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Lenthall D, Brazil A, Castaño-Zambudio A, Lightfoot H, Mendiguchia J, Jiménez-Reyes P, Colyer SL. Lower-limb coordination changes following a 6-week training intervention that elicited enhancements to maximum velocity sprint performance. Biol Open 2024; 13:bio060589. [PMID: 39105447 PMCID: PMC11381917 DOI: 10.1242/bio.060589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Alterations to intra- and inter-limb coordination with improved maximal velocity performance remain largely unexplored. This study quantified within-day variability in lower-limb segmental coordination profiles during maximal velocity sprinting and investigated the modifications to coordination strategies in 15 recreationally active males following a 6-week period comprised of a multimodal training programme [intervention group (INT); n=7] or continued participation in sports (control group; n=8). The INT demonstrated a large decrease (effect size=-1.54) in within-day coordination profile variability, suggesting potential skill development. Thigh-thigh coordination modifications for the INT were characterised by an earlier onset of trail thigh reversal in early swing (26 versus 28% stride) and lead thigh reversal in late swing (76 versus 79% stride), rather than increases in overall time spent in anti-phase. Moreover, an increase in backward rotation of thigh relative to shank (effect size, 95% CIs: 0.75, 0.17 to 1.33) and shank relative to foot (0.76, -0.17 to 1.68) during late swing likely facilitated more aggressive acceleration of the limb, contributing to reduced touchdown distance and more favourable lower-limb configuration at initial ground contact. These novel findings provide empirical support for the role of longitudinal coordination modifications in improving maximal velocity performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lenthall
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Adam Brazil
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Harry Lightfoot
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Jurdan Mendiguchia
- Department of Physical Therapy, ZENTRUM Rehab and Performance Center, Barañain, 31010Spain
| | | | - Steffi L Colyer
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
- Centre for the Analysis of Motion, Entertainment Research and Applications, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
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2
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Stutter LR, Huynh M, Driller MW, Davids CJ, James LP. Pairwise Comparison of Heavy Dynamic Strength and Fast Dynamic Strength Interventions on Sprint Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1675-1686. [PMID: 38958937 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Pairwise comparison of heavy dynamic strength and fast dynamic strength interventions on sprint performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 38(9): 1675-1686, 2024-Previous studies have shown that both heavy dynamic strength (HDS) and fast dynamic strength (FDS) training can be used to improve sprint performance; however, a review and meta-analysis investigating pairwise studies that compare these two training interventions have not been performed. The aims of the study were to systematically review and analyze HDS and FDS training methodologies and evaluate their effect size difference, in pairwise comparison studies to determine and compare their effects on sprint performance. Databases were systematically searched using Boolean phrasing to identify eligible articles, and meta-analyses were performed on the extracted data. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria, which resulted in data from 138 subjects across 24 separate sprint assessments. Overall, there was a small effect in favor of FDS (standardized mean difference = 0.27, 95% confidence intervals [-0.07; 0.60], 95% prediction intervals [-1.01; 1.55]), but this was deemed not significant because of the wide-ranging prediction intervals. There is no distinguishable difference between HDS and FDS training on sprint performance. The wide-ranging prediction intervals suggest the variability is too great to determine whether one training type is more effective than the other. Practitioners should consider the individual needs of their athletes when deciding which training type to use for long-term sprint development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke R Stutter
- Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services, & Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
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3
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Bernuz B, Laujac S, Sirial C, Auffret S, Preda C, Slawinski J, Millot B, Pradon D, Coudrat L, Gavarry O. Effect of Advanced Footwear Technology Spikes on Sprint Acceleration: A Multiple N-of-1 Trial. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:92. [PMID: 39214886 PMCID: PMC11364731 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00758-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In contrast with Advanced Footwear Technology-AFT running shoes for long-distance, little is known about AFT sprint spikes on performance and acceleration parameters. However, their use has become widespread since the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, and knowledge of their effects would seem to be an essential starting point before any clinical or socio-economic considerations. OBJECTIVES Our objectives were to determine intra- and inter-subject sprinting performance modifications with Nike® AFT spikes (NAS) compared to standard spiked-shoes (SS). METHODS Healthy regional to national sprint athletes (n = 21, ≥ 750 pts World Athletics) performed 16 repetitions of 30-m sprints with either the NAS or SS condition during a single session, based on the multiple N-of-1 method, with pairwise randomisation and double-blind procedure. Time on 30-m sprints (Stalker radar), force-velocity profile (F0, V0, Vmax, Pmax, RF, DRF and FVP slope), and confounding factors (wind and shoe mass) were measured. Statistical analyses included a mixed linear regression model for group analyses, and randomisation test inversion and non-overlap-of-all-pair (NAP) methods for intra-individual analysis. RESULTS NAS improved 30-m time by a mean of - 0.02 s (SMD = 0.4, p = 0.014), with no interaction with any confounding factors. Significant changes were seen in velocity (Vmax : SMD = 0.9, p < 0.001; V0: SMD = 0.7, p < 0.001) and the horizontal ratio of force (RFmax: SMD = 0.5, p = 0.043), with no changes observed in force production. Whatever the footwear, one unit of positive wind (+ 1 m.s- 1 ) improved performance by - 0.03 s (p < 0.001). At an individual level, four athletes improved (NAP ≥ 0.69), and one had a statistical decrease in performance. Changes in F-V profiles were largely individual. CONCLUSIONS A positive effect on sprint acceleration characteristics was observed when using Nike® AFT spikes, due to an increase in velocity and the horizontal ratio of force. A major variability in inter-individual response justifies single-case experimental designs for research on the topic. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT05881148.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Bernuz
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Departement, Neuro-Locomotor Day Hospital Unit, Leon Berard Hospital, Hyères, France.
| | - Steven Laujac
- DRCI, Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal Toulon-La Seyne sur Mer, Hôpital Sainte Musse, Toulon, France
| | - Cedric Sirial
- Les Fleurs Physiotherapy Center and Performance Division, Ollioules, France
- Athletic Beaussetan Club, French Athletics Federation (FFA), Comité du Var d'athlétisme, Toulon, France
| | - Stephane Auffret
- Athletic Beaussetan Club, French Athletics Federation (FFA), Comité du Var d'athlétisme, Toulon, France
| | - Cristian Preda
- Biostatistics Department, Delegation for Clinical Research and Innovation, Lille Catholic Hospitals, GHICL, Lomme, France
| | - Jean Slawinski
- Laboratory Sport-Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Research Department, French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Millot
- Laboratory Sport-Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Research Department, French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
- French Athletics Federation (FFA), Paris, France
| | - Didier Pradon
- Pole Parasport - ISPC Synergies, UMR 1179 End:icap, INSERM Université Versailles-St-Quentin, CHU Raymond Poincaré, APHP, Garches, France
| | - Laure Coudrat
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Departement, Neuro-Locomotor Day Hospital Unit, Leon Berard Hospital, Hyères, France
- Laboratory « Impact of Physical Activity on Health » (201723207F), University of Toulon, La Garde, France
| | - Olivier Gavarry
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Departement, Neuro-Locomotor Day Hospital Unit, Leon Berard Hospital, Hyères, France
- Laboratory « Impact of Physical Activity on Health » (201723207F), University of Toulon, La Garde, France
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4
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Kurtoğlu A, Eken Ö, Çiftçi R, Çar B, Dönmez E, Kılıçarslan S, Jamjoom MM, Samee NA, Hassan DSM, Mahmoud NF. The role of morphometric characteristics in predicting 20-meter sprint performance through machine learning. Sci Rep 2024; 14:16593. [PMID: 39025965 PMCID: PMC11258122 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-67405-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the morphometric features affecting 20-m sprint performance in children at the first level of primary education using machine learning (ML) algorithms. In this study, 130 male and 152 female volunteers aged between 6 and 11 years were included. After obtaining demographic information of the participants, skinfold thickness, diameter and circumference measurements, and 20-m sprint performance were determined. The study conducted three distinct experiments to determine the optimal ML technique for predicting outcomes. Initially, the entire feature space was utilized for training the ML models to establish a baseline performance. In the second experiment, only significant features identified through correlation analysis were used for training and testing the models, enhancing the focus on relevant predictors. Lastly, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to reduce the feature space, aiming to streamline model complexity while retaining data variance. These experiments collectively aimed to evaluate different feature selection and dimensionality reduction techniques, providing insights into the most effective strategies for optimizing predictive performance in the given context. The correlation-based selected features (Age, Height, waist circumference, hip circumference, leg length, thigh length, foot length) has produced a minimum Mean Squared Error (MSE) value of 0.012 for predicting the sprint performance in children. The effective utilization of correlation analysis in the selection of relevant features for our regression model suggests that the features selected exhibit robust linear associations with the target variable and can be relied upon as predictors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Kurtoğlu
- Department of Coaching Education, Faculty of Sport Science, Bandirma Onyedi Eylul University, Balıkesir, 10200, Turkey
| | - Özgür Eken
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Teaching, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey
| | - Rukiye Çiftçi
- Department of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, Gaziantep Islamıc Science and Technology University, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Bekir Çar
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Teaching, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bandirma Onyedi Eylul University, Balıkesir, 10200, Turkey
| | - Emrah Dönmez
- Department of Software Engineering, Bandırma Onyedi Eylül University, Balıkesir, Turkey
| | - Serhat Kılıçarslan
- Department of Software Engineering, Bandırma Onyedi Eylül University, Balıkesir, Turkey
| | - Mona M Jamjoom
- Department of Computer Sciences, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nagwan Abdel Samee
- Department of Information Technology, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Dina S M Hassan
- Department of Information Technology, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Noha F Mahmoud
- Rehabilitation Sciences Department, Health and Rehabilitation Sciences College, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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5
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Tam CK, Yao ZF. Advancing 100m sprint performance prediction: A machine learning approach to velocity curve modeling and performance correlation. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303366. [PMID: 38739676 PMCID: PMC11090337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
This study presents a novel approach to modeling the velocity-time curve in 100m sprinting by integrating machine learning algorithms. It critically addresses the limitations of traditional speed models, which often require extensive and intricate data collection, by proposing a more accessible and accurate method using fewer variables. The research utilized data from various international track events from 1987 to 2019. Two machine learning models, Random Forest (RF) and Neural Network (NN), were employed to predict the velocity-time curve, focusing on the acceleration phase of the sprint. The models were evaluated against the traditional exponential speed model using Mean Squared Error (MSE), with the NN model demonstrating superior performance. Additionally, the study explored the correlation between maximum velocity, the time of maximum velocity occurrence, the duration of the maximum speed phase, and the overall 100m sprint time. The findings indicate a strong negative correlation between maximum velocity and final time, offering new insights into the dynamics of sprinting performance. This research contributes significantly to the field of sports science, particularly in optimizing training and performance analysis in sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung Kit Tam
- Department of Kinesiology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Zai-Fu Yao
- Department of Kinesiology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
- College of Education, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
- Research Center for Education and Mind Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
- Basic Psychology Group, Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
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6
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Zamparo P, Monte A, Pavei G. Energetics (and Mechanical Determinants) of Sprint and Shuttle Running. Int J Sports Med 2024; 45:335-342. [PMID: 37956876 DOI: 10.1055/a-2184-9007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Unsteady locomotion (e. g., sprints and shuttle runs) requires additional metabolic (and mechanical) energy compared to running at constant speed. In addition, sprints or shuttle runs with relevant speed changes (e. g., with large accelerations and/or decelerations) are typically short in duration and, thus, anaerobic energy sources must be taken into account when computing energy expenditure. In sprint running there is an additional problem due to the objective difficulty in separating the acceleration phase from a (necessary and subsequent) deceleration phase.In this review the studies that report data of energy expenditure during sprints and shuttles (estimated or actually calculated) will be summarized and compared. Furthermore, the (mechanical) determinants of metabolic energy expenditure will be discussed, with a focus on the analogies with and differences from the energetics/mechanics of constant-speed linear running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Andrea Monte
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Gaspare Pavei
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
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7
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Fortes LS, de Lima-Júnior D, Fonseca FS, Albuquerque MR, Ferreira MEC. Effect of mental fatigue on mean propulsive velocity, countermovement jump, and 100-m and 200-m dash performance in male college sprinters. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. ADULT 2024; 31:264-273. [PMID: 34962836 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2021.2020791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of mental fatigue on mean propulsive velocity (MPV), countermovement jump (CMJ), 100, and 200-m dash performance in college sprinters. A total of 16 male athletes of sprint events (100 and 200-m dash) participated in this study. Each participant underwent two baseline visits and then running under the three experimental conditions. Assessments (MPV and CMJ) occurred both before and after either smartphone use (SMA) or Stroop task (ST), or watching a documentary TV show about the Olympic Games (CON). Then, the athletes ran the simulated race (i.e. the 100 and 200-m dash). There was no condition (p > 0.05) or time effect (p > 0.05) for MPV, CMJ, 100-m, or 200-m dash performance. In conclusion, the present study results revealed no mental fatigue effect induced by SMA or ST on neuromuscular, 100-m or 200-m dash performance in male college sprinters.
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8
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Horiuchi M, Nagahara R. Acute effects of caffeine supplementation on kinematics and kinetics of sprinting. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14595. [PMID: 38458991 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
We investigated the acute effects of caffeine supplementation (6 mg・kg-1 ) on 60-m sprint performance and underlying components with a step-to-step ground reaction force measurement in 13 male sprinters. After the first round sprint as a control, caffeine supplementation-induced improvement in 60-m sprint times (7.811 s at the first versus 7.648 s at the second round, 2.05%) were greater compared with the placebo condition (7.769 s at the first versus 7.768 s at the second round, 0.02%). Using average values for every four steps, in the caffeine condition, higher running speed (all six step groups), higher step frequency (5th-16th and 21st-24th step groups), shorter support time (all the step groups except for 13th-16th step) and shorter braking time (9th-24th step groups) were found. Regarding ground reaction forces variables, greater braking mean force (13th-19th step group), propulsive mean force (1st-12th and 17th-20th step groups), and effective vertical mean force (9th-12th step group) were found in the caffeine condition. For the block clearance phase at the sprint start, push-off and reaction times did not change, while higher total anteroposterior mean force, average horizontal external power, and ratio of force were found in the caffeine condition. These results indicate that, compared with placebo, acute caffeine supplementation improved sprint performance regardless of sprint sections during the entire acceleration phase from the start through increases in step frequency with decreases in support time. Moreover, acute caffeine supplementation promoted increases in the propulsive mean force, resulting in the improvement of sprint performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- Faculty of Sports and Life Science, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in KANOYA, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Ryu Nagahara
- Faculty of Sport and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in KANOYA Shiromizu-1, Kagoshima, Japan
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9
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Millot B, Pradon D, Cecchelli G, Blache P, Arnould A, Dinu D, Slawinski J. Are the ground reaction forces altered by the curve and with the increasing sprinting velocity? Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14602. [PMID: 38491496 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
In 200- and 400-m races, 58% of the total distance to cover is in the curve. In the curve, the sprinting performance is decreased in comparison to the straight. However, the reasons for this decreased performance is not well understood. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the kinetic parameters underpinning the sprinting performance in the curve in comparison to the straight. Nineteen experienced-to-elite curve specialists performed five sprints in the straight and in the curve (radius 41.58 m): 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40 m. The left and the right vertical, anterior-posterior, medial-lateral, and resultant ground reaction forces (respectivelyF V $$ {F}_{\mathrm{V}} $$ ,F A - P $$ {F}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ ,F M - L $$ {F}_{\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}} $$ , andF TOT $$ {F}_{\mathrm{TOT}} $$ ), the associated impulses (respectivelyIMP V $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{V}} $$ ,IMP A - P $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ ,IMP M - L $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}} $$ , andIMP TOT $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{TOT}} $$ ) and the stance times of each side were averaged over each distance. In the curve, the time to cover the 40-m sprint was longer than in the straight (5.52 ± 0.25 vs. 5.47 ± 0.23 s, respectively). Additionally, the left and the rightF A - P $$ {F}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ andIMP A - P $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ were lower than in the straight while the left and the rightF M - L $$ {F}_{\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}} $$ increased, meaning that theF M - L $$ {F}_{\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}} $$ was more medial. The leftF V $$ {F}_{\mathrm{V}} $$ was also lower than in the straight while the left stance times increased to keep the leftIMP V $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{V}} $$ similar to the straight to maintain the subsequent swing time. Overall, the sprinting performance was reduced in the curve due to a reduction in the left and the rightF A - P $$ {F}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ andIMP A - P $$ {IMP}_{\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{P}} $$ , that were likely attributed to the concomitant increasedF M - L $$ {F}_{\mathrm{M}-\mathrm{L}} $$ to adopt a curvilinear motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Millot
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
- French Athletics Federation (FFA), Paris, France
- Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Didier Pradon
- Pole Parasport - ISPC Synergies, CHU Raymond Poincaré, APHP, Garches, France
| | - Giuseppe Cecchelli
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
- French Athletics Federation (FFA), Paris, France
- Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, IBHGC - Institut de Biomecanique Humaine Georges Charpak, Paris, France
| | - Paul Blache
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
| | - Axelle Arnould
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
| | - Daniel Dinu
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
| | - Jean Slawinski
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France
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10
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Lundberg TR, Tucker R, McGawley K, Williams AG, Millet GP, Sandbakk Ø, Howatson G, Brown GA, Carlson LA, Chantler S, Chen MA, Heffernan SM, Heron N, Kirk C, Murphy MH, Pollock N, Pringle J, Richardson A, Santos-Concejero J, Stebbings GK, Christiansen AV, Phillips SM, Devine C, Jones C, Pike J, Hilton EN. The International Olympic Committee framework on fairness, inclusion and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations does not protect fairness for female athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14581. [PMID: 38511417 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recently published a framework on fairness, inclusion, and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations. Although we appreciate the IOC's recognition of the role of sports science and medicine in policy development, we disagree with the assertion that the IOC framework is consistent with existing scientific and medical evidence and question its recommendations for implementation. Testosterone exposure during male development results in physical differences between male and female bodies; this process underpins male athletic advantage in muscle mass, strength and power, and endurance and aerobic capacity. The IOC's "no presumption of advantage" principle disregards this reality. Studies show that transgender women (male-born individuals who identify as women) with suppressed testosterone retain muscle mass, strength, and other physical advantages compared to females; male performance advantage cannot be eliminated with testosterone suppression. The IOC's concept of "meaningful competition" is flawed because fairness of category does not hinge on closely matched performances. The female category ensures fair competition for female athletes by excluding male advantages. Case-by-case testing for transgender women may lead to stigmatization and cannot be robustly managed in practice. We argue that eligibility criteria for female competition must consider male development rather than relying on current testosterone levels. Female athletes should be recognized as the key stakeholders in the consultation and decision-making processes. We urge the IOC to reevaluate the recommendations of their Framework to include a comprehensive understanding of the biological advantages of male development to ensure fairness and safety in female sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy R Lundberg
- Division of Clinical Physiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ross Tucker
- Department of Sport Science, Institute of Sport and Exercise Medicine, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Alun G Williams
- Manchester Metropolitan Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
- Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine Research Centre (A-STEM), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Grégoire P Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Water Research Group, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Gregory A Brown
- Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, University of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney, Nebraska, USA
| | | | - Sarah Chantler
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Mark A Chen
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Shane M Heffernan
- Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine Research Centre (A-STEM), Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Neil Heron
- Centre for Public Health, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
- School of Medicine, Keele University, Newcastle-under-Lyme, UK
| | - Christopher Kirk
- Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
| | - Marie H Murphy
- Physical Activity for Health Research Centre, Moray House School of Education and Sport, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Exercise Medicine, Physical Activity and Health, School of Sport, Ulster University, Belfast, UK
| | - Noel Pollock
- Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jamie Pringle
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Andrew Richardson
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Jordan Santos-Concejero
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Georgina K Stebbings
- Manchester Metropolitan Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | | | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Carwyn Jones
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Jon Pike
- Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Emma N Hilton
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Ward C, Catháin CÓ, Chéilleachair NN, Grassick S, Kelly DT. Does Resisted Sprint Training Improve the Sprint Performance of Field-Based Invasion Team Sport Players? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2024; 54:659-672. [PMID: 37897636 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01952-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developing the sprint performance of field-based invasion team sport (FITS) players is considered an essential training goal for FITS coaching practitioners, and thus numerous training methods are employed to elicit improvements. Although interest in resisted sprint training (RST) has grown considerably in recent times, there remains a lack of clarity around its utility in FITS, particularly regarding the use and effectiveness of heavier RST loads. OBJECTIVES The aims of this review were to (1) compare RST to unresisted sprinting, (2) examine if RST can improve sprint performance and (3) investigate if external load and the method of load prescription influence the impact of RST in FITS players. METHODS The systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in compliance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search strategy included terms for RST, RST modalities and FITS, and was applied to PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and OpenGrey databases. Methodological quality and risk of bias associated with each study were assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale (PEDro) and Cochrane Risk of Bias assessment tool respectively. RESULTS Twenty-one studies met the inclusion criteria for this review and were included in the final analysis. The primary between-group analysis revealed no differences between RST and unresisted sprinting for developing the early acceleration, late acceleration and maximum velocity sprint phases. Secondly, a within-group analysis found significant improvements for resisted sprint training in the early acceleration (standardised mean difference [SMD] - 0.80) and late acceleration (SMD - 0.28) sprint phases, with no change detected for the maximum velocity phase. Finally, significant moderate improvements were found for light (SMD - 0.69) and very heavy (SMD - 1.01) loads during early acceleration. CONCLUSIONS Resisted sprint training achieved similar improvements in sprint performance to those found for unresisted sprinting during the acceleration and maximum velocity sprint phases. Within-group findings show RST is an effective method for improving early acceleration and late acceleration performance of FITS players. Finally, a subgroup analysis supports the use of light and very heavy loads for increasing early acceleration performance, while also highlighting greater benefits associated with using the percentage velocity decrement loading method. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION Open Science Framework, https://osf.io/thms7/ .
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Affiliation(s)
- Cormac Ward
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, N37 HD68, Ireland.
| | - Ciarán Ó Catháin
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, N37 HD68, Ireland
| | - Niamh Ní Chéilleachair
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, N37 HD68, Ireland
| | - Shaun Grassick
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, N37 HD68, Ireland
| | - David T Kelly
- Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, N37 HD68, Ireland
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Aristizábal Pla G, Martini DN, Potter MV, Hoogkamer W. Assessing the validity of the zero-velocity update method for sprinting speeds. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0288896. [PMID: 38329957 PMCID: PMC10852269 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The zero-velocity update (ZUPT) method has become a popular approach to estimate foot kinematics from foot worn inertial measurement units (IMUs) during walking and running. However, the accuracy of the ZUPT method for stride parameters at sprinting speeds remains unknown, specifically when using sensors with characteristics well suited for sprinting (i.e., high accelerometer and gyroscope ranges and sampling rates). Seventeen participants performed 80-meter track sprints while wearing a Blue Trident IMeasureU IMU. Two cameras, at 20 and 70 meters from the start, were used to validate the ZUPT method on a stride-by-stride and on a cumulative distance basis. In particular, the validity of the ZUPT method was assessed for: (1) estimating a single stride length attained near the end of an 80m sprint (i.e., stride at 70m); (2) estimating cumulative distance from ∼20 to ∼70 m; and (3) estimating total distance traveled for an 80-meter track sprint. Individual stride length errors at the 70-meter mark were within -6% to 3%, with a bias of -0.27%. Cumulative distance errors were within -4 to 2%, with biases ranging from -0.85 to -1.22%. The results of this study demonstrate the ZUPT method provides accurate estimates of stride length and cumulative distance traveled for sprinting speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Aristizábal Pla
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States of America
| | - Douglas N. Martini
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States of America
| | - Michael V. Potter
- Department of Physics and Engineering, Francis Marion University, Florence, SC, United States of America
| | - Wouter Hoogkamer
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States of America
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13
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Mason J, Niedziela D, Morin JB, Groll A, Zech A. The potential impact of advanced footwear technology on the recent evolution of elite sprint performances. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16433. [PMID: 38034865 PMCID: PMC10688325 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Elite track and field sprint performances have reached a point of stability as we near the limits of human physiology, and further significant improvements may require technological intervention. Following the widely reported performance benefits of new advanced footwear technology (AFT) in road-running events, similar innovations have since been applied to sprint spikes in hope of providing similar performance enhancing benefits. However, it is not yet clear based on current evidence whether there have been subsequent improvements in sprint performance. Therefore, the aims of this study were to establish if there have been recent year-to-year improvements in the times of the annual top 100 and top 20 athletes in the men's and women's sprint events, and to establish if there is an association between the extensive use of AFT and potential recent improvements in sprint performances. Methods For the years 2016-19 and 2021-2022, the season best performances of the top 100 athletes in each sprint event were extracted from the World Athletics Top lists. Independent t-tests with Holm corrections were performed using the season's best performance of the top 100 and top 20 athletes in each year to identify significant differences between years for each sprint discipline. Following the classification of shoes worn by the top 20 athletes in each event during their annual best race (AFT or non-AFT), separate linear mixed-model regressions were performed to determine the influence of AFT on performance times. Results For the top 100 and top 20 athletes, there were no significant differences year-to-year in any sprint event prior to the release of AFT (2016-2019). There were significant differences between AFT years (2021 or 2022) and pre-AFT years (2016-2019) in eight out of 10 events. These differences ranged from a 0.40% improvement (men's 100 m) to a 1.52% improvement (women's 400 m hurdles). In the second analysis, multiple linear mixed model regressions revealed that the use of AFT was associated with improved performance in six out of ten events, including the men's and women's 100 m, women's 200 m, men's 110 m hurdles, women's 100 m hurdles and women's 400 m hurdles (estimate range: -0.037 - 0.521, p = <0.001 - 0.021). Across both analyses, improvements were more pronounced in women's sprint events than men's sprint events. Conclusion Following a period of stability, there were significant improvements in most sprint events which may be partly explained by advances in footwear technology. These improvements appear to be mediated by event, sex and potentially level of athlete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Mason
- Department of Human Movement Science and Exercise Physiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Jean-Benoit Morin
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, University Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Andreas Groll
- Department of Statistics, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Astrid Zech
- Department of Human Movement Science and Exercise Physiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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14
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Štuhec S, Planjšek P, Čoh M, Mackala K. Multicomponent Velocity Measurement for Linear Sprinting: Usain Bolt's 100 m World-Record Analysis. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:1254. [PMID: 38002378 PMCID: PMC10669785 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10111254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this report is to provide additional analysis and commentary on the men's 100 m world record of 9.58 s, set by Usain Bolt in the 2009 Berlin World Championships in Athletics. In addition, the entire race underwent a unique kinematic analysis, particularly emphasizing the maximum running velocity and its related factors. It was possible due the application of the new Stuhec software. The data were provided by LAVEG'S advanced laser measurement technology based on positional data with a high spatiotemporal resolution. The maximum velocity phase is the most critical determinant of the final race time. Bolt completed two phases in this world-record 100 m sprint: acceleration and top velocity. The borderline between these phases reached the highest velocity of 12.32 m/s on a 52 m run. He could keep the maximum velocity in five 10 m sections (50-100 m). The occurrence of functional asymmetry-the difference in step length between the left and right legs-was also noticed. Longer steps were taken with the left leg, almost over 80 m. From a practical point of view, new technologies (e.g., software) allow coaches and athletes to analyze the kinematic parameters of sprinting even more precisely and in detail. They must take into account precise changes in the course of maximum speed and the parameters determining it which are step length and frequency. Based on such an analysis, it is possible to modify the training process aimed at increasing the potential, both maximum speed and the supporting factors of strength and power. This must be conditioned by the appropriate selection of training measures shaping the abovementioned motor skills and parameters describing the optimal sprinting technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislav Štuhec
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova Ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Peter Planjšek
- Ljubljana School of Business, Management and Informatics, Tržaška Cesta 42, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Milan Čoh
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova Ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Krzysztof Mackala
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Science, Ul. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland
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15
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Nagahara R. Normative spatiotemporal and ground reaction force data for female and male sprinting. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:1240-1249. [PMID: 37805986 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2265641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to demonstrate the differences in spatiotemporal and ground reaction force (GRF) variables during overground sprinting between performance levels for female and male sprinters with providing normative data during the entire acceleration phase. Forty-four female and 102 male sprinters performed 60-m sprints, during which the spatiotemporal and GRF variables were obtained using a long force platform system. Female and male sprinters were each allocated into four groups based on their maximal speed (7.5-9.5 m/s and 8.5-10.5 m/s, respectively) with 0.5 m/s intervals, and average values for 50-m distance were calculated. Using the GRF data, normative data for four groups of female and male sprinters were successfully obtained. For female sprinters using average values of all steps, there were differences between performance levels for step frequency (SF) and support time (ST), all impulses, and all mean forces. For male sprinters using average values of all steps, there were differences between performance levels for SF, ST and flight time, all impulses except for braking impulse, and all of the mean forces. The normative data indicate that most of the spatiotemporal and GRF variables may be changed, particularly increasing SF and propulsive force, when sprint performance is improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryu Nagahara
- Faculty of Sport and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
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16
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Galantine P, Sudlow A, Peyrot N, Vercruyssen F, Bélard C, Dalleau G, Duché P. Force-velocity profile in sprinting: sex effect. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:911-921. [PMID: 36595048 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05121-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The ability to produce muscle power during sprint acceleration is a major determinant of physical performance. The comparison of the force-velocity (F-v: theoretical maximal force, F0; velocity, v0 and maximal power output, Pmax) profile between men and women has attracted little attention. Most studies of sex differences have failed to apply a scaling ratio when reporting data. The present study investigated the sex effect on the F-v profile using an allometric model applied with body mass (BM), fat-free mass (FFM), fat-free mass of the lower limb (FFMLL), cross-sectional area (CSA) and leg length (LL) to mechanical parameters. Thirty students (15 men, 15 women) participated. Raw velocity-time data for three maximal 35 m sprints were measured with a radar. Mechanical parameters of the F-v relationship were calculated from the modelling of the velocity-time curve. When F0 and Pmax were allometrically scaled with BM (p = 0.538; ES = 0.23) and FFM (p = 0.176; ES = 0.51), there were no significant differences between men and women. However, when the allometric model was applied to Pmax with FFMLL (p = 0.015; ES = 0.52), F0 with CSA (p = 0.016; ES = 0.93) and v0 with LL (p ≤ 0.001; ES = 1.98) differences between men and women persisted. FFM explained 83% of the sex differences in the F-v profile (p ≤ 0.001). After applying an allometric model, sex differences in the F-v profile are explained by other factors than body dimensions (i.e., physiological qualitative differences).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Galantine
- Impact de l'Activité Physique sur la Santé (IAPS-UR n°201723207F), Université de Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Anthony Sudlow
- Impact de l'Activité Physique sur la Santé (IAPS-UR n°201723207F), Université de Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Nicolas Peyrot
- Movement-Interactions-Performance, MIP, Université Le Mans, EA 4334, Le Mans, France
| | - Fabrice Vercruyssen
- Impact de l'Activité Physique sur la Santé (IAPS-UR n°201723207F), Université de Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Chrystal Bélard
- Impact de l'Activité Physique sur la Santé (IAPS-UR n°201723207F), Université de Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Georges Dalleau
- Laboratoire IRISSE-EA4075, Université de la Réunion, Le Tampon, La Réunion, France
| | - Pascale Duché
- Impact de l'Activité Physique sur la Santé (IAPS-UR n°201723207F), Université de Toulon, Toulon, France.
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17
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Hicks DS, Drummond C, Williams KJ, van den Tillaar R. Exploratory Analysis of Sprint Force-Velocity Characteristics, Kinematics and Performance across a Periodized Training Year: A Case Study of Two National Level Sprint Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15404. [PMID: 36430123 PMCID: PMC9691245 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192215404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Objective: This case study aimed to explore changes to sprint force-velocity characteristics across a periodized training year (45 weeks) and the influence on sprint kinematics and performance in national level 100-meter athletes. Force-velocity characteristics have been shown to differentiate between performance levels in sprint athletes, yet limited information exists describing how characteristics change across a season and impact sprint performance, therefore warranting further research. Methods: Two male national level 100-meter athletes (Athlete 1: 22 years, 1.83 m, 81.1 kg, 100 m time: 10.47 s; Athlete 2: 19 years, 1.82 cm, 75.3 kg, 100 m time: 10.81 s) completed 12 and 11 force-velocity assessments, respectively, using electronic timing gates. Sprint mechanical characteristics were derived from 30-meter maximal sprint efforts using split times (i.e., 0-10 m, 0-20 m, 0-30 m) whereas step kinematics were established from 100-meter competition performance using video analysis. Results: Between the preparation (PREP) and competition (COMP) phase, Athlete 1 showed significantly large within-athlete effects for relative maximal power (PMAX), theoretical maximal velocity (v0), maximum ratio of force (RFMAX), maximal velocity (VMAX), and split time from 0 to 20 m and 0 to 30 m (-1.70 ≤ ES ≥ 1.92, p ≤ 0.05). Athlete 2 reported significant differences with large effects for relative maximal force (F0) and RFMAX only (ES: ≤ -1.46, p ≤ 0.04). In the PREP phase, both athletes reported almost perfect correlations between F0, PMAX and 0-20 m (r = -0.99, p ≤ 0.01), however in the COMP phase, the relationships between mechanical characteristics and split times were more individual. Competition performance in the 100-meter sprint (10.64 ± 0.24 s) showed a greater reliance on step length (r ≥ -0.72, p ≤ 0.001) than step frequency to achieve faster performances. The minimal detectable change (%) across mechanical variables ranged from 1.3 to 10.0% while spatio-temporal variables were much lower, from 0.94 to 1.48%, with Athlete 1 showing a higher 'true change' in performance across the season compared to Athlete 2. Conclusions: The estimated sprint force-velocity data collected across a training year may provide insight to practitioners about the underpinning mechanical characteristics which affect sprint performance during specific phases of training, plus how a periodized training design may enhance sprint force-velocity characteristics and performance outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Shaun Hicks
- SHAPE Research Centre, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042, Australia
| | - Claire Drummond
- SHAPE Research Centre, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042, Australia
| | - Kym J. Williams
- SHAPE Research Centre, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042, Australia
| | - Roland van den Tillaar
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Nord University, 7601 Levanger, Norway
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18
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Fornasier-Santos C, Arnould A, Jusseaume J, Millot B, Guilhem G, Couturier A, Samozino P, Slawinski J, Morin JB. Sprint Acceleration Mechanical Outputs Derived from Position- or Velocity-Time Data: A Multi-System Comparison Study. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22228610. [PMID: 36433206 PMCID: PMC9698850 DOI: 10.3390/s22228610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
To directly compare five commonly used on-field systems (motorized linear encoder, laser, radar, global positioning system, and timing gates) during sprint acceleration to (i) measure velocity−time data, (ii) compute the main associated force−velocity variables, and (iii) assess their respective inter-trial reliability. Eighteen participants performed three 40 m sprints, during which five systems were used to simultaneously and separately record the body center of the mass horizontal position or velocity over time. Horizontal force−velocity mechanical outputs for the two best trials were computed following an inverse dynamic model and based on an exponential fitting of the position- or velocity-time data. Between the five systems, the maximal running velocity was close (7.99 to 8.04 m.s−1), while the time constant showed larger differences (1.18 to 1.29 s). Concurrent validity results overall showed a relative systematic error of 0.86 to 2.28% for maximum and theoretically maximal velocity variables and 4.78 to 12.9% for early acceleration variables. The inter-trial reliability showed low coefficients of variation (all <5.74%), and was very close between all of the systems. All of the systems tested here can be considered relevant to measure the maximal velocity and compute the force−velocity mechanical outputs. Practitioners are advised to interpret the data obtained with either of these systems in light of these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charly Fornasier-Santos
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
- LAMHESS, University Côte d’Azur, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Axelle Arnould
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
- LAMHESS, University Côte d’Azur, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Jérémy Jusseaume
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
- Laboratory of Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (AME2P), University Clermont Auvergne (UCA), 63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Benjamin Millot
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
- French Athletics Federation (FFA), 73376 Paris, France
| | - Gaël Guilhem
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
| | - Antoine Couturier
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
| | - Pierre Samozino
- Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences, Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, EA 7424, 73000 Chambéry, France
| | - Jean Slawinski
- Laboratory Sport Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), 75012 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Benoît Morin
- LAMHESS, University Côte d’Azur, 06000 Nice, France
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, Univ Lyon, UJM-Saint-Etienne, EA 7424, 42023 Saint-Etienne, France
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OHNUMA H, YOSHIMOTO T, IWAYAMA K, YAMANAKA R, OHYA T, MATSUBAYASHI T. Anthropometric characteristics are a non-negligible factor even in world's elite 100-m sprinters. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2022. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.21.04682-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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20
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Clark KP, Ryan LJ. Hip Torque Is a Mechanistic Link Between Sprint Acceleration and Maximum Velocity Performance: A Theoretical Perspective. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:945688. [PMID: 35903404 PMCID: PMC9314550 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.945688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sprinting performance is critical for a variety of sports and competitive activities. Prior research has demonstrated correlations between the limits of initial acceleration and maximum velocity for athletes of different sprinting abilities. Our perspective is that hip torque is a mechanistic link between these performance limits. A theoretical framework is presented here that provides estimates of sprint acceleration capability based on thigh angular acceleration and hip torque during the swing phase while running at maximum velocity. Performance limits were calculated using basic anthropometric values (body mass and leg length) and maximum velocity kinematic values (contact time, thigh range of motion, and stride frequency) from previously published sprint data. The proposed framework provides a mechanistic link between maximum acceleration and maximum velocity, and also explains why time constant values (τ, ratio of the velocity limit to acceleration limit) for sprint performance curves are generally close to one-second even for athletes with vastly different sprinting abilities. This perspective suggests that specific training protocols targeted to improve thigh angular acceleration and hip torque capability will benefit both acceleration and maximum velocity phases of a sprint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth P. Clark
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA, United States
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21
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Kakehata G, Goto Y, Iso S, Kanosue K. The Timing of Thigh Muscle Activity Is a Factor Limiting Performance in the Deceleration Phase of the 100-m Dash. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2022; 54:1002-1012. [PMID: 35576136 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We aimed to examine the timing of electromyography activity of the rectus femoris (RF) and biceps femoris (BF) in both legs, as well as spatiotemporal variables (running speed (RS), step frequency (SF), step length (SL)) between the maximal speed (Max) phase (50-70 m) and the deceleration (Dec) phase (80-100 m) of the 100-m dash. METHODS Nine track and field athletes performed the 100-m dash with maximal effort. Spatiotemporal variables of each 10-m section were measured. A portable wireless data logger was attached to the subject's lower back to record electromyographies. We calculated onset/offset timing (%) of RF and BF in both legs using a Teager-Kaiser Energy Operator filter (e.g., ipsilateral leg RF onset is "iRF-onset," contralateral leg BF onset is "cBF-onset") in a running cycle. RESULTS The decreased RS in the Dec phase (P < 0.001) was due to a decreased SF (P < 0.001). Moreover, iRF-onset (P = 0.002), iRF-offset (P = 0.008), iBF-offset (P = 0.049), and cBF-offset (P = 0.017) in the Dec phase lagged in the running cycle as compared with the Max phase. Furthermore, the time difference between the swing leg RF activity (iRF-onset) and the contact leg BF activity (cBF-onset; "Scissors1") became bigger in the Dec phase (P = 0.041). Significant negative correlations were found between ΔiRF-onset and ΔSF (P = 0.045), and between ΔiBF-offset and ΔSF (P = 0.036). CONCLUSIONS The decreased RS and SF in the Dec phase of the 100-m dash would be the delayed timing of the RF and BF activities in the same leg as well as the disturbed interleg muscular coordination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuta Goto
- Graduate School of Sport Sciences of Waseda University, Saitama, JAPAN
| | - Shigeo Iso
- Faculty of Sport Sciences Waseda University, Saitama, JAPAN
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22
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Slawinski J, Houel N, Moreau C, Mahlig A, Dinu D. Contribution of segmental kinetic energy to forward propulsion of the centre of mass: Analysis of sprint acceleration. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1282-1289. [PMID: 35435805 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2066829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to measure the contribution of each body segment to the production of total body kinetic energy (KE) during a 40-m sprint. Nine recreational sprinters performed two 40-m sprints wearing a MVN Biomech suit (Xsens). Data recorded were used to calculate total body KE, and the KE of each segment. The KE of each segment was then expressed as a percentage of the total body KE. We divided the sprint into three phases: 1 - start to maximal power (Pmax), 2 - Pmax to maximal velocity (Vmax), and 3 - Vmax to the end of the 40 m. Total body KE increased from the start to the end of the 40-m sprint (from 331.3 ± 68.4 J in phase 1 to 2378.8 ± 233.0 J in phase 3; p ≤ 0.001). The contribution of the head-trunk increased (from 39.5 ± 2.4% to 46.3 ± 1.1%; p ≤ 0.05). Contribution of the upper and lower limbs decreased over the three phases (respectively from 15.7 ± 2.5% to 10.6 ± 0.6% and from 44.8 ± 2.1% to 43.1 ± 1.5%; p ≤ 0.05). This study revealed the important contribution of the trunk to forward propulsion throughout the entire acceleration phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Slawinski
- Expertise and Performance. Sport, Expertise and Performance Lab, French National Institute of Sport, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Houel
- Laboratory of Performance, Santé, Métrologie, Société (EA-7507), University of Reims, Champagne Ardennes UFRSTAPS, Reims, France
| | - Camille Moreau
- LINP-2APS - Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire En Neurosciences, Physiologie Et Psychologie: Activité Physique, Santé Et Apprentissages, University of Paris Nanterre UFRSTAPS, Nanterre, France
| | - Alexia Mahlig
- Expertise and Performance. Sport, Expertise and Performance Lab, French National Institute of Sport, Paris, France.,mécanique, Université de SherbrookeDépartement de génie , Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Daniel Dinu
- Expertise and Performance. Sport, Expertise and Performance Lab, French National Institute of Sport, Paris, France
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Samozino P, Peyrot N, Edouard P, Nagahara R, Jimenez‐Reyes P, Vanwanseele B, Morin J. Optimal mechanical force‐velocity profile for sprint acceleration performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2022. [DOI: https:/onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/sms.14097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Samozino
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA 7424, F‐73000 Chambéry France
| | - Nicolas Peyrot
- Le Mans Université Movement ‐ Interactions ‐ Performance, MIP EA 4334, F‐72000 Le Mans France
| | - Pascal Edouard
- Univ Lyon, UJM‐Saint‐Etienne Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA 7424, F‐42023 Saint‐Etienne France
- Department of Clinical and Exercise Physiology Sports Medicine Unit Faculty of Medicine University Hospital of Saint‐Etienne Saint‐Etienne France
| | - Ryu Nagahara
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya Kanoya Japan
| | | | | | - Jean‐Benoit Morin
- Univ Lyon, UJM‐Saint‐Etienne Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences EA 7424, F‐42023 Saint‐Etienne France
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24
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Hallam LC, Amorim FT. Expanding the Gap: An Updated Look Into Sex Differences in Running Performance. Front Physiol 2022; 12:804149. [PMID: 35058806 PMCID: PMC8764368 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.804149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Males consistently outperform females in athletic endeavors, including running events of standard Olympic distances (100 m to Marathon). The magnitude of this percentage sex difference, i.e., the sex gap, has evolved over time. Two clear trends in sex gap evolution are evident; a narrowing of the gap during the 20th century, followed by a period of stability thereafter. However, an updated perspective on the average sex gap from top 20 athlete performances over the past two decades reveals nuanced trends over time, indicating the sex gap is not fixed. Additionally, the sex gap varies with performance level; the difference in absolute running performance between males and females is lowest for world record/world lead performances and increases in lower-ranked elite athletes. This observation of an increased sex gap with world rank is evident in events 400 m and longer and indicates a lower depth in female competitive standards. Explanations for the sex difference in absolute performance and competition depth include physical (physiological, anatomical, neuromuscular, biomechanical), sociocultural, psychological, and sport-specific factors. It is apparent that females are the disadvantaged sex in sport; therefore, measures should be taken to reduce this discrepancy and enable both sexes to reach their biological performance potential. There is scope to narrow the sex performance gap by addressing inequalities between the sexes in opportunities, provisions, incentives, attitudes/perceptions, research, and media representation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia C Hallam
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise, and Sport Science, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Fabiano T Amorim
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise, and Sport Science, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
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25
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Cecilia-Gallego P, Odriozola A, Beltran-Garrido JV, Álvarez-Herms J. Acute effects of overspeed stimuli with towing system on athletic sprint performance: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:704-716. [PMID: 34991419 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.2015165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Overspeed-based training is widely used to improve athletes' maximum running speed and towing systems are one of the most frequently employed methods for this purpose. However, the effectiveness of this modality has not been thoroughly determined. This review analyzes the acute effects of overspeed conditions with towing systems in sprinters. The articles were searched, analysed and selected following the PRISMA methodology in the PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Google Scholar databases. Sixteen studies were included, with a total sample of 240 men and 56 women (14 to 31y; 1.73 to 1.82 m; 66.2 to 77.0 kg). The main acute responses found were: 1) an increase in maximum running speed (ES = 1.54, large), stride length (ES = 0.92, moderate), flight time (ES = 0.28, small) and stride rate (ES = 0.12, trivial); and, 2) a decrease in contact time (ES = 0.57, small). However, analysis of the reported ground reaction forces and electromyography data did not provide enough consistent evidence to conclusively determine whether the changes are due to a greater muscular response of the athlete or the effect of the towing system. Future research should focus on studying the mechanisms responsible for the observed acute effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pau Cecilia-Gallego
- Health and Sport Sciences University School (Euses), Rovira I Virgili University, Amposta, Spain.,National Institute of Physical Education (Inefc), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Adrián Odriozola
- Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (Upv/ehu), Leioa, Spain.,Kdna Genomics®, University of the Basque Country Upv/ehu, Joxe Mari Korta Research Center, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.,Phymo® Lab, Physiology and Molecular Laboratory, Collado Hermoso, Segovia, Spain
| | - Jose Vicente Beltran-Garrido
- Health and Sport Sciences University School (Euses), Rovira I Virgili University, Amposta, Spain.,Department of Education and Specific Didactics, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de La Plana, Spain
| | - Jesús Álvarez-Herms
- Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (Upv/ehu), Leioa, Spain.,Kdna Genomics®, University of the Basque Country Upv/ehu, Joxe Mari Korta Research Center, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.,Phymo® Lab, Physiology and Molecular Laboratory, Collado Hermoso, Segovia, Spain
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26
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Healy R, Kenny IC, Harrison AJ. Profiling elite male 100-m sprint performance: The role of maximum velocity and relative acceleration. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:75-84. [PMID: 35151419 PMCID: PMC8847979 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 06/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to determine the accuracy of a 4 split time modelling method to generate velocity-time and velocity-distance variables in elite male 100-m sprinters and subsequently to assess the roles of key sprint parameters with respect to 100-m sprint performance. Additionally, this study aimed to assess the differences between faster and slower sprinters in key sprint variables that have not been assessed in previous work. METHODS Velocity-time and velocity-distance curves were generated using a mono-exponential function from 4 split times for 82 male sprinters during major athletics competitions. Key race variables-maximum velocity, the acceleration time constant (τ), and percentage of velocity lost (vLoss)-were derived for each athlete. Athletes were divided into tertiles, based on 100-m time, with the first and third tertiles considered to be the faster and slower groups, respectively, to facilitate further analysis. RESULTS Modelled split times and velocities displayed excellent accuracy and close agreement with raw measures (range of mean bias was -0.2% to 0.2%, and range of intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) was 0.935 to 0.999) except for 10-m time (mean bias was 1.6% ± 1.3%, and the ICC was 0.600). The 100-m sprint performance time and all 20-m split times had a significant near-perfect negative correlation with maximum velocity (r ≥ -0.90) except for the 0 to 20-m split time, where a significantly large negative correlation was found (r = -0.57). The faster group had a significantly higher maximum velocity and τ (p < 0.001), and no significant difference was found for vLoss (p = 0.085). CONCLUSION Coaches and researchers are encouraged to utilize the 4 split time method proposed in the current study to assess several key race variables that describe a sprinter's performance capacities, which can be subsequently used to further inform training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Healy
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland; Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Athlone Institute of Technology, N37 HD68, Ireland.
| | - Ian C Kenny
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland; Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Andrew J Harrison
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland; Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
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27
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Samozino P, Peyrot N, Edouard P, Nagahara R, Jimenez-Reyes P, Vanwanseele B, Morin JB. Optimal mechanical force-velocity profile for sprint acceleration performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 32:559-575. [PMID: 34775654 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim was to determine the respective influences of sprinting maximal power output ( P H max ) and mechanical Force-velocity (F-v) profile (ie, ratio between horizontal force production capacities at low and high velocities) on sprint acceleration performance. A macroscopic biomechanical model using an inverse dynamics approach applied to the athlete's center of mass during running acceleration was developed to express the time to cover a given distance as a mathematical function of P H max and F-v profile. Simulations showed that sprint acceleration performance depends mainly on P H max , but also on the F-v profile, with the existence of an individual optimal F-v profile corresponding, for a given P H max , to the best balance between force production capacities at low and high velocities. This individual optimal profile depends on P H max and sprint distance: the lower the sprint distance, the more the optimal F-v profile is oriented to force capabilities and vice versa. When applying this model to the data of 231 athletes from very different sports, differences between optimal and actual F-v profile were observed and depend more on the variability in the optimal F-v profile between sprint distances than on the interindividual variability in F-v profiles. For a given sprint distance, acceleration performance (<30 m) mainly depends on P H max and slightly on the difference between optimal and actual F-v profile, the weight of each variable changing with sprint distance. Sprint acceleration performance is determined by both maximization of the horizontal power output capabilities and the optimization of the mechanical F-v profile of sprint propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Samozino
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences, EA 7424, F-73000, Chambéry, France
| | - Nicolas Peyrot
- Le Mans Université, Movement - Interactions - Performance, MIP, EA 4334, F-72000, Le Mans, France
| | - Pascal Edouard
- Univ Lyon, UJM-Saint-Etienne, Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences, EA 7424, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France.,Department of Clinical and Exercise Physiology, Sports Medicine Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital of Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Ryu Nagahara
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Japan
| | | | | | - Jean-Benoit Morin
- Univ Lyon, UJM-Saint-Etienne, Interuniversity Laboratory of Human Movement Sciences, EA 7424, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
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28
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Bissas A, Walker J, Paradisis GP, Hanley B, Tucker CB, Jongerius N, Thomas A, Merlino S, Vazel PJ, Girard O. Asymmetry in sprinting: An insight into sub-10 and sub-11 s men and women sprinters. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 32:69-82. [PMID: 34587293 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We assessed sprint mechanical asymmetry in world-class competitors and evaluated whether inter-limb sex-based differences in sprinting mechanics exist. The eight finalists in the men's and women's 100 m events at the 2017 IAAF World Championships were studied. Five high-speed cameras (150 Hz) were used to capture two consecutive steps of the whole body between 47.0 m and 55.5 m from the start, while four additional cameras (250 Hz) focussed on the lower extremities. A total of 33 spatio-temporal, touchdown and toe-off joint angles, and horizontal and vertical foot velocity parameters were extracted through three-dimensional analysis. Group mean asymmetry scores were assessed using the symmetry angle (SA) where scores of 0% and 100% represent perfect symmetry and perfect asymmetry, respectively. Although considered generally low (SA <3% for 22 out of 33 parameters), the magnitude of mechanical asymmetry varied widely between sprinters of the same sex. However, there was no mean SA scores difference between men and women for any stride mechanical parameters (all p ≥ 0.064). Asymmetry scores were inconsistent between parameters and phases (touchdown vs toe-off instants), and sprinting mechanics were generally not related to asymmetry magnitudes. In summary, low to moderate asymmetry is a natural phenomenon in elite sprinting. Asymmetry was inconsistent between parameters and competitors during near maximum velocity running, yet mean values for a given parameter generally did not differ between sexes. Sprinters' performances were not related to their SA scores.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Josh Walker
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Giorgos P Paradisis
- Athletics Sector, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Brian Hanley
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Nils Jongerius
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Aaron Thomas
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Stéphane Merlino
- International Relations & Development Department, World Athletics, Monte Carlo, Monaco
| | | | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, WA, Australia
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29
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Nicholson B, Dinsdale A, Jones B, Till K. The Training of Medium- to Long-Distance Sprint Performance in Football Code Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2021; 52:257-286. [PMID: 34499339 PMCID: PMC8803780 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01552-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Background Within the football codes, medium-distance (i.e., > 20 m and ≤ 40 m) and long-distance (i.e., > 40 m) sprint performance and maximum velocity sprinting are important capacities for success. Despite this, no research has identified the most effective training methods for enhancing medium- to long-distance sprint outcomes. Objectives This systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to (1) analyse the ability of different methods to enhance medium- to long-distance sprint performance outcomes (0–30 m, 0 to > 30 m, and the maximum sprinting velocity phase [Vmax]) within football code athletes and (2) identify how moderator variables (i.e., football code, sex, age, playing standard, phase of season) affected the training response. Methods We conducted a systematic search of electronic databases and performed a random-effects meta-analysis (within-group changes and pairwise between-group differences) to establish standardised mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals and 95% prediction intervals. This identified the magnitude and direction of the individual training effects of intervention subgroups (sport only; primary, secondary, tertiary, and combined training methods) on medium- to long-distance sprint performance while considering moderator variables. Results In total, 60 studies met the inclusion criteria (26 with a sport-only control group), totalling 111 intervention groups and 1500 athletes. The within-group changes design reported significant performance improvements (small–moderate) between pre- and post-training for the combined, secondary (0–30 and 0 to > 30 m), and tertiary training methods (0–30 m). A significant moderate improvement was found in the Vmax phase performance only for tertiary training methods, with no significant effect found for sport only or primary training methods. The pairwise between-group differences design (experimental vs. control) reported favourable performance improvements (large SMD) for the combined (0 to > 30 m), primary (Vmax phase), secondary (0–30 m), and tertiary methods (all outcomes) when compared with the sport-only control groups. Subgroup analysis showed that the significant differences between the meta-analysis designs consistently demonstrated a larger effect in the pairwise between-group differences than the within-group change. No individual training mode was found to be the most effective. Subgroup analysis identified that football code, age, and phase of season moderated the overall magnitude of training effects. Conclusions This review provides the first systematic review and meta-analysis of all sprint performance development methods exclusively in football code athletes. Secondary, tertiary, and combined training methods appeared to improve medium-long sprint performance of football code athletes. Tertiary training methods should be implemented to enhance Vmax phase performance. Nether sport-only nor primary training methods appeared to enhance medium to long sprint performance. Performance changes may be attributed to either adaptations specific to the acceleration or Vmax phases, or both, but not exclusively Vmax. Regardless of the population characteristics, sprint performance can be enhanced by increasing either the magnitude or the orientation of force an athlete can generate in the sprinting action, or both. Trial Registration OSF registration https://osf.io/kshqn/. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01552-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Nicholson
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK.
| | - Alex Dinsdale
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK
| | - Ben Jones
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK.,Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club, Leeds, UK.,England Performance Unit, The Rugby Football League, Leeds, UK.,School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia.,Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Cape Town and the Sports Science Institute of South Africa, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Kevin Till
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research (CARR) Centre, Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK.,Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club, Leeds, UK
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van den Tillaar R. Comparison of development of step-kinematics of assisted 60 m sprints with different pulling forces between experienced male and female sprinters. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255302. [PMID: 34314453 PMCID: PMC8315524 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare step-by-step kinematics of normal and assisted 60 m sprints with different loads in experienced sprinters. Step-by-step kinematics were measured using inertial measuring units (IMU) integrated with a 3-axis gyroscope and a laser gun in 24 national level male and female sprinters during a normal 60 m sprint and sprints with a 3, 4, and 5 kg pulling force. The main findings were that using increasing assisted loads resulted in faster 60 m times, as a result of higher step velocity mainly caused by longer step lengths in both genders and by shorter contact times in women. Men had longer step lengths, longer contact times, and shorter flight times than women. However, the assisted loads had a greater effect on women than on men, as shown by their larger decrease in sprint times. These time differences in gender were the result of more and longer duration increases in maximal step velocity with increasing assisted loads for women (70-80% of distance) than men (65-70% of distance). This was mainly caused by shorter contact times, and by more increased step lengths in women compared to men. In terms of practical application, it is notable that employing this approach, when using assisted loads can help athletes to reach higher step velocities and hold this for longer, which may be a training impulse to move the speed barrier upwards.
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31
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Clark K, Cahill M, Korfist C, Whitacre T. Acute Kinematic Effects of Sprinting With Motorized Assistance. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:1856-1864. [PMID: 30946271 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Clark, K, Cahill, M, Korfist, C, and Whitacre, T. Acute kinematic effects of sprinting with motorized assistance. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 1856-1864, 2021-Although assisted sprinting has become popular for training maximum velocity, the acute effects are not fully understood. To examine this modality, 14 developmental male sprinters (age: 18.0 ± 2.5 years, 100-m personal best: 10.80 ± 0.31 seconds) performed maximal trials, both unassisted and assisted with a motorized towing device using a load of 7 kg (9.9 ± 0.9% body mass). Significant increases in maximum velocity (+9.4%, p ≤ 0.001, d = 3.28) occurred due to very large increases in stride length (+8.7%, p ≤ 0.001, d = 2.04) but not stride rate (+0.7%, p = 0.36, d = 0.11). Stride length increased due to small changes in distance traveled by the center of mass during ground contact (+3.7%, p ≤ 0.001, d = 0.40) combined with very large changes in distance traveled by the center of mass during flight (+13.1%, p ≤ 0.001, d = 2.62). Although stride rate did not demonstrate significant between-condition differences, the combination of contact and flight time was different. Compared to unassisted sprinting, assisted sprinting caused small but significant decreases in contact time (-5.2%, p ≤ 0.001, d = 0.49) and small but significant increases in flight time (+3.4%, p < 0.05, d = 0.58). Sprinting with motorized assistance elicited supramaximal velocities with decreased contact times, which may represent a neuromuscular stimulus for athletes attempting to enhance sprinting performance. Future research is needed to investigate the effects of this modality across various assistive loads and athletic populations, and to determine the longitudinal efficacy as a training method for improving maximum-velocity sprinting performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Clark
- Department of Kinesiology, West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania
| | - Micheál Cahill
- Department of Athletics, Jesuit College Preparatory School, Dallas, Texas; and
| | - Christian Korfist
- Department of Athletics, Hinsdale Central High School, Hinsdale, Illinois
| | - Tyler Whitacre
- Department of Kinesiology, West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania
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Abstract
PURPOSE Theoretical 100-m performance times (t100-m) of a top athlete at Mexico-City (2250 m a.s.l.), Alto-Irpavi (Bolivia) (3340 m a.s.l.) and in a science-fiction scenario "in vacuo" were estimated assuming that at the onset of the run: (i) the velocity (v) increases exponentially with time; hence (ii) the forward acceleration (af) decreases linearly with v, iii) its time constant (τ) being the ratio between vmax (for af = 0) and af max (for v = 0). METHODS The overall forward force per unit of mass (Ftot), sum of af and of the air resistance (Fa = k v2, where k = 0.0037 J·s2·kg-1·m-3), was estimated from the relationship between af and v during Usain Bolt's extant world record. Assuming that Ftot is unchanged since the decrease of k at altitude is known, the relationships between af and v were obtained subtracting the appropriate Fa values from Ftot, thus allowing us to estimate in the three conditions considered vmax, τ, and t100-m. These were also obtained from the relationship between mechanical power and speed, assuming an unchanged mechanical power at the end of the run (when af ≈ 0), regardless of altitude. RESULTS The resulting t100-m amounted to 9.515, 9.474, and 9.114 s, and to 9.474, 9.410, and 8.981 s, respectively, as compared to 9.612 s at sea level. CONCLUSIONS Neglecting science-fiction scenarios, t100-m of a world-class athlete can be expected to undergo a reduction of 1.01 to 1.44% at Mexico-City and of 1.44 to 2.10%, at Alto-Irpavi.
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Crossing the Golden Training Divide: The Science and Practice of Training World-Class 800- and 1500-m Runners. Sports Med 2021; 51:1835-1854. [PMID: 34021488 PMCID: PMC8363530 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01481-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Despite an increasing amount of research devoted to middle-distance training (herein the 800 and 1500 m events), information regarding the training methodologies of world-class runners is limited. Therefore, the objective of this review was to integrate scientific and best practice literature and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite middle-distance performance. Herein, we describe how well-known training principles and fundamental training characteristics are applied by world-leading middle-distance coaches and athletes to meet the physiological and neuromuscular demands of 800 and 1500 m. Large diversities in physiological profiles and training emerge among middle-distance runners, justifying a categorization into types across a continuum (400–800 m types, 800 m specialists, 800–1500 m types, 1500 m specialists and 1500–5000 m types). Larger running volumes (120–170 vs. 50–120 km·week−1 during the preparation period) and higher aerobic/anaerobic training distribution (90/10 vs. 60/40% of the annual running sessions below vs. at or above anaerobic threshold) distinguish 1500- and 800-m runners. Lactate tolerance and lactate production training are regularly included interval sessions by middle-distance runners, particularly among 800-m athletes. In addition, 800-m runners perform more strength, power and plyometric training than 1500-m runners. Although the literature is biased towards men and “long-distance thinking,” this review provides a point of departure for scientists and practitioners to further explore and quantify the training and development of elite 800- and 1500-m running performance and serves as a position statement for outlining current state-of-the-art middle-distance training recommendations.
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Panoutsakopoulos V, Theodorou AS, Kotzamanidou MC, Exell TA, Kollias IA. Gender differences in pole vault approach run kinematics and step parameter asymmetry during an elite indoor competition. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.1917977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vassilios Panoutsakopoulos
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Apostolos S. Theodorou
- School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Timothy A. Exell
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Iraklis A. Kollias
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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35
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Takahashi K, Kamibayashi K, Wakahara T. Muscle size of individual hip extensors in sprint runners: Its relation to spatiotemporal variables and sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249670. [PMID: 33819316 PMCID: PMC8021153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hip extensor muscle size is related to sprint running performance. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. To gain insights into this issue, the present study examined the relationships between the individual hip extensor sizes, spatiotemporal variables (step frequency and length, and their determinants), and sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting. Magnetic resonance images of the hip and right thigh were obtained from 26 male sprinters to determine the volumes of the gluteus maximus, individual hamstrings and adductors, and gracilis. Muscle volumes were normalized to their respective body mass and recorded as relative muscle volumes. The sprinters performed a 100-m sprint with their maximal effort. Their sprint motions were recorded using cameras to calculate the mean sprint velocity and the spatiotemporal variables at 50–60 m interval. The sprint velocity was significantly correlated with the relative volume of the semitendinosus (r = 0.497, P = 0.010), but not with the volumes of the other examined muscles. The relative volume of semitendinosus significantly correlated with the stance distance (r = 0.414, P = 0.036) and the stance distance adjusted by the stance time (r = 0.490, P = 0.011). Moreover, there were significant correlations between the stance distance and step length (r = 0.592, P = 0.001), and between the step length and sprint velocity (r = 0.509, P = 0.008). These results suggest that the semitendinosus contributes to attaining long stance distance and thereby high sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuki Takahashi
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Taku Wakahara
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
- Human Performance Laboratory, Waseda University, Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Nuell S, Illera-Domínguez V, Carmona G, Macadam P, Lloret M, Padullés JM, Alomar X, Cadefau JA. Hamstring Muscle Volume as an Indicator of Sprint Performance. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:902-909. [PMID: 33555833 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Nuell, S, Illera-Domínguez, V, Carmona, G, Macadam, P, Lloret, M, Padullés, JM, Alomar, X, and Cadefau, JA. Hamstring muscle volume as an indicator of sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 902-909, 2021-This study aimed to compare mechanical properties and performance during sprinting, as well as thigh muscle volumes (MVs), between national-level sprinters and physically active males. In addition, the relationships between thigh MVs and sprint mechanical properties and performance were investigated. Seven male sprinters and 9 actives performed maximal-effort 40-m sprints. Instantaneous velocity was measured by radar to obtain theoretical maximum force (F0), the theoretical maximum velocity (V0), and the maximum power (Pmax). For MV assessment, series of cross-sectional images of each subject's thigh were obtained by magnetic resonance imaging for each of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles and the adductor muscle group. Sprinters were faster over 10 m (7%, effect size [ES] = 2.12, p < 0.01) and 40 m (11%, ES = 3.68, p < 0.01), with significantly higher V0 (20%, ES = 4.53, p < 0.01) and Pmax (28%, ES = 3.04, p < 0.01). Sprinters had larger quadriceps (14%, ES = 1.12, p < 0.05), adductors (23%, ES = 1.33, p < 0.05), and hamstrings (32%, ES = 2.11, p < 0.01) MVs than actives. Hamstrings MV correlated strongly with 40-m sprint time (r = -0.670, p < 0.01) and V0 (r = 0.757, p < 0.01), and moderately with Pmax (r = 0.559, p < 0.05). Sprinters were significantly faster and had greater V0 and Pmax than active males. Larger MVs were found in sprinters' thighs, especially in the hamstring musculature, and strong correlations were found between hamstring MV and sprint mechanical properties and sprint performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Nuell
- National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Víctor Illera-Domínguez
- National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gerard Carmona
- Football Club Barcelona (FCB), Barcelona, Spain
- Tecnocampus, College of Health Sciences, University of Pompeu Fabra, Mataró-Maresme, Spain
| | - Paul Macadam
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand ; and
| | - Mario Lloret
- National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Maria Padullés
- National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Joan Aureli Cadefau
- National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
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Cardoso de Araújo M, Baumgart C, Jansen CT, Freiwald J, Hoppe MW. Sex Differences in Physical Capacities of German Bundesliga Soccer Players. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 34:2329-2337. [PMID: 29927885 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cardoso de Araújo, M, Baumgart, C, Jansen, CT, Freiwald, J, and Hoppe, MW. Sex differences in physical capacities of German Bundesliga soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 34(8): 2329-2337, 2020-Sex differences in physical capacities of elite soccer players have received limited attention. Therefore, this study investigated sex differences in linear and nonlinear sprint, squat and countermovement jump, core endurance, as well as incremental and intermittent endurance capacities in German Bundesliga soccer players. A total of 76 field players (29 women) were tested for the mentioned anaerobic- and aerobic-related physical capacities in a noninterventional cross-sectional design. The largest sex differences were evident in the explosive- and intermittent endurance-related capacities, with women presenting largely to extremely largely lower values in sprints, jumps, and intermittent endurance (effect size [ES] ≥1.77, p < 0.01). The differences in the total core endurance, running velocity at 2 and 4 mmol·L capillary blood lactate (v2 and v4), maximal heart rate (HR) (ES ≤ 0.72, p ≥ 0.06), and distance covered during the incremental endurance test (ES = 1.09, p = 0.01) were trivially to moderately lower for women. However, women had small to moderately higher ventral and dorsal core endurance (ES ≤ 0.69, p ≥ 0.07) and largely higher relative HR at the lactate thresholds (ES ≥ 1.54, p < 0.01). The individual data of female players showed more variability. Some individual data of women overlapped those of men, most evident in the total core endurance and v2. The findings indicate that there are sex differences in physical capacities according to the underlying amount of anaerobic and aerobic energy supply. The sex specificities should be considered to optimize training and testing procedures for soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Baumgart
- Department of Movement and Training Science, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany; and
| | - Christian T Jansen
- Department of Movement and Training Science, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany; and
| | - Jürgen Freiwald
- Department of Movement and Training Science, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany; and
| | - Matthias W Hoppe
- Department of Movement and Training Science, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany; and.,Department of Orthopedic, Trauma, and Hand Surgery, Klinikum Osnabrück GmbH, Osnabrück, Germany
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van den Tillaar R. Effect of active resisted 30 m sprints upon step and joint kinematics and muscle activity in experienced male and female sprinters. J Sports Sci 2020; 39:1060-1069. [PMID: 33258414 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1856463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study compared the kinematics (step and joint) and muscle activity of unresisted and active resisted 30 m sprints with different loads (10-40% body mass) in experienced male and female sprinters. Step kinematics were measured using a laser gun and contact mat in 28 male and female participants during unresisted 30 m sprint, and sprints with 10-40% of body mass (BM) active resistance, while peak angular velocities of lower limb was measured, together with muscle activation of nine muscles. Increased resisted loads resulted in slower 30 m times, as a result of lower step velocity mainly caused by shorter step lengths and frequencies, flight times and longer contact times, with a greater effect on women than on men. These step kinematic differences, due to increasing load were accompanied with lower peak joint movements. However, gender differences were only found for peak plantar flexion with unresisted and 10% BM resisted sprints. Furthermore, increasing load decreased calf and hamstring muscles activity, while medial vastus activity increased. Based upon these findings, it was concluded that when introducing active resisted sprints, women should sprint with approximately 10% less active loads than men to have equal step and joint kinematics development over the sprint distance.
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Nagahara R, Girard O. Alterations of spatiotemporal and ground reaction force variables during decelerated sprinting. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 31:586-596. [PMID: 33217086 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to elucidate changes in spatiotemporal and ground reaction force (GRF) variables during 90-m overground decelerated sprinting and determinants of the decrease in running speed. In 14 sub-elite male sprinters, a virtual 90-m sprint was reconstructed during which spatiotemporal and GRF variables were averaged for four steps in maximal speed (45.8-m mark) and deceleration (76.5-m mark) phases. With decreases in running speed (3.5 ± 1.1%) from the maximal speed to deceleration phases, step frequency (SF) (3.5 ± 1.9%), net anteroposterior mean force (64.4 ± 15.9%), and propulsive and vertical mean forces during the propulsive phase (3.5 ± 3.8% and 5.3 ± 3.3%) decreased, and support (ST) (2.9 ± 2.5%) and flight times (FT) (4.3 ± 3.3%), braking mean force (7.3 ± 4.0%), and effective vertical impulse during the entire support (5.1 ± 3.4%) and braking phases (20.6 ± 11.2%) increased. In addition, the decrease in running speed was associated with changes in SF, ST, and net anteroposterior mean force (r = .667, -.713, and .524, respectively). The current results demonstrate that decreases in running speed during short-distance overground sprinting are probably caused by decreases in SF through increases in ST and FT, as well as impairment of the ability to minimize braking force and maintaining propulsive force. A compromised ability to maintain the magnitude of applied force during the propulsive phase and the necessity for lengthening FT may cause greater braking force, which increases effective vertical impulse during the braking and entire support phases. The SF, ST, and net anteroposterior mean force are determinants of the magnitudes of decreases in running speed during short-distance overground sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryu Nagahara
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
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Haugen TA, Breitschädel F, Samozino P. Power-Force-Velocity Profiling of Sprinting Athletes: Methodological and Practical Considerations When Using Timing Gates. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 34:1769-1773. [PMID: 30273283 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Haugen, TA, Breitschädel, F, and Samozino, P. Power-force-velocity profiling of sprinting athletes: Methodological and practical considerations when using timing gates. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1769-1773, 2020-The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of timing gate setup on mechanical outputs in sprinting athletes. Twenty-five male and female team sport athletes (mean ± SD: 23 ± 4 years, 185 ± 11 cm, 85 ± 13 kg) performed two 40-m sprints with maximal effort. Dual-beamed timing gates covered the entire running course with 5-m intervals. Maximal horizontal force (F0), theoretical maximal velocity (v0), maximal horizontal power (Pmax), force-velocity slope (SFV), maximal ratio of force (RFmax), and index of force application technique (DRF) were computed using a validated biomechanical model and based on 12 varying split time combinations, ranging from 3 to 8 timing checkpoints. When no timing gates were located after the 20-m mark, F0 was overestimated (mean difference, ±90% confidence level: 0.16, ±0.25 to 0.33, ±0.28 N·kg; possibly to likely; small), in turn affecting SFV and DRF by small to moderate effects. Timing setups covering only the first 15 m displayed lower v0 than setups covering the first 30-40 m of the sprints (0.21, ±0.34 to 0.25, ±0.34 m·s; likely; small). Moreover, poorer reliability values were observed for timing setups covering the first 15-20 m vs. the first 25-40 m of the sprints. In conclusion, the present findings showed that the entire acceleration phase should be covered by timing gates to ensure acceptably valid and reliable sprint mechanical outputs. However, only 3 timing checkpoints (i.e., 10, 20, and 30 m) are required to ensure valid and reliable outputs for team sport athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felix Breitschädel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; and
| | - Pierre Samozino
- Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, University Savoie Mont Blanc, Chambéry, France
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Abstract
This study elucidated spatiotemporal and ground reaction force determinants of running speed and acceleration for female sprinters during the entire sprinting. Fifteen female sprinters completed 60 m sprints. Kinematic and kinetic variables were measured using force platforms over a 50 m distance from the start. Results demonstrated that higher step frequency (11th-27th steps, r = 0.517-0.717) through shorter support time (12th-27th steps, r = -0.535 to -0.634) could be determinants of running speed. Moreover, increasing step length (1st-10th steps, r = 0.550-0.938), suppressing increases in step frequency (2nd-7th steps, r = -0.639 to -0.870), suppressing decreases in support time (1st-5th steps, r = 0.599-0.709) and increases in flight time (4th-7th steps, r = 0.523-0.649) can be essential for greater running acceleration. Propulsive mean force (1st-5th steps, r = 0.663-0.876) and anteroposterior net mean force (all steps, r = 0.697-0.894) are likely determinants of greater running acceleration. At the maximal speed phase there was no correlation between running speed and the other variables. Differences with previously found male sprint determinants suggest that training targets specific to female sprinters are necessary for improving training designs and race strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gleadhill
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Ryu Nagahara
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
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Are Genome-Wide Association Study Identified Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms Associated With Sprint Athletic Status? A Replication Study With 3 Different Cohorts. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 16:489-495. [PMID: 33059329 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-1032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To replicate previous genome-wide association study identified sprint-related polymorphisms in 3 different cohorts of top-level sprinters and to further validate the obtained results in functional studies. METHODS A total of 240 Japanese, 290 Russians, and 593 Brazilians were evaluated in a case-control approach. Of these, 267 were top-level sprint/power athletes. In addition, the relationship between selected polymorphisms and muscle fiber composition was evaluated in 203 Japanese and 287 Finnish individuals. RESULTS The G allele of the rs3213537 polymorphism was overrepresented in Japanese (odds ratio [OR]: 2.07, P = .024) and Russian (OR: 1.93, P = .027) sprinters compared with endurance athletes and was associated with an increased proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers in Japanese (P = .02) and Finnish (P = .041) individuals. A meta-analysis of the data from 4 athlete cohorts confirmed that the presence of the G/G genotype rather than the G/A+A/A genotypes increased the OR of being a sprinter compared with controls (OR: 1.49, P = .01), endurance athletes (OR: 1.79, P = .001), or controls + endurance athletes (OR: 1.58, P = .002). Furthermore, male sprinters with the G/G genotype were found to have significantly faster personal times in the 100-m dash than those with G/A+A/A genotypes (10.50 [0.26] vs 10.76 [0.31], P = .014). CONCLUSION The rs3213537 polymorphism found in the CPNE5 gene was identified as a highly replicable variant associated with sprinting ability and the increased proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers, in which the homozygous genotype for the major allele (ie, the G/G genotype) is preferable for performance.
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Mirkov DM, Knezevic OM, Garcia-Ramos A, Čoh M, Šarabon N. Gender-Related Differences in Mechanics of the Sprint Start and Sprint Acceleration of Top National-Level Sprinters. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17186447. [PMID: 32899837 PMCID: PMC7557927 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17186447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: Within the current study we aimed at exploring gender-related differences and the relationship between sprint start block kinematics and kinetics and sprint acceleration force–velocity (F-v) relationship parameters (maximal force [F0], maximal velocity [v0], maximal power [Pmax] and slope) in top national-level sprinters. (2) Methods: Twenty-eight sprinters (6 females) performed 10 maximal 30-m sprints. Start block and acceleration kinematics and kinetics were collected with an instrumented sprint start block and a laser distance sensor (KiSprint system). Displacement-time data were used to determine the F-v relationship through Samozino’s method. (3) Results: Start block rear foot maximal force (effect size [ES] = 1.08), rate of force development (ES = 0.90–1.33), F0 (ES = 1.38), v0 (ES = 1.83) and Pmax (ES = 1.95) were higher in males than in females (p ≤ 0.05). There were no differences in the slope, and ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force. F0, v0, and Pmax generally presented higher correlations with the start block kinetics (median r [range] = 0.49 [0.28, 0.78]) than with the kinematics (median r [range] = −0.27 [−0.52, 0.28]). (4) Conclusions: We confirmed that sprint block phase and sprint acceleration mechanics should be mutually assessed when analyzing sprinting performance. KiSprint system could provide more accurate information regarding mechanical pattern and technique during sprint initiation and acceleration, and potentially help create a more personalized and effective training program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragan M. Mirkov
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Olivera M. Knezevic
- Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Amador Garcia-Ramos
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, 4090541 Granada, Spain;
- Faculty of Education, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, 4030000 Concepción, Chile
| | - Milan Čoh
- Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Nejc Šarabon
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, 6310 Izola, Slovenia
- InnoRenew CoE, Livade 6, 6310 Izola, Slovenia
- Andrej Marušič Institute, University of Primorska, 6000 Koper, Slovenia
- S2P, Science to practice, Ltd., Laboratory for Motor Control and Motor Behaviour, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +386-(0)40-429-505
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Zhai SS, Wen DT, Liu TY, Hou WQ. A warm-up performed with proper-weight sandbags on the leg improves the speed and RPE performance of 100 m sprint in collegiate male sprinters. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 61:10-17. [PMID: 32878421 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.10639-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Muscle performance can be notably improved following a preloading maximal or near maximal stimulus due to the induction of postactivation potentiation, but the success of a preloading exercise in generating a postactivation potentiation response depends on the balance between fatigue and potentiation. However, the optimal warm-up strategy for sprint runners before a match may be not well established until now. METHODS Fifteen well-trained male sprint runners performed four different warm-up protocols: warm-up with 0% body mass; warm-up with 2% body mass; warm-up with 4% body mass; warm-up with 8% body mass. The weight-bearing sandbag was tied about 3~5 cm above each ankle joint. During the 100-meter test, the time and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in the first 30 meters, time in the first 60 meters, and time in the 100 meters were recorded, respectively. Two-high-speed digital video cameras were separately set in the sagittal planes on the left side of a line drawn at a distance of 30 m and 60 m from the start line to record the sprint motion. RESULTS A warm-up performed with a sandbag weighted 4% of body mass could significantly improve the time and the RPE score of 100 m sprint by improving average velocity, stride frequency, average stride length, and average accelerated velocity during the sections of 0~30 m, 30~60 m and 60~100 m. This positive effect was better than that of 2% body-weigh effect. However, a warm-up performed with a sandbag weighted 8% of body mass had no significant influence on the performance of a 100 m sprint. CONCLUSIONS Current results indicated that a warm-up performed with proper-weight(4% body mass) sandbags on the leg was beneficial to the improvement of 100 m sprint performance, and the mechanism might be that it effectively activated the main muscles and neuromuscular regulation of running and produced a better postactivation potentiation.
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Tomita D, Suga T, Terada M, Tanaka T, Miyake Y, Ueno H, Otsuka M, Nagano A, Isaka T. A pilot study on a potential relationship between leg bone length and sprint performance in sprinters; are there any event-related differences in 100-m and 400-m sprints? BMC Res Notes 2020; 13:297. [PMID: 32571392 PMCID: PMC7309971 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-020-05140-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined the relationship between leg bone length and sprint performance in sprinters. The leg bone lengths in 28 100-m specialized sprinters and 28 400-m specialized sprinters were measured using magnetic resonance imaging. The lengths of the upper and lower leg bones were assessed by calculating the lengths of the femur and tibia, respectively. To minimize differences in body size among participants, both bone lengths were normalized to body height. The ratio of the tibial length to femoral length was calculated to evaluate the interaction between the lengths of the upper and lower leg bones. International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) scores, based on the personal best times of the sprinters in each group were used as parameters for sprint performance. RESULTS There were no significant correlations between absolute and relative lengths of the femur and tibia and IAAF scores in both 100-m and 400-m sprinters. By contrast, the ratio of the tibial length to femoral length correlated significantly with IAAF score in 400-m sprinters (r = 0.445, P = 0.018), but not 100-m sprinters. These findings suggest that the leg bone lengths may play an important role in achieving superior long sprint performance in 400-m specialized sprinters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daichi Tomita
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Tadashi Suga
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan.
| | - Masafumi Terada
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Takahiro Tanaka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Yuto Miyake
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Ueno
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan.,Graduate School of Health and Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Tokyo, Japan.,Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Otsuka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Akinori Nagano
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
| | - Tadao Isaka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan
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Perez J, Guilhem G, Hager R, Brocherie F. Mechanical determinants of forward skating sprint inferred from off- and on-ice force-velocity evaluations in elite female ice hockey players. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:192-203. [PMID: 32241241 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1751304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the correlations between players' mechanical capacities determined during off- and on-ice tests. Whole body force-velocity relationships were assessed in elite female ice hockey players (n = 17) during jumping [squat jump (SJ)], running (5 and 30 m) and skating (5 and 40 m) sprint tasks. Mechanical capacities estimates include relative maximal theoretical force (F0rel), velocity (V0), power (Pmaxrel), slope of the linear relationship between force relative to body mass and velocity (SFVrel), maximal horizontal component of the ground reaction force to the corresponding resultant force (RFmax) and minimal rate of decrease of this ratio (DRF). On-ice mechanical capacities (F0rel, Pmaxrel, RFmax and DRF) largely-to-very largely correlated with 40-m skating split time (r ranging from 0.82 for DRF to -0.91 for Pmaxrel; p < 0.001). Performance variables (SJ height, 30-m running and 40-m forward skating split time) and Pmaxrel demonstrated the largest associations between jumping, running and skating tasks (r ranging from -0.81 for 30-m sprint running time to 0.92 for SJ height; p < 0.001). Small (V0, SFVrel, DRF and force-velocity deficit) to very large (Pmaxrel) correlations (r ranging from 0.58 to 0.72; p < 0.05) were obtained between mechanical variables inferred from off- and on-ice force-velocity tests. The capacity to generate high amounts of horizontal power and effective horizontal force during the first steps on the ice is paramount for forward skating sprint performance. Mechanical capacities determined during forward skating sprint could be considered in ice hockey testing to identify fitness and/or technical/training requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Perez
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France.,French Ice Hockey Federation, Cergy, France
| | - Gaël Guilhem
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Robin Hager
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Franck Brocherie
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
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Haugen TA, Breitschädel F, Seiler S. Sprint mechanical properties in soccer players according to playing standard, position, age and sex. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:1070-1076. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1741955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Haugen
- School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway
| | - Felix Breitschädel
- Norwegian Olympic Federation, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stephen Seiler
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
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Jiménez-Reyes P, Casado A, González JE, Rodríguez-Fernández C. Influence of Hurdling Clearance on Sprint Mechanical Properties in High-Level Athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 36:827-831. [PMID: 32149882 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Jiménez-Reyes, P, Casado, A, González, JE, and Rodríguez-Fernández, C. Influence of hurdling clearance on sprint mechanical properties in high-level athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Short hurdling races are sprint races in which athletes must also clear 10 hurdles. Assessing the force-velocity (F-V) profile in sprinting has been found useful for implementing individualized training programs and determining the mechanical effectiveness in force application. This study therefore compared the sprint mechanical F-V profile between flat and hurdle conditions to distinguish which mechanical capacity (i.e., maximum force [F0], maximum velocity [V0], or maximum power [Pmax]) is required to optimize performance in hurdling races. Twenty-two athletes (10 men and 12 women, aged: 22.4 ± 3.6 years old) competing at the national and elite performance levels conducted 2 maximal sprints of 40 m in both flat and hurdle conditions. F0, V0, FVslope, Pmax, and decrease and maximal ratio of horizontal force (DRF and RFpeak, respectively) were assessed for each condition. A higher F0 (effect size [ES] = 1.69) and a lower V0 (ES = 2.08), DRF (ES = 3.15) and RFpeak (ES = 1.31) were found in the hurdle condition than in the flat condition. No significant differences were observed between conditions for Pmax (ES = 0.01). These results support the potential of using the F-V profile to monitor sprint mechanics to optimize specific and individualized sprint training programs for hurdlers and sprinters. Coaches of hurdlers should thus consider implementing in their training routines exercises that were found to be effective on the development of F0, such as heavy load resisted sprints.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arturo Casado
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Isabel I University, Burgos, Spain
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Healy R, Smyth C, Kenny IC, Harrison AJ. Influence of Reactive and Maximum Strength Indicators on Sprint Performance. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 33:3039-3048. [PMID: 29939904 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Healy, R, Smyth, C, Kenny, IC, and Harrison, AJ. Influence of reactive and maximum strength indicators on sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res 33(11): 3039-3048, 2019-The primary aim of this study was to assess the relationship between reactive and maximal strength measures with 40 m sprint performance and mechanical properties. Fourteen male and 14 female sprinters participated in this study. On the first day, subjects performed 40 m sprints with 10-m split times recorded in addition to maximal theoretical velocity, maximal theoretical force and peak horizontal power, which were calculated from force-velocity relationships. On the second day, subjects performed isometric midthigh pulls (IMTPs) with peak force (PF) and relative PF calculated, drop jumps (DJs) and vertical hopping where the reactive strength index (RSI) was calculated as jump height (JH) divided by contact time (CT). Pearson correlations were used to assess the relationships between measures and independent samples t-tests were used to assess the differences between men and women. No significant correlations were found between DJ and hopping RSI and sprint measures. A significant strong positive correlation was found between IMTP PF and peak horizontal power in men only (r = 0.61). The male sprinters performed significantly better in all recorded measures apart from hopping (CT, JH and RSI) and DJ CT where no significant differences were found. The lack of association between reactive and maximal strength measures with sprint performance is potentially because of the test's prolonged CTs relative to sprinting and the inability to assess the technical application of force. Several methods of assessing reactive strength are needed that can better represent the demands of the distinct phases of sprinting e.g., acceleration, maximum velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Healy
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
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50
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van den Tillaar R. Comparison of step kinematics of active resisted 30 m sprints between experienced male and female sprinters. TRANSLATIONAL SPORTS MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/tsm2.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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