A comparative review of intelectins

Innovative insights: ITLN1 modulates renal injury in response to radiation

Radiation-induced kidney injury is a common side effect of radiotherapy, as the pelvic region is in close proximity to the kidneys, posing a risk of inducing radiation-induced kidney injury when treating any pelvic malignancies with radiotherapy. This type of injury typically manifests as chronic kidney disease a few months after radiotherapy, with the potential to progress to end-stage renal disease. Radiation-induced damage involves various components of the kidney, including glomeruli, tubules, interstitium, and extracellular matrix. Therefore, investigating its molecular mechanisms is crucial. In this study, we extensively searched literature databases, selecting recent transcriptomic studies related to acute kidney injury (AKI) published in the past decade. We downloaded the raw RNA sequencing datasets GSE30718 and GSE66494 related to AKI from the GEO database and identified that intestinal-type lectin ITLN1 plays a significant role in regulating radiation-induced kidney injury in rats. Differential gene analysis was performed using chip data from the GEO database, and further bioinformatics analysis identified 13 genes that may be involved in regulating kidney injury, with ITLN1 being the most relevant to kidney damage, thus selected as the target gene for this study. Subsequently, a rat model of radiation-induced kidney injury was established for experimental validation, assessing kidney tissue morphology and injury extent through staining observation and immunohistochemical staining. The protective effect of ITLN1 on kidney function was evaluated by measuring changes in rat body weight and blood pressure, serum kidney injury markers, and kidney structure. The experimental results indicate that overexpression of ITLN1 can improve kidney function in rats with radiation-induced kidney injury by activating the Akt/GSK-3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway, suppressing oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, inflammation, cellular senescence, and fibrosis. This study highlights the significant role of ITLN1 in regulating kidney injury, providing a novel target for future treatments of radiation-induced kidney injury.

Potential Involvement of the South American Lungfish Intelectin-2 in Innate-Associated Immune Modulation

Intelectins belong to a family of lectins with specific and transitory carbohydrate interaction capabilities. These interactions are related to the activity of agglutinating pathogens, as intelectins play a significant role in immunity. Despite the prominent immune defense function of intelectins, limited information about its structural characteristics and carbohydrate interaction properties is available. This study investigated an intelectin transcript identified in RNA-seq data obtained from the South American lungfish (Lepidosiren paradoxa), namely LpITLN2-B. The structural analyses predicted LpITLN2-B to be a homo-trimeric globular protein with the fibrinogen-like functional domain (FReD), exhibiting a molecular mass of 57 kDa. The quaternary structure is subdivided into three monomers, A, B, and C, and each domain comprises 11 β-sheets: an anti-parallel β-sheet, a β-hairpin, and a disordered β-sheet structure. Molecular docking demonstrates a significant interaction with disaccharides rather than monosaccharides. The preferential interaction with disaccharides highlights the potential interaction with pathogen molecules, such as LPS and Poly(I:C). The hemagglutination assay inhibited lectins activity, especially maltose and sucrose, highlighting lectin activity in L. paradoxa samples. Overall, our results show the potential relevance of LpITLN2-B in L. paradoxa immune defense against pathogens.

Spatially resolved single-cell atlas of ascidian endostyle provides insight into the origin of vertebrate pharyngeal organs

The pharyngeal endoderm, an innovation of deuterostome ancestors, contributes to pharyngeal development by influencing the patterning and differentiation of pharyngeal structures in vertebrates; however, the evolutionary origin of the pharyngeal organs in vertebrates is largely unknown. The endostyle, a distinct pharyngeal organ exclusively present in basal chordates, represents a good model for understanding pharyngeal organ origins. Using Stereo-seq and single-cell RNA sequencing, we constructed aspatially resolved single-cell atlas for the endostyle of the ascidian Styela clava. We determined the cell composition of the hemolymphoid region, which illuminates a mixed ancestral structure for the blood and lymphoid system. In addition, we discovered a cluster of hair cell-like cells in zone 3, which has transcriptomic similarity with the hair cells of the vertebrate acoustico-lateralis system. These findings reshape our understanding of the pharynx of the basal chordate and provide insights into the evolutionary origin of multiplexed pharyngeal organs.

Innate immune and chronic heat stress responses in sturgeons: Advances and insights from studies on Russian sturgeons

Chronic stress deteriorates the immune function of fish, thereby increasing their vulnerability to infections. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying stress-mediated immunosuppression and infection susceptibility in fish remain largely unknown. Understanding these mechanisms will contribute to improving fish welfare and their farm production. Herein, we review the challenges of sturgeon aquaculture in subtropical countries, where current climate change has giving rise to significant temperature increments during summer. This leads to the exposure of fish to stressful conditions during these months. Chronic heat stress deserves attention considering the rapid warming rate of the planet. It is already affecting wild fish populations, with disastrous consequences for sturgeons, which are one of the most endangered fish species in the world. In this context, we discuss the most recent advances through the studies on the effects of chronic heat stress on the innate immune components of sturgeons. To this end, we summarise the findings of studies focusing on the aquaculture of Russian sturgeons and observations made on other Acipenser species. Special attention is given to acute-phase proteins, as they might be valuable biomarkers of heat stress and infection, with applicability in monitoring the fish health status in farms.

Common carp intelectin 3 (cITLN3) plays a role in the innate immune response

Intelectin is a lectin with the capacity to recognize and bind to carbohydrates. In this study, we successfully cloned cITLN3 from common carp, which consists of a signal peptide domain, a FReD domain, and an intelectin domain. The expression levels of cITLN3 were detected in various organs of common carp, including the liver, head kidney, spleen, foregut, midgut, and hindgut, with the highest expression observed in the liver. Following infection with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) or Aeromonas hydrophila (A. hydrophila), the expression level of cITLN3 was significantly upregulated in all organs of common carp. Subsequently, we expressed and purified the recombinant cITLN3 protein using an E. coli expression system. The cITLN3 could aggregate both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria in the presence of Ca2+, with a stronger affinity for gram-positive bacteria. Moreover, our study demonstrated that cITLN3 displayed a higher binding affinity towards PGN compared to LPS. Furthermore, we observed that cITLN3 had the potential to inhibit bacterial proliferation in common carp and safeguard intestinal integrity during bacterial stimulation. And the results also indicated that cITLN3 might played a role in the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) signaling pathway activation.

Proteomic analysis of liver tissue reveals Aeromonas hydrophila infection mediated modulation of host metabolic pathways in Labeo rohita

Aeromonas hydrophila (Ah) is a Gram-negative bacterium and a serious global pathogen causing Motile Aeromonas Septicaemia (MAS) in fish leading to global loss in aquaculture. Investigation of the molecular alterations of host tissues such as liver could be a powerful approach to identify mechanistic and diagnostic immune signatures of disease pathogenesis. We performed a proteomic analysis of Labeo rohita liver tissue to examine the protein dynamics in the host cells during Ah infection. The proteomic data was acquired using two strategies; discovery and targeted proteomics. Label-free quantification was performed between Control and challenged group (AH) to identify the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). A total of 2525 proteins were identified and 157 were DEPs. DEPs include metabolic enzymes (CS, SUCLG2), antioxidative proteins, cytoskeletal proteins and immune related proteins (TLR3, CLEC4E). Pathways like lysosome pathway, apoptosis, metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450 were enriched by downregulated proteins. However, upregulated proteins majorly mapped to innate immune system, signaling of B cell receptor, proteosome pathway, ribosome, carbon metabolism and protein processing in ER. Our study would help in exploring the role of Toll-like receptors, C-type lectins and, metabolic intermediates like citrate and succinate in Ah pathogenesis to understand the Ah infection in fish. SIGNIFICANCE: Bacterial diseases such as motile aeromonas septicaemia (MAS) are among the most serious problems in aquaculture industry. Small molecules that target the metabolism of the host have recently emerged as potential treatment possibilities in infectious diseases. However, the ability to develop new therapies is hampered due to lack of knowledge about pathogenesis mechanisms and host-pathogen interactions. We examined alterations in the host proteome during MAS caused by Aeromonas hydrophila (Ah) infection, in Labeo rohita liver tissue to find cellular proteins and processes affected by Ah infection. Upregulated proteins belong to innate immune system, signaling of B cell receptor, proteosome pathway, ribosome, carbon metabolism and protein processing. Our work is an important step towards leveraging host metabolism in targeting the disease by providing a bigger picture on proteome pathology correlation during Ah infection.

Transcriptional Analysis of the Endostyle Reveals Pharyngeal Organ Functions in Ascidian

The endostyle is a pharyngeal organ with an opening groove and cilia in invertebrate chordates (amphioxus and ascidian) and cyclostomate (lamprey), serving as a filter-feeding tract and thyroid-secreting location. Emerging evidence implies its complex cellular composition and potentially versatile functions. Multiple cell types in the endostyle have been thought to be progenitors of complex organs in advanced vertebrates. To describe the expression profile and the potential functions, bulk RNA sequencing on the endostyle in ascidian Styela clava was conducted and distinct markers were selected by multileveled comparative analysis. Transcriptional data assay and qRT-PCR-verified results showed the regional expression patterns of Hox genes in the longitudinal axis. Organ-specific markers of the endostyle was proposed by comparing expression with the main organs of the ascidian. A cross-species transcriptional profile projection between the endostyle and organs from Danio rerio and Homo sapiens indicates a robust homogenous relationship to the thyroid and digestive system of the endostyle. The high similarity between the endostyle and the head kidney in zebrafish/the bone marrow in human implies uniquely profound functions of the pharyngeal organ in proto-vertebrates. Our result revealed that the transcriptional profile of the human parathyroid gland was similar to the ascidian endostyle, indicating the evolutionary origin of vertebrate hormone secretion organs.

Intelectin-1 binds and alters the localization of the mucus barrier-modifying bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila

Intelectin-1 (ITLN1) is a lectin secreted by intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) and upregulated in human ulcerative colitis (UC). We investigated how ITLN1 production is regulated in IECs and the biological effects of ITLN1 at the host-microbiota interface using mouse models. Our data show that ITLN1 upregulation in IECs from UC patients is a consequence of activating the unfolded protein response. Analysis of microbes coated by ITLN1 in vivo revealed a restricted subset of microorganisms, including the mucolytic bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila. Mice overexpressing intestinal ITLN1 exhibited decreased inner colonic mucus layer thickness and closer apposition of A. muciniphila to the epithelial cell surface, similar to alterations reported in UC. The changes in the inner mucus layer were microbiota and A. muciniphila dependent and associated with enhanced sensitivity to chemically induced and T cell-mediated colitis. We conclude that by determining the localization of a select group of bacteria to the mucus layer, ITLN1 modifies this critical barrier. Together, these findings may explain the impact of ITLN1 dysregulation on UC pathogenesis.

Glycan microarrays from construction to applications

Through their specific interactions with proteins, cellular glycans play key roles in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes. One of the main goals of research in the areas of glycobiology and glycomedicine is to understand glycan-protein interactions at the molecular level. Over the past two decades, glycan microarrays have become powerful tools for the rapid evaluation of interactions between glycans and proteins. In this review, we briefly describe methods used for the preparation of glycan probes and the construction of glycan microarrays. Next, we highlight applications of glycan microarrays to rapid profiling of glycan-binding patterns of plant, animal and pathogenic lectins, as well as other proteins. Finally, we discuss other important uses of glycan microarrays, including the rapid analysis of substrate specificities of carbohydrate-active enzymes, the quantitative determination of glycan-protein interactions, discovering high-affinity or selective ligands for lectins, and identifying functional glycans within cells. We anticipate that this review will encourage researchers to employ glycan microarrays in diverse glycan-related studies.

Characterization of an intelectin-1 (Itln1) knockout mouse model

Intelectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins implicated in innate immunity and highly conserved across chordate evolution, including both ascidians and humans. Human intelectin-1 (ITLN1) is highly abundant within the intestinal mucosa and binds microbial but not host glycans. Genome-wide association studies identified SNPs in ITLN1 that are linked to susceptibility for Crohn's disease. Moreover, ITLN1 has been implicated in the pathophysiology of obesity and associated metabolic disease. To gain insight on biological activities of human ITLN1 in vivo, we developed a C57BL/6 mouse model genetically targeting the gene encoding the functional mouse ortholog. In wild-type C57BL/6 mice, both mRNA and protein analysis showed high expression of Itln1 in the small intestine, but manifold lower levels in colon and other extraintestinal tissues. Whereas intestinal expression of human ITLN1 localizes to goblet cells, our data confirm that mouse Itln1 is expressed in Paneth cells. Compared to wild-type littermate controls, mice homozygous for the Itln1 hypomorphic trapping allele had reduced expression levels of Itln1 expression (~10,000-fold). The knockout mice exhibited increased susceptibility in an acute model of experimentally induced colitis with 2% w/v dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). In a model of chronic colitis using a lower dose of DSS (1.5% w/v), which enabled a detailed view of disease activity across a protracted period, no differences were observed in body weight, fecal texture, hemoccult scores, food/water intake, or colon length at necropsy, but there was a statistically significant genotype over time effect for the combined fecal scores of disease activity. In model of diet-induced obesity, using two western-style diets, which varied in amounts of sugar (as sucrose) and saturated fat (as lard), mice with Itln1 expression ablated showed no increased susceptibility, in terms of weight gain, food intake, plasma markers of obesity compared to wildtype littermates. While the mouse genetic knockout model for Itln1 holds promise for elucidating physiological function(s) for mammalian intelectins, results reported here suggest that Itln1, a Paneth cell product in C57BL/6 mice, likely plays a minor role in the pathophysiology of chemically induced colitis or diet-induced obesity.

Modeling of pneumococcal serogroup 10 capsular polysaccharide molecular conformations provides insight into epitopes and observed cross-reactivity

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an encapsulated gram-negative bacterium and a significant human pathogen. The capsular polysaccharide (CPS) is essential for virulence and a target antigen for vaccines. Although widespread introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) has significantly reduced disease, the prevalence of non-vaccine serotypes has increased. On the basis of the CPS, S. pneumoniae serogroup 10 comprises four main serotypes 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10F; as well as the recently identified 10D. As it is the most prevalent, serotype 10A CPS has been included as a vaccine antigen in the next generation PCVs. Here we use molecular modeling to provide conformational rationales for the complex cross-reactivity reported between serotypes 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10F anti-sera. Although the highly mobile phosphodiester linkages produce very flexible CPS, shorter segments are conformationally defined, with exposed β-D-galactofuranose (β DGalf) side chains that are potential antibody binding sites. We identify four distinct conformational epitopes for the immunodominant β DGalf that assist in rationalizing the complex asymmetric cross-reactivity relationships. In particular, we find that strongly cross-reactive serotypes share common epitopes. Further, we show that human intelectin-1 has the potential to bind the exposed exocyclic 1,2-diol of the terminal β DGalf in each serotype; the relative accessibility of three- or six-linked β DGalf may play a role in the strength of the innate immune response and hence serotype disease prevalence. In conclusion, our modeling study and relevant serological studies support the inclusion of serotype 10A in a vaccine to best protect against serogroup 10 disease.

Circulating Omentin-1 levels and altered iron balance in chronic haemodialysis patients

Background

Iron deficiency is highly prevalent among patients undergoing chronic haemodialysis (HD) but its correct identification is often problematic as common biomarkers of iron status, such as transferrin saturation (TSAT) and ferritin, can be altered by inflammation or malnutrition.

Methods

In this pilot multicentre study, we aimed at evaluating circulating levels of Omentin-1, a novel fat depot-specific adipokine that is also involved in iron regulation, in a cohort of 85 chronic HD patients with relation to their iron status.

Results

Omentin-1 levels in HD were statistically higher than in healthy controls (P = 0.03) and there was a significant, growing trend in all iron parameters across Omentin-1 tertiles (P < 0.001). Compared with patients with optimal iron status, Omentin-1 levels were lower in subjects categorized according to TSAT ≤20% or serum ferritin ≤200 μg/L (both P < 0.001) and even more reduced in 19 patients (22%) simultaneously displaying low levels of both markers (P < 0.001). In this latter group, Omentin-1 levels increased in parallel to all other iron markers after iron correction by i.v. supplementation. At multivariate regression analyses, ferritin (β = 0.71; P < 0.001) and TSAT (β = 0.32; P = 0.03) remained the sole independent predictors of Omentin-1 levels. This biomarker also showed a remarkable diagnostic capacity at receiver operating characteristic analyses in identifying iron-depleted HD patients according to a criterion of TSAT ≤20% [area under the curve (AUC) 0.827], ferritin ≤200 μg/L (AUC 0.863) or low levels of both parameters (AUC 0.907).

Conclusions

Findings obtained indicate that Omentin-1 is somewhat involved in iron balance regulation and might be a candidate biomarker for diagnosing and managing altered iron conditions in HD patients.

Human intelectin-2 (ITLN2) is selectively expressed by secretory Paneth cells

Intelectins (intestinal lectins) are highly conserved across chordate evolution and have been implicated in various human diseases, including Crohn's disease (CD). The human genome encodes two intelectin genes, intelectin-1 (ITLN1) and intelectin-2 (ITLN2). Other than its high sequence similarity with ITLN1, little is known about ITLN2. To address this void in knowledge, we report that ITLN2 exhibits discrete, yet notable differences from ITLN1 in primary structure, including a unique amino terminus, as well as changes in amino acid residues associated with the glycan-binding activity of ITLN1. We identified that ITLN2 is a highly abundant Paneth cell-specific product, which localizes to secretory granules, and is expressed as a multimeric protein in the small intestine. In surgical specimens of ileal CD, ITLN2 mRNA levels were reduced approximately five-fold compared to control specimens. The ileal expression of ITLN2 was unaffected by previously reported disease-associated variants in ITLN2 and CD-associated variants in neighboring ITLN1 as well as NOD2 and ATG16L1. ITLN2 mRNA expression was undetectable in control colon tissue; however, in both ulcerative colitis (UC) and colonic CD, metaplastic Paneth cells were found to express ITLN2. Together, the data reported establish the groundwork for understanding ITLN2 function(s) in the intestine, including its possible role in CD.

Transcriptomic analysis of the seminal vesicle response to the reproductive toxicant acrylamide

BACKGROUND

The seminal vesicles synthesise bioactive factors that support gamete function, modulate the female reproductive tract to promote implantation, and influence developmental programming of offspring phenotype. Despite the significance of the seminal vesicles in reproduction, their biology remains poorly defined. Here, to advance understanding of seminal vesicle biology, we analyse the mouse seminal vesicle transcriptome under normal physiological conditions and in response to acute exposure to the reproductive toxicant acrylamide. Mice were administered acrylamide (25 mg/kg bw/day) or vehicle control daily for five consecutive days prior to collecting seminal vesicle tissue 72 h following the final injection.

RESULTS

A total of 15,304 genes were identified in the seminal vesicles with those encoding secreted proteins amongst the most abundant. In addition to reproductive hormone pathways, functional annotation of the seminal vesicle transcriptome identified cell proliferation, protein synthesis, and cellular death and survival pathways as prominent biological processes. Administration of acrylamide elicited 70 differentially regulated (fold-change ≥1.5 or ≤ 0.67) genes, several of which were orthogonally validated using quantitative PCR. Pathways that initiate gene and protein synthesis to promote cellular survival were prominent amongst the dysregulated pathways. Inflammation was also a key transcriptomic response to acrylamide, with the cytokine, Colony stimulating factor 2 (Csf2) identified as a top-ranked upstream driver and inflammatory mediator associated with recovery of homeostasis. Early growth response (Egr1), C-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (Ccl8), and Collagen, type V, alpha 1 (Col5a1) were also identified amongst the dysregulated genes. Additionally, acrylamide treatment led to subtle changes in the expression of genes that encode proteins secreted by the seminal vesicle, including the complement regulator, Complement factor b (Cfb).

CONCLUSIONS

These data add to emerging evidence demonstrating that the seminal vesicles, like other male reproductive tract tissues, are sensitive to environmental insults, and respond in a manner with potential to exert impact on fetal development and later offspring health.

Extensive variation in the intelectin gene family in laboratory and wild mouse strains

Intelectins are a family of multimeric secreted proteins that bind microbe-specific glycans. Both genetic and functional studies have suggested that intelectins have an important role in innate immunity and are involved in the etiology of various human diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease. Experiments investigating the role of intelectins in human disease using mouse models are limited by the fact that there is not a clear one-to-one relationship between intelectin genes in humans and mice, and that the number of intelectin genes varies between different mouse strains. In this study we show by gene sequence and gene expression analysis that human intelectin-1 (ITLN1) has multiple orthologues in mice, including a functional homologue Itln1; however, human intelectin-2 has no such orthologue or homologue. We confirm that all sub-strains of the C57 mouse strain have a large deletion resulting in retention of only one intelectin gene, Itln1. The majority of laboratory strains have a full complement of six intelectin genes, except CAST, SPRET, SKIVE, MOLF and PANCEVO strains, which are derived from different mouse species/subspecies and encode different complements of intelectin genes. In wild mice, intelectin deletions are polymorphic in Mus musculus castaneus and Mus musculus domesticus. Further sequence analysis shows that Itln3 and Itln5 are polymorphic pseudogenes due to premature truncating mutations, and that mouse Itln1 has undergone recent adaptive evolution. Taken together, our study shows extensive diversity in intelectin genes in both laboratory and wild-mice, suggesting a pattern of birth-and-death evolution. In addition, our data provide a foundation for further experimental investigation of the role of intelectins in disease.

Dismantling the bacterial glycocalyx: Chemical tools to probe, perturb, and image bacterial glycans

The bacterial glycocalyx is a quintessential drug target comprised of structurally distinct glycans. Bacterial glycans bear unusual monosaccharide building blocks whose proper construction is critical for bacterial fitness, survival, and colonization in the human host. Despite their appeal as therapeutic targets, bacterial glycans are difficult to study due to the presence of rare bacterial monosaccharides that are linked and modified in atypical manners. Their structural complexity ultimately hampers their analytical characterization. This review highlights recent advances in bacterial chemical glycobiology and focuses on the development of chemical tools to probe, perturb, and image bacterial glycans and their biosynthesis. Current technologies have enabled the study of bacterial glycosylation machinery even in the absence of detailed structural information.

Human Lectins, Their Carbohydrate Affinities and Where to Find Them

Lectins are a class of proteins responsible for several biological roles such as cell-cell interactions, signaling pathways, and several innate immune responses against pathogens. Since lectins are able to bind to carbohydrates, they can be a viable target for targeted drug delivery systems. In fact, several lectins were approved by Food and Drug Administration for that purpose. Information about specific carbohydrate recognition by lectin receptors was gathered herein, plus the specific organs where those lectins can be found within the human body.

Serum amyloid A is a positive acute phase protein in Russian sturgeon challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila

The immune system of sturgeons, one of the most ancient and economically valuable fish worldwide, is poorly understood. The lack of molecular tools and data about infection biomarkers hinders the possibility to monitor sturgeon health during farming and detect infection outbreaks. To tackle this issue, we mined publicly available transcriptomic datasets and identified putative positive acute-phase proteins (APPs) of Russian sturgeons that could be induced by a bacterial infection and monitored using non-invasive methods. Teleost literature compelled us to focus on five promising candidates: hepcidin, a warm acclimation associated hemopexin, intelectin, serum amyloid A protein (SAA) and serotransferrin. Among them, SAA was the most upregulated protein at the mRNA level in the liver of sturgeons challenged with heat-inactivated or live Aeromonas hydrophila. To assess whether this upregulation yielded increasing SAA levels in circulation, we developed an in-house ELISA to quantify SAA levels in sturgeon serum. Circulating SAA rose upon bacterial challenge and positively correlated with hepatic saa expression. This is the first time serum SAA has been quantified in an Actinopterygii fish. Since APPs vary across different fish species, our work sheds light on sturgeon acute-phase response, revealing that SAA is a positive APP with potential value as infection biomarker.

130 years of Plant Lectin Research

Lectins are proteins with diverse molecular structures that share the ability to recognize and bind specifically and reversibly to carbohydrate structures without changing the carbohydrate moiety. The history of lectins started with the discovery of ricin about 130 years ago but since then our understanding of lectins has dramatically changed. Over the years the research focus was shifted from 'the characterization of carbohydrate-binding proteins' to 'understanding the biological function of lectins'. Nowadays plant lectins attract a lot of attention especially because of their potential for crop improvement and biomedical research, as well as their application as tools in glycobiology. The present review aims to give an overview of plant lectins and their applications, and how the field evolved in the last decades.