Properties of the late transient outward current in isolated intestinal smooth muscle cells of the guinea-pig

Sarcoplasmic reticulum function in smooth muscle

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of smooth muscles presents many intriguing facets and questions concerning its roles, especially as these change with development, disease, and modulation of physiological activity. The SR's function was originally perceived to be synthetic and then that of a Ca store for the contractile proteins, acting as a Ca amplification mechanism as it does in striated muscles. Gradually, as investigators have struggled to find a convincing role for Ca-induced Ca release in many smooth muscles, a role in controlling excitability has emerged. This is the Ca spark/spontaneous transient outward current coupling mechanism which reduces excitability and limits contraction. Release of SR Ca occurs in response to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, Ca, and nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate, and depletion of SR Ca can initiate Ca entry, the mechanism of which is being investigated but seems to involve Stim and Orai as found in nonexcitable cells. The contribution of the elemental Ca signals from the SR, sparks and puffs, to global Ca signals, i.e., Ca waves and oscillations, is becoming clearer but is far from established. The dynamics of SR Ca release and uptake mechanisms are reviewed along with the control of luminal Ca. We review the growing list of the SR's functions that still includes Ca storage, contraction, and relaxation but has been expanded to encompass Ca homeostasis, generating local and global Ca signals, and contributing to cellular microdomains and signaling in other organelles, including mitochondria, lysosomes, and the nucleus. For an integrated approach, a review of aspects of the SR in health and disease and during development and aging are also included. While the sheer versatility of smooth muscle makes it foolish to have a "one model fits all" approach to this subject, we have tried to synthesize conclusions wherever possible.

Calcium-induced calcium release in smooth muscle: the case for loose coupling

This article reviews the key experiments demonstrating calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) in smooth muscle and contrasts the biophysical and molecular features of coupling between the sarcolemmal (L-type Ca(2+) channel) and sarcoplasmic reticulum (ryanodine receptor) Ca(2+) channels in smooth and cardiac muscle. Loose coupling refers to the coupling process in smooth muscle in which gating of ryanodine receptors is non-obligate and may occur with a variable delay following opening of the sarcolemmal Ca(2+) channels. These features have been observed in the earliest studies of CICR in smooth muscle and are in marked contrast to cardiac CICR, where a close coupling between T-tubular and SR membranes results in tight coupling between the gating events. The relationship between this "loose coupling" and distinct subcellular release sites within smooth muscle cells, termed frequent discharge sites, is discussed.

Signaling between SR and plasmalemma in smooth muscle: sparks and the activation of Ca2+-sensitive ion channels

Intracellular calcium ions are involved in the regulation of nearly every aspect of cell function. In smooth muscle, Ca2+ can be delivered to Ca2+-sensitive effector molecules either by influx through plasma membrane ion channels or by intracellular Ca2+ release events. Ca2+ sparks are transient local increases in intracellular Ca2+ that arise from the opening of ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ release channels (ryanodine receptors) located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In arterial myocytes, Ca2+ sparks occur near the plasma membrane and act to deliver high (microM) local Ca2+ to plasmalemmal Ca2+-sensitive ion channels, without directly altering global cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations. The two major ion channel targets of Ca2+ sparks are Ca2+-activated chloride (Cl(Ca)) channels and large-conductance Ca2+-activated potassium (BK) channels. The activation of BK channels by Ca2+ sparks play an important role in the regulation of arterial diameter and appear to be involved in the action of a variety of vasodilators. The coupling of Ca2+ sparks to BK channels can be influenced by a number of factors including membrane potential and modulatory beta subunits of BK channels. Cl(Ca) channels, while not present in all smooth muscle, can also be activated by Ca2+ sparks in some types of smooth muscle. Ca2+ sparks can also influence the activity of Ca2+-dependent transcription factors and expression of immediate early response genes such as c-fos. In summary, Ca2+ sparks are local Ca2+ signaling events that in smooth muscle can act on plasma membrane ion channels to influence excitation-contraction coupling as well as gene expression.

Calcium sparks in smooth muscle

Local intracellular Ca(2+) transients, termed Ca(2+) sparks, are caused by the coordinated opening of a cluster of ryanodine-sensitive Ca(2+) release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of smooth muscle cells. Ca(2+) sparks are activated by Ca(2+) entry through dihydropyridine-sensitive voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels, although the precise mechanisms of communication of Ca(2+) entry to Ca(2+) spark activation are not clear in smooth muscle. Ca(2+) sparks act as a positive-feedback element to increase smooth muscle contractility, directly by contributing to the global cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]) and indirectly by increasing Ca(2+) entry through membrane potential depolarization, caused by activation of Ca(2+) spark-activated Cl(-) channels. Ca(2+) sparks also have a profound negative-feedback effect on contractility by decreasing Ca(2+) entry through membrane potential hyperpolarization, caused by activation of large-conductance, Ca(2+)-sensitive K(+) channels. In this review, the roles of Ca(2+) sparks in positive- and negative-feedback regulation of smooth muscle function are explored. We also propose that frequency and amplitude modulation of Ca(2+) sparks by contractile and relaxant agents is an important mechanism to regulate smooth muscle function.

Excitation-contraction coupling in gastrointestinal and other smooth muscles

The main contributors to increases in [Ca2+]i and tension are the entry of Ca2+ through voltage-dependent channels opened by depolarization or during action potential (AP) or slow-wave discharge, and Ca2+ release from store sites in the cell by the action of IP3 or by Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+)-release (CICR). The entry of Ca2+ during an AP triggers CICR from up to 20 or more subplasmalemmal store sites (seen as hot spots, using fluorescent indicators); Ca2+ waves then spread from these hot spots, which results in a rise in [Ca2+]i throughout the cell. Spontaneous transient releases of store Ca2+, previously detected as spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs), are seen as sparks when fluorescent indicators are used. Sparks occur at certain preferred locations--frequent discharge sites (FDSs)--and these and hot spots may represent aggregations of sarcoplasmic reticulum scattered throughout the cytoplasm. Activation of receptors for excitatory signal molecules generally depolarizes the cell while it increases the production of IP3 (causing calcium store release) and diacylglycerols (which activate protein kinases). Activation of receptors for inhibitory signal molecules increases the activity of protein kinases through increases in cAMP or cGMP and often hyperpolarizes the cell. Other receptors link to tyrosine kinases, which trigger signal cascades interacting with trimeric G-protein systems.

Identification of rhythmically active cells in guinea-pig stomach

1. When intracellular recordings were made from the antral region of guinea-pig stomach, cells with different patterns of electrical activity were detected. 2. One group of cells, slow-wave cells, generated slow waves which consisted of initial and secondary components. When filled with either Lucifer Yellow or neurobiotin, the cells identified as smooth muscle cells lying in the circular muscle layer. 3. A second group of cells, driving cells, generated large, rapidly rising, potential changes, driving potentials. They had small cell bodies with several processes. With neurobiotin, a network of cells was visualized that resembled c-kit positive interstitial cells of the myenteric region. 4. A third group of cells generated sequences of potential changes which resembled driving potentials but had smaller amplitudes and slow rates of rise. These cells resembled smooth muscle cells lying in the longitudinal muscle layer. 5. When simultaneous recordings were made from the driving and slow-wave cells, driving potentials and slow waves occurred synchronously. Current injections indicated that both cell types were part of a common electrical syncytium. 6. The initial component of slow waves persisted in low concentrations of caffeine, but the secondary component was abolished; higher concentrations shortened the duration of the residual initial component. Driving potentials continued in the presence of low concentrations of caffeine; moderate concentrations of caffeine shortened their duration. 7. Hence three different types of cells were distinguished on the basis of their electrical activity, their responses to caffeine and their structure. These were smooth muscle cells, lying in the longitudinal and circular layers, and interstitial cells in the myenteric region. The observations suggest that interstitial cells initiate slow waves.

Physiological features of visceral smooth muscle cells, with special reference to receptors and ion channels

Visceral smooth muscle cells (VSMC) play an essential role, through changes in their contraction-relaxation cycle, in the maintenance of homeostasis in biological systems. The features of these cells differ markedly by tissue and by species; moreover, there are often regional differences within a given tissue. The biophysical features used to investigate ion channels in VSMC have progressed from the original extracellular recording methods (large electrode, single or double sucrose gap methods), to the intracellular (microelectrode) recording method, and then to methods for recording from membrane fractions (patch-clamp, including cell-attached patch-clamp, methods). Remarkable advances are now being made thanks to the application of these more modern biophysical procedures and to the development of techniques in molecular biology. Even so, we still have much to learn about the physiological features of these channels and about their contribution to the activity of both cell and tissue. In this review, we take a detailed look at ion channels in VSMC and at receptor-operated ion channels in particular; we look at their interaction with the contraction-relaxation cycle in individual VSMC and especially at the way in which their activity is related to Ca2+ movements and Ca2+ homeostasis in the cell. In sections II and III, we discuss research findings mainly derived from the use of the microelectrode, although we also introduce work done using the patch-clamp procedure. These sections cover work on the electrical activity of VSMC membranes (sect. II) and on neuromuscular transmission (sect. III). In sections IV and V, we discuss work done, using the patch-clamp procedure, on individual ion channels (Na+, Ca2+, K+, and Cl-; sect. IV) and on various types of receptor-operated ion channels (with or without coupled GTP-binding proteins and voltage dependent and independent; sect. V). In sect. VI, we look at work done on the role of Ca2+ in VSMC using the patch-clamp procedure, biochemical procedures, measurements of Ca2+ transients, and Ca2+ sensitivity of contractile proteins of VSMC. We discuss the way in which Ca2+ mobilization occurs after membrane activation (Ca2+ influx and efflux through the surface membrane, Ca2+ release from and uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and dynamic changes in Ca2+ within the cytosol). In this article, we make only limited reference to vascular smooth muscle research, since we reviewed the features of ion channels in vascular tissues only recently.

Activation of Ca(2+)-activated K+ (maxi-K+) channel by angiotensin II in myocytes of the guinea pig ileum

We investigated the regulation of the Ca(2+)-activated K+ (maxi-K+) channel by angiotensin II (ANG II) and its synthetic analog, [Lys2]ANG II, in freshly dispersed intestinal myocytes. We identified a maxi-K+ channel population in the inside-out patch configuration on the basis of its conductance (257 +/- 4 pS in symmetrical 150 mM KCl solution), voltage and Ca2+ dependence of channel opening, low Na(+)-to-K+ and Cl(-)-to-K+ permeability ratios, and blockade by external Cs+ and tetraethylammonium chloride. ANG II and [Lys2]ANG II caused an indirect, reversible, Ca(2+)- and dose-dependent activation of maxi-K+ channels in cell-attached experiments when cells were bathed in high-K+ solution. This effect was reversibly blocked by DUP-753, being that it is mediated by the AT1 receptor. Evidences that activation of the maxi-K+ channel by ANG II requires a rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) as an intermediate step were the shift of the open probability of the channel-membrane potential relationship to less positive membrane potentials and the sustained increase in [Ca2+]i in fura 2-loaded myocytes. The preservation of the pharmacomechanical coupling of ANG II in these cells provides a good model for the study of transmembrane signaling responses to ANG II and analogs in this tissue.

Variability in spontaneous subcellular calcium release in guinea-pig ileum smooth muscle cells

1. Spontaneous, localized transient increases in [Ca2+]i ('Ca2+ sparks') were observed in about 40 % of fluo-3-loaded myocytes examined using laser scanning confocal microscopy. Ca2+ sparks persisted after application of Cd2+ (200 microM), but were abolished by ryanodine (30 microM) or thapsigargin (0.1 microM), suggesting that they arise from the spontaneous activation of ryanodine receptors (RyR) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). 2. Ca2+ sparks occurred much more frequently at certain sites (or 'frequent discharge sites', FDSs) within any confocal plane of the cell and line-scan imaging revealed a wide variation in their spatial size, amplitude and time course. Some spontaneous local transients were very similar to 'Ca2+ sparks' observed in heart, i.e. lasting approximately 200 ms with a peak fluorescence ratio of 1.75 +/- 0.23 (mean +/- s.d., n = 33). Other events were faster and smaller, lasting only approximately 40 ms with a peak normalized fluorescence of 1.36 +/- 0.09 (mean +/- s.d., n = 28). 3. Spontaneous Ca2+ waves with a wide range of propagation velocities (between 30 and 260 micron s-1) were also observed. In about 60 % of records (n = 33), Ca2+ sparks could be detected at the sites of wave initiation. Waves of elevated [Ca2+]i propagated with non-constant velocity and in some cases terminated. These observations could be explained by heterogeneity in the distribution of subcellular release sites as well as variability in the contribution of each release site to the wave. 4. Spontaneous [Ca2+]i transients in single dispersed visceral smooth muscle cells have a wide spectrum of behaviour that is likely to be the result of spatio-temporal recruitment of smaller local events, probably via a calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) mechanism. The spatial non-uniformity of SR and RyR distribution within the cell may account for the existence of 'frequent discharge sites' firing the majority of the smooth muscle Ca2+ sparks and the wide variation in the Ca2+ wave propagation velocities observed.

Characterization of action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transients in single smooth muscle cells of guinea-pig ileum

1. To characterize increases in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) associated with discharge of action potentials, membrane potential and [Ca2+]i were simultaneously recorded from single smooth muscle cells of guinea-pig ileum by use of a combination of nystatin-perforated patch clamp and fura-2 fluorimetry techniques. 2. A single action potential in response to a depolarizing current pulse elicited a transient rise in [Ca2+]i. When the duration of the current pulse was prolonged, action potentials were repeatedly discharged during the early period of the pulse duration with a progressive decrease in overshoot potential, upstroke rate and repolarization rate. However, such action potentials could each trigger [Ca2+]i transients with an almost constant amplitude. 3. Nicardipine (1 microM) and La3+ (10 microM), blockers of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCCs), abolished both the action potential discharge and the [Ca2+]i transient. 4. Charybdotoxin (ChTX, 300 nM) and tetraethylammonium (TEA, 2 mM), blockers of large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels, decreased the rate of repolarization of action potentials but increased the amplitude of [Ca2+]i transients. 5. Thapsigargin (1 microM), an inhibitor of SR Ca2+-ATPase, slowed the falling phase and somewhat increased the amplitude, of action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transients without affecting action potentials. In addition. in voltage-clamped cells, the drug had little effect on the voltage step-evoked Ca2+ current but exerted a similar effect on its concomitant rise in [Ca2+]i to that on the action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transient. 6. Similar action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transients were induced by brief exposures to high-K+ solution. They were not decreased, but rather increased, after depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores by a combination of ryanodine (30 microM) and caffeine (10 mM) through an open-lock of Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR)-related channels. 7. The results show that action potentials, discharged repeatedly during the early period of a long membrane depolarization, undergo a progressive change in configuration but can each trigger a constant rise in [Ca2+]i. Intracellular Ca2+ stores have a role, especially in accelerating the falling phase of the action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transients by replenishing cytosolic Ca2+. No evidence was provided for the involvement of CICR in the action potential-triggered [Ca2+]i transient.

Spontaneous transient outward currents in smooth muscle cells

Spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs) lasting about 100 ms occur in single smooth muscle cells and represent the simultaneous opening of up to a hundred calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels. The recent observation of brief focal releases of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium ('sparks') in smooth muscle cells has provided support for the original suggestion that STOCs arise due to the spontaneous releases of calcium from the SR close to the sarcolemma. However, it is possible that such releases occur in a region of close apposition of SR membrane and sarcolemma about 0.1 microns wide ('junctional space') in which case they would be detectable by endogenous calcium-sensitive molecules such as BK channels but, using present confocal microscopy technique, not by calcium-indicator dyes introduced into the cell; should calcium escape from the junctional space then it may be visualised as 'sparks' by the fluorescent emission from calcium-indicator dyes using confocal microscopy. Some STOCs seem too large to represent the effect of a single 'spark' and some form of calcium-induced calcium release or 'macrospark' may be involved in their generation. Depletion of calcium stores by caffeine, ryanodine, or by activation of receptors linked to the phospholipase C/inositol trisphosphate system abolishes STOCs. However, low concentrations of caffeine or inositol trisphosphate accelerate STOC discharge by an unknown mechanism and often decrease STOC size presumably by depleting store calcium; similar effects are produced by agents such as cyclopiazonic acid and thapsigargin which inhibit calcium storage mechanisms (largely the SR calcium pump).

Role of sarcoplasmic reticulum in inhibitory junction potentials and hyperpolarizations by nitric oxide donors in opossum oesophagus

1. Previous patch clamp studies of oesophageal circular muscle cells showed that nitric oxide (NO) modulated the opening of Ca2(+)-activated K+ channels involved in mediating the inhibitory junction potentials (i.j.ps). This study clarified the role of Ca2+ release from the superficial sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in the mechanism of i.j.ps or hyperpolarizing responses to NO-releasing compounds. Electrical and mechanical activities were simultaneously recorded by intracellular microelectrode or double sucrose gap techniques. 2. The NO-donors, sydnonimine (SIN-1) and sodium nitroprusside, each at 500 microM, hyperpolarized oesophageal circular muscle cells by 15-20 mV, like i.j.ps. 3. The selective inhibitors of SR Ca2(+)-ATPase (cyclopiazonic acid 10-30 microM and thapsigargin 5 microM) and the SR Ca2+ release channel activator (ryanodine 30 microM) caused depolarization and spontaneous contractions which were diminished after prolonged (> 30 min) incubation with these agents in Ca2(+)-containing medium. Moreover, these agents inhibited both the i.j.p. and NO-donor hyperpolarizations, suggesting that a functional SR Ca2+ uptake is necessary for the response to endogenous or exogenous NO. 4. These results, along with our previous findings of the dependence of i.j.ps and NO-donor hyperpolarizations on K+ channel activation and cyclic GMP elevation, support the hypothesis that subplasmalemmal (Ca2+)i elevation, via vectorial Ca2+ release from superficial SR toward the plasmalemma, may be an important mechanism by which NO, from NO-liberating compounds or released from inhibitory neurones induces relaxation and i.j.ps in opossum oesophagus.

High cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels reached during Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release in single smooth muscle cell as reported by a low affinity Ca2+ indicator Mag-Indo-1

The low-affinity Ca2+ indicator Mag-Indo-1 was used to measure increments of ionised Ca2+ concentration in the cytoplasm of single smooth muscle cells isolated from guinea-pig urinary bladder. With 3.6 mM [Ca2+]o, depolarization steps to 0 mV were associated with a transient increase of fluorescence ratio (F410/F470) only when Ica triggered a Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release (CICR). [Ca2+]i transiently peaked to 3-5 microM and despite continuous Ca2+ influx the [Ca2+]i signal fell close to the baseline. Rapidly applied caffeine (10 mM) increased [Ca2+]l by 16 microM, the response was completely blocked by intracellular ryanodine (20 microM). With ryanodine intracellularly, Ica produced very small [Ca2+]i signals unless it was augmented by elevation of [Ca2+]0 to 10 mM and addition of 1 microM Bay K8644. Under these conditions, [Ca2+]l responded with a tonic elevation lasting as long as the depolarizing pulse. It is concluded that the low-affinity indicator Mag-Indo-1 reports predominantly Ca2+ release from SR in cytoplasm.

Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release activates K+ currents by a cyclic GMP-dependent mechanism in single gastric smooth muscle cells

The participation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channels in the activation of Ca(2+)-sensitive K+ currents (IK(Ca)) by cyclic dibutyryl GMP was investigated in smooth muscle cells from the circular layer of guinea-pig gastric fundus. All experiments were performed in the presence of 3 microM nicardipine into the bath and low Ca2+ buffering capacity of the pipette-filling solution (pCa 7.4). Ruthenium red (10 microM) as well as its combination with 10 microM heparin abolished the cyclic GMP-induced activation of IK(Ca), while 10 microM heparin remained ineffective. Ryanodine (10 microM) and the subsequently added 1 microM thapsigargin induced a relatively small increase in IK(Ca) amplitudes. The addition of 10 microM ryanodine to 1 microM thapsigargin-containing bath solution caused a vast increase in IK(Ca). It is hypothesyzed that protein kinase G-induced vectorial Ca2+ flux from the cell bulk and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores toward the plasma membrane is realized by a spontaneous Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release from a superficially situated Ca2+ store.

Voltage-dependent suppression of calcium current by caffeine in single smooth muscle cells of the guinea-pig urinary bladder

The suppressive action of caffeine on L-type Ca current (Ica) in smooth muscle cells of the guinea-pig urinary bladder was investigated using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. Caffeine (5-30 mM) suppressed Ica, the effect having two phases: a rapid and transient suppression of Ica, which was followed by a sustained suppression. When intracellular Ca2+ was strongly buffered by the Ca2+ chelator EGTA (20 mM) or BAPTA (5 mM) in the patch pipette, the transient suppression of Ica was abolished, whereas the sustained effect remained. Similarly, inclusion of both 10 mM procaine and 1 mg/ml heparin in the patch pipette blocked the transient suppression of Ica, but did not block the sustained effect. The degree of the sustained effect of caffeine on Ica was dose-dependent with a kd of 20 mM. Application of the cyclic AMP analogue, 8-bromo-cyclic AMP (100 microM) or forskolin (10 microM) to the bath failed to mimick the sustained suppression of Ica, suggesting that inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity was not involved in the caffeine action. The steady-state activation curve remained unchanged by 10 mM caffeine but the steady-state inactivation curve was significantly shifted in the negative direction by 15.6 mV in 1.8 mM Ca2+ solution or by 10 mV in 1.8 mM Ba2+ solution. From these results it appears that caffeine inhibits L-type Ica via two mechanisms: (1) it releases Ca2+ from an internal store causing a transient Ca2+ -mediated inactivation of the Ca channel; (2) it inhibits Ca channel via a mechanism that does not require such a Ca2+ release. It is possible that caffeine suppresses Ica through a preferential binding to the inactivated state of L-type Ca channel.

Caffeine-induced shortening of isolated outer hair cells: an osmotic mechanism of action

The application of caffeine to the bathing medium of isolated cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) induces shortening of the cells (Slepecky et al., 1988). This study was designed to test the hypothesis that a 'smooth muscle-like' mechanism was responsible for the caffeine-induced shortening of OHCs as suggested by Slepecky et al. OHCs were isolated from guinea pig cochleae and length measurements were taken during various drug perfusions. Antagonists of the ryanodine receptor/Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release (CICR; tetracaine, ruthenium red, and ryanodine) failed to block the caffeine-induced shortening of the OHCs. Application of the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 caused cell length to increase. These results did not support this hypothesis and therefore, an osmotic mechanism was proposed.

Efficacy of peak Ca2+ currents (ICa) as trigger of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release in myocytes from the guinea-pig coronary artery

1. Increments in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration (delta[Ca2+]c) were measured in single smooth muscle cells from guinea-pig coronary artery together with the density of peak Ca2+ currents (ICa) in response to clamp steps from -50 to 0 mV. The comparison of depolarization- with caffeine-induced delta[Ca2+]c was used to define the efficacy by which ICa can trigger Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). 2. At 2.5 mM extracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]o), depolarization induced a rapid rise of delta[Ca2+]c followed by a slow creep. Peak [Ca2+]c occurred within ca 30 s and could be followed by an undershoot and a second rise in [Ca2+]c. The creep was blocked by ryanodine but was insensitive to block of InsP3 receptors with heparin. The creep was not observed in Cs(+)-filled cells. After disappearance of the creep, a tonic delta[Ca2+]c became unmasked. 3. At 2.5 mM [Ca2+]o, peak ICa was -0.80 +/- 0.17 microA cm-2. delta[Ca2+] peaked at the end of the 6 s pulse at 202 +/- 98 nM while caffeine-induced delta[Ca2+]c peaked at 1330 +/- 410 nM. The ratio of depolarization- to caffeine-induced delta[Ca2+]c was 10 +/- 6%. 4. In media containing 10 mM [Ca2+]o plus 1 microM Bay K 8644, peak ICa was -2.6 +/- 1.1 microA cm-2 and delta[Ca2+]c peaked within 2.5 s at 451 +/- 194 nM. Paired measurements yielded the ratio of depolarization- to caffeine induced delta[Ca2+]c as 30 +/- 10%. Depolarization-induced delta[Ca2+]c was nearly blocked by caffeine and reduced by ryanodine to 30%, suggesting the contribution of Ca2+ release from caffeine- and ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ stores. 5. Trypsin (1 mg ml-1) in the electrode solution (10 mM [Ca2+]o plus 1 microM Bay K 8644) increased peak ICa up to 12.5 microA cm-2. ICa induced a delta[Ca2+]c of 990 +/- 210 nM and was accompanied by a 'hump' of IK,Ca. When applied briefly after peak delta[Ca2+]c, caffeine increased [Ca2+]c only moderately. The results suggest that a peak ICa can trigger a synchronized whole-cell Ca2+ release only if ICa is strongly augmented. 6. Amplitude and rate of rise of delta[Ca2+]c were graded by test step potentials along a bell-shaped voltage-dependent curve, similar to that of L-type ICa. Steps to +80 mV induced no delta[Ca2+]c when the electrode solution contained 10 mM Na+. However, with 150 mM intrapipette Na+, pulses to +80 mV induced delta[Ca2+]c.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Ca2+ inhibition of inositol trisphosphate-induced Ca2+ release in single smooth muscle cells of guinea-pig small intestine

1. Single smooth muscle cells from the longitudinal muscle layer of guinea-pig small intestine were voltage clamped using patch pipettes in the whole-cell mode. 2. When D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) was released at intervals, by photolysis of 'caged' InsP3 within the cell, increases in [Ca2+]i in many cells, as judged from Ca(2+)-activated K(+)-current, were all-or-none; release of InsP3 before a critical interval had elapsed, which was quite stable for an individual cell, resulted in no response. After Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release had been evoked by depolarization, the InsP3 response was inhibited. Oscillations in [Ca2+]i evoked by muscarinic receptor activation were unaffected by Ruthenium Red; during these oscillations exogenous InsP3 was not effective close to, or shortly after, peak [Ca2+]i but was effective at other times. 3. Reproducible release of Ca2+ and elevation of [Ca2+]i could be produced by brief (up to 0.5 s) pressure applications of 10 mM caffeine at intervals of 10 s or greater but caffeine itself rarely evoked oscillations in [Ca2+]i. Responses to flash release of InsP3 were reduced after caffeine-induced responses and recovery of caffeine-induced Ca2+ release was faster than recovery of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release. 4. The results support the idea that InsP3-induced Ca(2+)-store release can be inhibited by a certain level of [Ca2+]i at a time when Ca2+ stores have refilled and can be released by caffeine; they also support the suggestion that during oscillations of [Ca2+]i evoked by muscarinic receptor activation, Ca2+ inhibition of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release at some critical level of [Ca2+]i allows Ca2+ stores to refill and leads to a fall in [Ca2+]i so contributing to the oscillations which are observed.

Photolytic manipulation of Ca2+ and the time course of slow, Ca(2+)-activated K+ current in rat hippocampal neurones

1. Experiments were performed on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells to investigate the time course of a slow, Ca(2+)-activated K+ current that follows a burst of action potentials. At a temperature of 27-30 degrees C, this current rises to a peak 200-400 ms following the cessation of Ca2+ entry before decaying to baseline in 4-8s. 2. Intracellular recordings were made using electrodes containing the photolabile calcium buffers nitr-5 or DM-nitrophen loaded appropriately with Ca2+. Under these conditions, photolysis of the compound using an ultraviolet flashlamp caused an instantanous increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ throughout the cell. The response to flash photolysis was a membrane hyperpolarization with an onset limited by the membrane time constant. Multiple (up to twenty) flash responses could be generated. 3. The postspike slow after-hyperpolarization (AHP) and flash-induced hyperpolarizations showed a common sensitivity to the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist isoprenaline. 4. Following a burst of spikes, the current underlying an AHP in progress could be terminated or reduced by photolysis-induced production of calcium buffer from diazo-4 within the cell. This action was rapid (within the setting time of the flash artifact, i.e. < 10 ms) despite the fact that the manipulation occurred 400-500 ms following the end of Ca2+ entry. 5. Partial block of the slow AHP by buffer production was accompanied by an increase in the time to peak of the event. 6. The time to peak of the slow AHP could also be manipulated by experiments which altered the spatial distribution of Ca2+ entry, such as production of calcium spikes or dendritic depolarization by glutamate in the presence of tetrodotoxin. 7. The Ca(2+)-dependent K+ current responsible for the slow AHP responds immediately to increase or decreases in cytoplasmic Ca2+. It seems likely, therefore, that the slow AHP is controlled solely by changes in free Ca2+ and that the time course is governed by the redistribution of cytoplasmic Ca2+ following activity-induced entry through voltage- or receptor-operated channels.

Some properties of Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release mechanism in single visceral smooth muscle cell of the guinea-pig

1. Late transient outward Ca(2+)-dependent K+ current (ILTO) correlated with Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release mechanism was studied in relation to the calcium inward current (ICa) in single isolated smooth muscle cells of the guinea-pig ileum using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. 2. The voltage dependencies of peak ICa and ILTO were both bell shaped. However, the I-V curve of the outward current was shifted toward more positive potentials by about 60 mV in comparison to that for ICa. 3. Reduction in the external Ca2+ concentration resulted in a decrease of peak amplitude of both ICa and ILTO. However, caffeine-induced outward current was also decreased abruptly suggesting a rapid loss of stored Ca2+ upon lowering the external Ca2+ concentration. 4. Investigation of the relation of ILTO to partially inactivated ICa showed that inactivation of ICa by approximately 65, 80 or 84% of control (produced by prepulse to -20 mV for 2 s, shifting the holding potential to -20 mV for 30 s or by the ramp voltage command from -50 to +10 mV, respectively) was without detectable effect on the ILTO generation. 5. Bath application of the Ca2+ antagonist nifedipine (300 nM) inhibited ICa by 81% without affecting ILTO peak amplitude (92.0 +/- 5.6% of control in six cells). The mean concentration-response curve for ICa inhibition was sigmoidal with the apparent dissociation constant of 86.9 nM, whereas that for the ILTO had a characteristic sharp transition indicating a definite threshold of Ca2+ influx for ILTO generation. 6. Application of Ca(2+)-free external solution during 500 ms of the time when ICa peaked inhibited the current by about 76% whereas the ILTO during such an intervention remained virtually unchanged. 7. In double-pulse experiments, with conditioning and test pulses to +10 mV from -50 mV and an interpulse interval of 600 ms, most of the cells (about 80%) showed larger outward current at the test pulse suggesting continued Ca2+ release triggered by Ca2+ influx during a short (50-200 ms) depolarizing prepulse. The outward current could also be evoked at large positive potentials (presumably near the calcium equilibrium potential) where it did not occur normally by a prepulse to +10 mV for 50 ms. The charge transferred by Ca2+ current necessary to activate Ca2+ release in most of the cells was estimated to be from 6 to 20 pC. 8. The data are interpreted to suggest that the Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release mechanism operates in single ileal cells in a regenerative manner.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Ca(2+)-activated and voltage-gated K+ currents in smooth muscle cells isolated from human mesenteric arteries

1. Smooth muscle cells were enzymatically isolated from arteries dissected from mesenteric fat removed from patients undergoing routine surgery. The whole-cell patch clamp technique was used to characterize the potassium (K+) currents and passive electrical properties of these cells, using high-K(+)-containing pipette solutions with either 0.2 mM EGTA or 10 mM EGTA and 10 mM BAPTA. 2. Cell capacitance, which is proportional to membrane surface area, was normally distributed around a value of 46 pF, and independent of artery size between 0.4 and 3.6 mm. The mean membrane potential measured under current clamp was -44.1 +/- 1.9 mV (n = 52). 3. Cells dialysed with 0.2 mM EGTA in order to weakly buffer intracellular Ca2+ demonstrated a noisy outward current with an apparent threshold near -30 mV, upon which were superimposed spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs). In the presence, but not the absence, of extracellular Ca2+, this current was potentiated if the holding potential was depolarized into the voltage range between -40 and +50 mV. This potentiation had a bell-shaped potential dependency which reflected the activation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in these cells. 4. The noisy current was blocked by externally applied tetraethylammonium (the dissociation constant, Kd = 0.85 mM), as were STOCs. This current was also reduced by about 40% by 8 nM charybdotoxin, and was transiently potentiated by 10 mM caffeine. The characteristics of this current therefore suggested that it was carried by large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels. 5. Dialysis of human mesenteric arterial cells with 10 mM EGTA and 10 mM BATPA was not able to completely suppress the Ca(2+)-activated current, and reduced by approximately 50% the amplitude of the outward current recorded at positive potentials. 6. Depolarization of strongly Ca(2+)-buffered cells in the presence of 30 mM TEA to block Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels revealed a residual outward current which had both transient and sustained components. These were blocked by 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) with a similar efficiency (Kd was 1.04 and 1.16 mM at +60 mV for transient and sustained current, respectively), but the voltage ranges over which they inactivated, and their rates of recovery from inactivation, were significantly different. 7. The transient and sustained currents had different sensitivities to external Ca2+ and Cd2+ ions. Ca2+ (5 mM) significantly reduced the amplitude and shifted the voltage dependency of inactivation of the transient but not the sustained component of the outward current. Cd2+ (0.2 mM) reduced the transient current by about 30% without affecting the sustained component amplitude.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)