprisingly, an N1-VHH-Fc fusion without in vitro NA-inhibitory or antiviral activity also protected mice against an H5N1 challenge. Virus escape selection experiments indicated that one amino acid residue close to the catalytic site is required for N1-VHHm binding. We conclude that single-domain antibodies directed against influenza virus NA protect against H5N1 virus infection, and when engineered with a conventional Fc domain, they can do so in the absence of detectable NA-inhibitory activity.

IMPORTANCE

Highly pathogenic H5N1 viruses are a zoonotic threat. Outbreaks of avian influenza caused by these viruses occur in many parts of the world and are associated with tremendous economic loss, and these viruses can cause very severe disease in humans. In such cases, small-molecule inhibitors of the viral NA are among the few treatment options for patients. However, treatment with such drugs often results in the emergence of resistant viruses. Here we show that single-domain antibody fragments that are specific for NA can bind and inhibit H5N1 viruses in vitro and can protect laboratory mice against a challenge with an H5N1 virus, including an oseltamivir-resistant virus. In addition, plant-produced VHH fused to a conventional Fc domain can protect in vivo even in the absence of NA-inhibitory activity. Thus, NA of influenza virus can be effectively targeted by single-domain antibody fragments, which are amenable to further engineering.

Nanobody-based products as research and diagnostic tools

Since the serendipitous discovery 20 years ago of bona fide camelid heavy-chain antibodies, their single-domain antigen-binding fragments, known as VHHs or nanobodies, have received a progressively growing interest. As a result of the beneficial properties of these stable recombinant entities, they are currently highly valued proteins for multiple applications, including fundamental research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. Today, with the original patents expiring, even more academic and industrial groups are expected to explore innovative VHH applications. Here, we provide a thorough overview of novel implementations of VHHs as research and diagnostic tools, and of the recently evaluated production platforms for several VHHs and VHH-derived antibody formats.

Boosting in planta production of antigens derived from the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and subsequent evaluation of their immunogenicity

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is a disease of swine, caused by an arterivirus, the PRRS virus (PRRSV). This virus infects pigs worldwide and causes huge economic losses. Due to genetic drift, current vaccines are losing their power. Adaptable vaccines could provide a solution to this problem. This study aims at producing in planta a set of antigens derived from the PRRSV glycoproteins (GPs) to be included in a subunit vaccine. We selected the GP3, GP4 and GP5 and optimized these for production in an Arabidopsis seed platform by removing transmembrane domains (Tm) and/or adding stabilizing protein domains, such as the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and immunoglobulin (IgG) ‘Fragment crystallizable’ (Fc) chains. Accumulation of the GPs with and without Tm was low, reaching no more than 0.10% of total soluble protein (TSP) in homozygous seed. However, addition of stabilizing domains boosted accumulation up to a maximum of 2.74% of TSP when GFP was used, and albeit less effectively, also the Fc chains of the porcine IgG3 and murine IgG2a increased antigen accumulation, to 0.96% and 1.81% of TSP respectively, while the murine IgG3 Fc chain did not. Antigens with Tm were less susceptible to these manipulations to increase yield. All antigens were produced in the endoplasmic reticulum and accordingly, they carried high-mannose N-glycans. The immunogenicity of several of those antigens was assessed and we show that vaccination with purified antigens did elicit the production of antibodies with virus neutralizing activity in mice but not in pigs.

Trafficking of endoplasmic reticulum-retained recombinant proteins is unpredictable in Arabidopsis thaliana

A wide variety of recombinant proteins has been produced in the dicot model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana. Many of these proteins are targeted for secretion by means of an N-terminal endoplasmic reticulum (ER) signal peptide. In addition, they can also be designed for ER retention by adding a C-terminal H/KDEL-tag. Despite extensive knowledge of the protein trafficking pathways, the final protein destination, especially of such H/KDEL-tagged recombinant proteins, is unpredictable. In this respect, glycoproteins are ideal study objects. Microscopy experiments reveal their deposition pattern and characterization of their N-glycans aids in elucidating the trafficking. Here, we combine microscopy and N-glycosylation data generated in Arabidopsis leaves and seeds, and highlight the lack of a decent understanding of heterologous protein trafficking.