Impact of hydrocarbon extraction on heavy metal concentrations in lowland paca (Cuniculus paca) from the Peruvian Amazon

Oil has been extracted from the Western Amazon since the 1920s, leading to severe environmental contamination due to frequent occurrence oil spills and the dumping of produced water. Local inhabitants, along with environmental and human rights organizations, have reported the adverse effects of oil-related pollution on their livelihoods and the ecosystems they depend on. Here, we study accumulation of oil-related heavy metals in wildlife, and its subsequent incorporation into the trophic chain. We analysed the concentration of 14 heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Hg, As, Ni, V, Ba, Se, Be, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Al) in liver samples from 78 lowland pacas (Cuniculus paca) hunted for subsistence in an oil-polluted area from the northern Peruvian Amazon where oil has been extracted since the 1970s (n = 38), and two control areas, the Yavari-Mirín River basin (n = 20), and the Pucacuro River basin (n = 20). Pacas in the oil-polluted area have significantly higher concentrations of Cd (P < 0.01) and Ba (P < 0.0001) compared to those in control areas, suggesting bioaccumulation of oil-related pollution. Conversely, Se levels were significantly lower in the oil-polluted area (P < 0.0001), likely due to the sequestration of Se by other heavy metals, particularly Cd. Additionally, minor variations in other heavy metals, e.g., Fe and Zn, were observed in pacas from the oil-polluted area, whereas control areas showed higher concentrations of Ni and Cu. Mn and Al levels did not significantly differ between the study areas. These results underscore the impact of oil extraction on the absorption and assimilation of heavy metals in wildlife, point at oil activities as the source of the high and unsafe blood Cd levels reported for the indigenous population of the studied oil extraction area and raise concerns about the long-term health risks from oil extraction posed to local Indigenous People who rely on subsistence hunting.

Conservation of the Rare and Endangered Vascular Plants in the Mining and Tourism Area: Khibiny Mountains, Murmansk Region, Russia

The Khibiny Mountains (hereafter called Khibiny Mts.) are one of the most urbanized and industrialized regions in the Russian Arctic. There are combined a developed mining complex, elaborate infrastructure, a well-known tourist resort, and a large population, all amidst an exceptionally rich biodiversity of plants. In this study, we analyzed the current knowledge of the spatial distribution of rare and endangered vascular plants and vegetation and the impacts of human activities on these ecosystems. Approximately 28% of the protected vascular plant species in the Murmansk Region were registered within the confines of the Khibiny Mts. In particular, although only a handful of protected species had a widespread presence, most rare species were confined to the southern reaches of the mountain range, with only a select few extending into other parts. Papaver lapponicum was the only species that thrived across the entire territory, including industrial areas. The studied territory contained nine specially protected areas spanning 123,220 hectares. Nature monuments adjacent to mining sites and urban centers play an important role in preserving regional biodiversity. However, the expansion of the mining industry, alongside deforestation and wildfires, poses considerable threats to the biodiversity of the Khibiny Mts. A comprehensive biodiversity conservation strategy implemented in this region balances the local and expansive territorial protection of rare species and habitats, ensuring environmental preservation while facilitating social and economic progress, a noteworthy example of environmental protection in the Arctic.

A methodology to prioritize ecosystem restoration of in-situ well pads in the Permian Basin of western Texas and southeastern New Mexico, USA

Since the mid-2000s, drilling and production of oil and gas activities have grown exponentially in the southwestern United States. The clearing of pre-existing vegetation and topsoil to build well pads is known to have a broad range of ecological, biological, hydrological, and health impacts, therefore ecosystem restoration of the well pads is generally required. This process, however, is often complicated by limited funding, various governing bodies and ownership, and frequent extreme weather events. To ensure that well pad construction does not result in damaging, irreversible environmental change in the region, a prioritization strategy is needed to maximize the effectiveness of restoration efforts. The objective of this study is to develop a methodology to prioritize well pads where ecosystem restoration is urgently needed. In this methodology, a set of locational soil (e.g., soil fragility, wind and water erodibility) and land cover (e.g., land cover, proximity to streams) attributes were derived from publicly available datasets and a restoration priority score system along with a weighting factor were assigned to individual attributes. Accordingly, a total restoration priority score (TRPS) was calculated for individual well pads. This methodology was applied to a dataset of >10,000 well pads located in the Permian Basin and the surrounding area. This method effectively filtered out a large number of sites with low TRPS, and identified a small portion of high-score, clustered well pads. The identification of such well pads makes the logistical challenge of targeted restoration much easier for stakeholders tasked with maximizing the effectiveness of restoration efforts with limited funding. Despite some known limitations and inaccuracies, this method is low-cost and can be easily adaptable to humid and sub-humid systems, and even to restoration relevant to non-oil and gas exploration activities, such as solar and wind development, in the southwestern United States and many other areas worldwide.

Effects of vehicle traffic on space use and road crossings of caribou in the Arctic

Assessing the effects of industrial development on wildlife is a key objective of managers and conservation practitioners. However, wildlife responses are often only investigated with respect to the footprint of infrastructure, even though human activity can strongly mediate development impacts. In Arctic Alaska, there is substantial interest in expanding energy development, raising concerns about the potential effects on barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti). While caribou generally avoid industrial infrastructure, little is known about the role of human activity in moderating their responses, and whether managing activity levels could minimize development effects. To address this uncertainty, we examined the influence of traffic volume on caribou summer space use and road crossings in the Central Arctic Herd within the Kuparuk and Milne Point oil fields on the North Slope of Alaska. We first modeled spatiotemporal variation in hourly traffic volumes across the road system from traffic counter data using gradient-boosted regression trees. We then used generalized additive models to estimate nonlinear step selection functions and road-crossing probabilities from collared female caribou during the post-calving and insect harassment seasons, when they primarily interact with roads. Step selection analyses revealed that caribou selected areas further from roads (~1-3 km) during the post-calving and mosquito seasons and selected areas with lower traffic volumes during all seasons, with selection probabilities peaking when traffic was <5 vehicles/h. Using road-crossing models, we found that caribou were less likely to cross roads during the insect seasons as traffic increased, but that response dissipated as insect harassment became more severe. Past studies suggested that caribou exhibit behavioral responses when traffic exceeds 15 vehicles/h, but our results demonstrate behavioral responses at much lower traffic levels. Our results illustrate that vehicle activity mediates caribou responses to road infrastructure, information that can be used in future land-use planning to minimize the behavioral responses of caribou to industrial development in sensitive Arctic landscapes.

Biomimicry in nanotechnology: a comprehensive review

Biomimicry has been utilized in many branches of science and engineering to develop devices for enhanced and better performance. The application of nanotechnology has made life easier in modern times. It has offered a way to manipulate matter and systems at the atomic level. As a result, the miniaturization of numerous devices has been possible. Of late, the integration of biomimicry with nanotechnology has shown promising results in the fields of medicine, robotics, sensors, photonics, etc. Biomimicry in nanotechnology has provided eco-friendly and green solutions to the energy problem and in textiles. This is a new research area that needs to be explored more thoroughly. This review illustrates the progress and innovations made in the field of nanotechnology with the integration of biomimicry.

An update on global mining land use

The growing demand for minerals has pushed mining activities into new areas increasingly affecting biodiversity-rich natural biomes. Mapping the land use of the global mining sector is, therefore, a prerequisite for quantifying, understanding and mitigating adverse impacts caused by mineral extraction. This paper updates our previous work mapping mining sites worldwide. Using visual interpretation of Sentinel-2 images for 2019, we inspected more than 34,000 mining locations across the globe. The result is a global-scale dataset containing 44,929 polygon features covering 101,583 km2 of large-scale as well as artisanal and small-scale mining. The increase in coverage is substantial compared to the first version of the dataset, which included 21,060 polygons extending over 57,277 km2. The polygons cover open cuts, tailings dams, waste rock dumps, water ponds, processing plants, and other ground features related to the mining activities. The dataset is available for download from https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.942325 and visualisation at www.fineprint.global/viewer.

Predicted wind and solar energy expansion has minimal overlap with multiple conservation priorities across global regions

Protected areas and renewable energy generation are critical tools to combat biodiversity loss and climate change, respectively. Over the coming decades, expansion of the protected area network to meet conservation objectives will be occurring alongside rapid deployment of renewable energy infrastructure to meet climate targets, driving potential conflict for a finite land resource. Renewable energy infrastructure can have negative effects on wildlife, and co-occurrence may mean emissions targets are met at the expense of conservation objectives. Here, we assess current and projected overlaps of wind and solar photovoltaic installations and important conservation areas across nine global regions using spatially explicit wind and solar data and methods for predicting future renewable expansion. We show similar levels of co-occurrence as previous studies but demonstrate that once area is accounted for, previous concerns about overlaps in the Northern Hemisphere may be largely unfounded, although they are high in some biodiverse countries (e.g., Brazil). Future projections of overlap between the two land uses presented here are generally dependent on priority threshold and region and suggest the risk of future conflict can be low. We use the best available data on protected area degradation to corroborate this level of risk. Together, our findings indicate that while conflicts between renewables and protected areas inevitably do occur, renewables represent an important option for decarbonization of the energy sector that would not significantly affect area-based conservation targets if deployed with appropriate policy and regulatory controls.

Insect Epigenetic Mechanisms Facing Anthropogenic-Derived Contamination, an Overview

Currently, the human species has been recognized as the primary species responsible for Earth's biodiversity decline. Contamination by different chemical compounds, such as pesticides, is among the main causes of population decreases and species extinction. Insects are key for ecosystem maintenance; unfortunately, their populations are being drastically affected by human-derived disturbances. Pesticides, applied in agricultural and urban environments, are capable of polluting soil and water sources, reaching non-target organisms (native and introduced). Pesticides alter insect's development, physiology, and inheritance. Recently, a link between pesticide effects on insects and their epigenetic molecular mechanisms (EMMs) has been demonstrated. EMMs are capable of regulating gene expression without modifying genetic sequences, resulting in the expression of different stress responses as well as compensatory mechanisms. In this work, we review the main anthropogenic contaminants capable of affecting insect biology and of triggering EMMs. EMMs are involved in the development of several diseases in native insects affected by pesticides (e.g., anomalous teratogenic reactions). Additionally, EMMs also may allow for the survival of some species (mainly pests) under contamination-derived habitats; this may lead to biodiversity decline and further biotic homogenization. We illustrate these patterns by reviewing the effect of neonicotinoid insecticides, insect EMMs, and their ecological consequences.

A global-scale data set of mining areas

The area used for mineral extraction is a key indicator for understanding and mitigating the environmental impacts caused by the extractive sector. To date, worldwide data products on mineral extraction do not report the area used by mining activities. In this paper, we contribute to filling this gap by presenting a new data set of mining extents derived by visual interpretation of satellite images. We delineated mining areas within a 10 km buffer from the approximate geographical coordinates of more than six thousand active mining sites across the globe. The result is a global-scale data set consisting of 21,060 polygons that add up to 57,277 km2. The polygons cover all mining above-ground features that could be identified from the satellite images, including open cuts, tailings dams, waste rock dumps, water ponds, and processing infrastructure. The data set is available for download from https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.910894 and visualization at www.fineprint.global/viewer .

Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity

Renewable energy production is necessary to halt climate change and reverse associated biodiversity losses. However, generating the required technologies and infrastructure will drive an increase in the production of many metals, creating new mining threats for biodiversity. Here, we map mining areas and assess their spatial coincidence with biodiversity conservation sites and priorities. Mining potentially influences 50 million km² of Earth’s land surface, with 8% coinciding with Protected Areas, 7% with Key Biodiversity Areas, and 16% with Remaining Wilderness. Most mining areas (82%) target materials needed for renewable energy production, and areas that overlap with Protected Areas and Remaining Wilderness contain a greater density of mines (our indicator of threat severity) compared to the overlapping mining areas that target other materials. Mining threats to biodiversity will increase as more mines target materials for renewable energy production and, without strategic planning, these new threats to biodiversity may surpass those averted by climate change mitigation.

Renewable energy production is necessary to mitigate climate change, however, generating the required technologies and infrastructure will demand huge production increases of many metals. Here, the authors map mining areas and assess spatial coincidence with biodiversity conservation sites, and show that new mining threats to biodiversity may surpass those averted by climate change mitigation.

Protecting biodiversity and economic returns in resource-rich tropical forests

In pursuit of socioeconomic development, many countries are expanding oil and mineral extraction into tropical forests. These activities seed access to remote, biologically rich areas, thereby endangering global biodiversity. Here we demonstrate that conservation solutions that effectively balance the protection of biodiversity and economic revenues are possible in biologically valuable regions. Using spatial data on oil profits and predicted species and ecosystem extents, we optimise the protection of 741 terrestrial species and 20 ecosystems of the Ecuadorian Amazon, across a range of opportunity costs (i.e. sacrifices of extractive profit). For such an optimisation, giving up 5% of a year's oil profits (US$ 221 million) allows for a protected area network that retains of an average of 65% of the extent of each species/ecosystem. This performance far exceeds that of the network produced by simple land area optimisation which requires a sacrifice of approximately 40% of annual oil profits (US$ 1.7 billion), and uses only marginally less land, to achieve equivalent levels of ecological protection. Applying spatial statistics to remotely sensed, historic deforestation data, we further focus the optimisation to areas most threatened by imminent forest loss. We identify Emergency Conservation Targets: areas that are essential to a cost-effective conservation reserve network and at imminent risk of destruction, thus requiring urgent and effective protection. Governments should employ the methods presented here when considering extractive led development options, to responsibly manage the associated ecological-economic trade-offs and protect natural capital. Article Impact Statement: Governments controlling resource extraction from tropical forests can arrange production and conservation to retain biodiversity and profits. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Effects of industrial disturbances on biodiversity of carrion-associated beetles

Energy production systems such as nuclear reactors and coal-burning power plants produce a multitude of waste contaminants including radionuclides, trace elements, and heavy metals. Among invertebrates, much of the effort to understand the impact of these contaminants has focused in aquatic environments, while relatively less attention has been on terrestrial communities. We investigated the effects of trace element and radionuclide contamination on assemblages of beetles that are drawn to vertebrate carrion. Samples were collected from riparian sites at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina to compare trap catches (i.e., measure of relative abundance) of beetles and species diversity along a habitat gradient (0-300 m) away from an aquatic habitat and between uncontaminated and contaminated sites. We collected 17,800 carrion-associated beetles representing 112 species in nine families, which were classified as either scavenger or predatory beetles. Beetle catches and species diversity were generally higher at contaminated than uncontaminated sites. These trends were likely driven by scavenger species, which showed similar patterns between sites, whereas patterns of catches and species diversity were variable between sites for predatory beetles. Species compositions of contaminated and uncontaminated sites were generally distinct, however habitat edges appeared to substantially affect beetle assemblages. Overall, our study suggests carrion beetle assemblages are sensitive to edge effects and may exhibit variable responses to the presence of anthropogenic contaminants or disturbances associated with energy production systems. Such results reflect the inherent variability among individual beetle species, populations, and communities to local environmental conditions, and underscores the need for multi-taxa approach in environmental impact assessments.

Impact of Locational Choices and Consumer Behaviors on Personal Land Footprints: An Exploration Across the Urban-Rural Continuum in the United States

Land is a scarce resource. We develop consumption-based land footprints (CBLF) for urban and rural U.S. residents to evaluate new levers for reducing land-demand by combining (1) direct land-use for human settlements including housing, (2) indirect land-use associated with personal consumption, for example, food and clothing. Results show that an average urban resident's indirect land-use (199 176 ft²/capita) is ∼23 times the direct land-use (8519 ft²/capita), for a total urban CBLF of 207 695 ft²/capita. Rural residents have a slightly higher (∼6%) indirect land-use and ∼10 times larger direct land-use compared to urban. Because in both cases, indirect land-use is much larger than direct, a strategic mix of individual actions including halving food waste (-4.7%), one-day weekly plant-based diet (-3.3%), reducing clothing consumption (-2.8%), and others, can together reduce CBLF by -12.8%. Meanwhile, housing and locational choices across the urban-rural continuum evaluated for the median-density Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSP MSA) yield CBLF reductions from -1.9% (from single- to multifamily housing) to -10.6% (from rural to the urban core). The analysis demonstrates that consumer behavior changes could rival housing/locational choices in order to reduce personal CBLF. Our method of combining input-output analysis with parcel data could be applied in different regions to provide customized information on CBLF mitigation strategies.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates

Human dependence on number of chemicals or chemical derivatives has increased alarmingly. Among the commodity chemicals, plastics are becoming independent for our modern lifestyle, as the usage of plastics is increasing worryingly. However, these synthetic plastics are extremely persistent in nature and accumulate in the environment, thereby leading to serious ecological problems. So, to build our economy sustainably, a need of replacement is necessary. Biomaterials in terms of bioplastics are an anticipated option, being synthesized and catabolized by different organisms with myriad biotechnological applications. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are among such biodegradable bioplastics, which are considered as an effective alternative for conventional plastics due to their similar mechanical properties of plastics. A range of microbes under different nutrient and environmental conditions produce PHAs significantly with the help of enzymes. PHA synthases encoded by phaC genes are the key enzymes that polymerize PHA monomers. Four major classes of PHA synthases can be distinguished based on their primary structures, as well as the number of subunits and substrate specificity. PHAs can also be produced from renewable feedstock under, unlike the petrochemically derived plastics that are produced by fractional distillation of depleting fossil fuels. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the simplest yet best known polyester of PHAs, as the PHB derived bioplastics are heat tolerant, thus used to make heat tolerant and clear packaging film. They have several medical applications such as drug delivery, suture, scaffold and heart valves, tissue engineering, targeted drug delivery, and agricultural fields. Genetic modification (GM) may be necessary to achieve adequate yields. The selections of suitable bacterial strains, inexpensive carbon sources, efficient fermentation, and recovery processes are also some aspects important aspects taken into consideration for the commercialization of PHA. PHA producers have been reported to reside at various ecological niches with few among them also produce some byproducts like extracellular polymeric substances, rhamnolipids and biohydrogen gas. So, the metabolic engineering thereafter promises to bring a feasible solution for the production of “green plastic” in order to preserve petroleum reserves and diminish the escalating human and animal health concerns environmental implications.

The influence of the global electric power system on terrestrial biodiversity

Understanding the relationship between the global electric power sector and biodiversity is central to identifying sustainable pathways to decarbonization. This study examines the relationship between the global electric power sector and threats to biodiversity. The biodiversity footprint of the electric power sector is primarily within the territory where demand for power resides, although substantial regional differences exist. The relationship between supply technologies and threats to biodiversity indicates that a shift to some nonfossil sources could reduce pressures on biodiversity, although there is uncertainty in how threats will scale given current deployment levels of nonfossil sources. The strong territorial link between electric power demand and biodiversity threat provides clear routes for governments to effectively manage biodiversity impacts of electric power transitions.

Given its total contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, the global electric power sector will be required to undergo a fundamental transformation over the next decades to limit anthropogenic climate change to below 2 °C. Implications for biodiversity of projected structural changes in the global electric power sector are rarely considered beyond those explicitly linked to climate change. This study uses a spatially explicit consumption-based accounting framework to examine the impact of demand for electric power on terrestrial vertebrate biodiversity globally. We demonstrate that the biodiversity footprint of the electric power sector is primarily within the territory where final demand for electric power resides, although there are substantial regional differences, with Europe displacing its biodiversity threat along international supply chains. The relationship between size of individual components of the electric power sector and threat to biodiversity indicates that a shift to nonfossil sources, such as solar and wind, could reduce pressures on biodiversity both within the territory where demand for power resides and along international supply chains. However, given the current levels of deployment of nonfossil sources of power, there is considerable uncertainty as to how the impacts of structural changes in the global electric power system will scale. Given the strong territorial link between demand and associated biodiversity impacts, development of strong national governance around the electric power sector represents a clear route to mitigate threats to biodiversity associated with efforts to decarbonize society over the coming century.

Mapping global development potential for renewable energy, fossil fuels, mining and agriculture sectors

Mapping suitable land for development is essential to land use planning efforts that aim to model, anticipate, and manage trade-offs between economic development and the environment. Previous land suitability assessments have generally focused on a few development sectors or lack consistent methodologies, thereby limiting our ability to plan for cumulative development pressures across geographic regions. Here, we generated 1-km spatially-explicit global land suitability maps, referred to as "development potential indices" (DPIs), for 13 sectors related to renewable energy (concentrated solar power, photovoltaic solar, wind, hydropower), fossil fuels (coal, conventional and unconventional oil and gas), mining (metallic, non-metallic), and agriculture (crop, biofuels expansion). To do so, we applied spatial multi-criteria decision analysis techniques that accounted for both resource potential and development feasibility. For each DPI, we examined both uncertainty and sensitivity, and spatially validated the map using locations of planned development. We illustrate how these DPIs can be used to elucidate potential individual sector expansion and cumulative development patterns.

Global assessment of marine biodiversity potentially threatened by offshore hydrocarbon activities

Increasing global energy demands have led to the ongoing intensification of hydrocarbon extraction from marine areas. Hydrocarbon extractive activities pose threats to native marine biodiversity, such as noise, light, and chemical pollution, physical changes to the sea floor, invasive species, and greenhouse gas emissions. Here, we assessed at a global scale the spatial overlap between offshore hydrocarbon activities and marine biodiversity (>25,000 species, nine major ecosystems, and marine protected areas), and quantify the changes over time. We discovered that two-thirds of global offshore hydrocarbon activities occur in areas within the top 10% for species richness, range rarity, and proportional range rarity values globally. Thus, while hydrocarbon activities are undertaken in less than one percent of the ocean's area, they overlap with approximately 85% of all assessed species. Of conservation concern, 4% of species with the largest proportion of their range overlapping hydrocarbon activities are range restricted, potentially increasing their vulnerability to localized threats such as oil spills. While hydrocarbon activities have extended to greater depths since the mid-1990s, we found that the largest overlap is with coastal ecosystems, particularly estuaries, saltmarshes and mangroves. Furthermore, in most countries where offshore hydrocarbon exploration licensing blocks have been delineated, they do not overlap with marine protected areas (MPAs). Although this is positive in principle, many countries have far more licensing block areas than protected areas, and in some instances, MPA coverage is minimal. These findings suggest the need for marine spatial prioritization to help limit future spatial overlap between marine conservation priorities and hydrocarbon activities. Such prioritization can be informed by the spatial and quantitative baseline information provided here. In increasingly shared seascapes, prioritizing management actions that set both conservation and development targets could help minimize further declines of biodiversity and environmental changes at a global scale.

Effects of narrow linear clearings on movement and habitat use in a boreal forest mammal community during winter

Linear clearings for human activities cause internal fragmentation of otherwise intact native forest, with many potential impacts on wildlife. Across a boreal forest region of some 4,000 km², we investigated how movements and habitat use of ecologically different mammal species are affected by narrow (about eight m) seismic line (SL) clearings associated with fossil fuel extraction, which form extensive networks many kilometers long. We conducted nine repeat snow track surveys during three winters at 14 pairs of one-kilometer transects, each comprising one transect along the SL and a second running perpendicular into adjacent forest. Data for 13 individually-analyzed mammal taxa (species or sets of closely related species) and five mammal groups, categorized based on body size-diet combinations, showed that movements across transects were either unaffected by SL clearings (relative to continuous forest) or restricted only slightly. However, these clearings were favored for linear travel by most species and body size-diet groups (excepting small mammals). The strength of this preference varied in a manner consistent with species' differing needs to move long distances (associated with their energetic requirements): large predators > large herbivores > mid-sized predators > mid-sized herbivores > small mammals. In terms of overall habitat use, large-bodied predators (e.g., wolves and coyotes) strongly selected SL clearings over forest, medium-sized predators (e.g., mustelids) and medium-sized herbivores (e.g., hares and squirrels) preferred forest, and neither large herbivores nor small mammals had a clear habitat preference. Consequently, there was a net shift in both species and trophic composition within the SL, in favor of large predators and away from medium-sized predators and herbivores. Given the high regional SL density (1.9 km/km²) such shifts are likely to have complex ecological consequences, of currently unknown magnitude.

Spatial Analysis of Accidental Oil Spills Using Heterogeneous Data: A Case Study from the North-Eastern Ecuadorian Amazon

Accidental oil spills were assessed in the north-eastern Ecuadorian Amazon, a rich biodiversity and cultural heritage area. Institutional reports were used to estimate oil spill volumes over the period 2001–2011. However, we had to make with heterogeneous and incomplete data. After statistically discriminating well- and poorly-documented oil blocks, some spill factors were derived from the former to spatially allocate oil spills where fragmentary data were available. Spatial prediction accuracy was assessed using similarity metrics in a cross-validation approach. Results showed 464 spill events (42.2/year), accounting for 10,000.2 t of crude oil, equivalent to annual discharges of 909.1 (±SD = 1219.5) t. Total spill volumes increased by 54.8% when spill factors were used to perform allocation to poorly-documented blocks. Resulting maps displayed pollution ‘hotspots’ in Dayuma and Joya de Los Sachas, with the highest inputs averaging 13.8 t km−2 year−1. The accuracy of spatial prediction ranged from 32 to 97%, depending on the metric and the weight given to double-zeros. Simulated situations showed that estimation accuracy depends on variabilities in incident occurrences and in spill volumes per incident. Our method is suitable for mapping hazards and risks in sensitive ecosystems, particularly in areas where incomplete data hinder this process.

Mining and biodiversity: key issues and research needs in conservation science

Mining poses serious and highly specific threats to biodiversity. However, mining can also be a means for financing alternative livelihood paths that, over the long-term, may prevent biodiversity loss. Complex and controversial issues associated with mining and biodiversity conservation are often simplified within a narrow frame oriented towards the negative impacts of mining at the site of extraction, rather than posed as a series of challenges for the conservation science community to embrace. Here, we synthesize core issues that, if better understood, may ensure coexistence between mining and conservation agendas. We illustrate how mining impacts biodiversity through diverse pathways and across spatial scales. We argue that traditional, site-based conservation approaches will have limited effect in preventing biodiversity loss against an increasing mining footprint, but opportunities to improve outcomes (e.g. through long-term strategic assessment and planning) do exist. While future mineral supply is uncertain, projections suggest demand will grow for many metals and shift mining operations towards more dispersed and biodiverse areas. Initiating dialogue between mining companies, policy-makers and conservation organizations is urgent, given the suite of international agendas simultaneously requiring more minerals but less biodiversity loss.

Primates in peril: the significance of Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for global primate conservation

Primates occur in 90 countries, but four-Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)-harbor 65% of the world's primate species (439) and 60% of these primates are Threatened, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017-3). Considering their importance for global primate conservation, we examine the anthropogenic pressures each country is facing that place their primate populations at risk. Habitat loss and fragmentation are main threats to primates in Brazil, Madagascar, and Indonesia. However, in DRC hunting for the commercial bushmeat trade is the primary threat. Encroachment on primate habitats driven by local and global market demands for food and non-food commodities hunting, illegal trade, the proliferation of invasive species, and human and domestic-animal borne infectious diseases cause habitat loss, population declines, and extirpation. Modeling agricultural expansion in the 21st century for the four countries under a worst-case-scenario, showed a primate range contraction of 78% for Brazil, 72% for Indonesia, 62% for Madagascar, and 32% for DRC. These pressures unfold in the context of expanding human populations with low levels of development. Weak governance across these four countries may limit effective primate conservation planning. We examine landscape and local approaches to effective primate conservation policies and assess the distribution of protected areas and primates in each country. Primates in Brazil and Madagascar have 38% of their range inside protected areas, 17% in Indonesia and 14% in DRC, suggesting that the great majority of primate populations remain vulnerable. We list the key challenges faced by the four countries to avert primate extinctions now and in the future. In the short term, effective law enforcement to stop illegal hunting and illegal forest destruction is absolutely key. Long-term success can only be achieved by focusing local and global public awareness, and actively engaging with international organizations, multinational businesses and consumer nations to reduce unsustainable demands on the environment. Finally, the four primate range countries need to ensure that integrated, sustainable land-use planning for economic development includes the maintenance of biodiversity and intact, functional natural ecosystems.

First evidences of Amazonian wildlife feeding on petroleum-contaminated soils: A new exposure route to petrogenic compounds?

Videos recorded with infrared camera traps placed in petroleum contaminated areas of the Peruvian Amazon have shown that four wildlife species, the most important for indigenous peoples' diet (lowland tapir, paca, red-brocket deer and collared peccary), consume oil-contaminated soils and water. Further research is needed to clarify whether Amazonian wildlife's geophagy can be a route of exposure to petrogenic contamination for populations living in the vicinity of oil extraction areas and relying on subsistence hunting.

Oil pollution in soils and sediments from the Northern Peruvian Amazon

Oil has been extracted from the Northern Peruvian Amazon for over four decades. However, few scientific studies have assessed the impacts of such activities in the environment and health of indigenous communities in the region. We have investigated the occurrence of petrogenic hydrocarbon pollution in soils and sediments from areas favoured as hunting or fishing grounds by local indigenous inhabitants. The study was conducted in one of the most productive oil blocks in Peru, located in the headwaters of the Amazon river. Soils and river sediments, in the vicinity of oil extraction and processing infrastructure, contained an oil pollution signature as attested by the occurrence of hopanes and steranes. Given the lack of any other significant source of oil pollution in the region, the sources of hydrocarbons are likely to be the activities of the oil industry in the oil block, from voluntary discharges or accidental spills. Spillage of produced water was commonplace until 2009. Moreover, petrogenic compounds were absent in control samples in sites far removed from any oil infrastructure in the oil block. Our findings suggest that wildlife and indigenous populations in this region of the Amazon are exposed to the ingestion of oil polluted soils and sediments. The data obtained supports previous claims that the local spillage of oil and produced waters in the water courses in the Corrientes and Pastaza basins could have eventually reached the main water course of the Amazon.

How Green is 'Green' Energy?

Renewable energy is an important piece of the puzzle in meeting growing energy demands and mitigating climate change, but the potentially adverse effects of such technologies are often overlooked. Given that climate and ecology are inextricably linked, assessing the effects of energy technologies requires one to consider their full suite of global environmental concerns. We review here the ecological impacts of three major types of renewable energy - hydro, solar, and wind energy - and highlight some strategies for mitigating their negative effects. All three types can have significant environmental consequences in certain contexts. Wind power has the fewest and most easily mitigated impacts; solar energy is comparably benign if designed and managed carefully. Hydropower clearly has the greatest risks, particularly in certain ecological and geographical settings. More research is needed to assess the environmental impacts of these 'green' energy technologies, given that all are rapidly expanding globally.

Mining drives extensive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

Mining poses significant and potentially underestimated risks to tropical forests worldwide. In Brazil’s Amazon, mining drives deforestation far beyond operational lease boundaries, yet the full extent of these impacts is unknown and thus neglected in environmental licensing. Here we quantify mining-induced deforestation and investigate the aspects of mining operations, which most likely contribute. We find mining significantly increased Amazon forest loss up to 70 km beyond mining lease boundaries, causing 11,670 km² of deforestation between 2005 and 2015. This extent represents 9% of all Amazon forest loss during this time and 12 times more deforestation than occurred within mining leases alone. Pathways leading to such impacts include mining infrastructure establishment, urban expansion to support a growing workforce, and development of mineral commodity supply chains. Mining-induced deforestation is not unique to Brazil; to mitigate adverse impacts of mining and conserve tropical forests globally, environmental assessments and licensing must considered both on- and off-lease sources of deforestation.

Industrial mining contributes to deforestation in the Amazon, and the extent of effect could occur beyond areas of land explicitly permitted for mining. Here, Sonter et al. show that deforestation in 70-km buffer zones around mines has led to an estimated 9% of Brazilian Amazon deforestation since 2005.

Exposure to seismic air gun signals causes physiological harm and alters behavior in the scallop Pecten fumatus

Seismic surveys map the seabed using intense, low-frequency sound signals that penetrate kilometers into the Earth's crust. Little is known regarding how invertebrates, including economically and ecologically important bivalves, are affected by exposure to seismic signals. In a series of field-based experiments, we investigate the impact of exposure to seismic surveys on scallops, using measurements of physiological and behavioral parameters to determine whether exposure may cause mass mortality or result in other sublethal effects. Exposure to seismic signals was found to significantly increase mortality, particularly over a chronic (months postexposure) time scale, though not beyond naturally occurring rates of mortality. Exposure did not elicit energetically expensive behaviors, but scallops showed significant changes in behavioral patterns during exposure, through a reduction in classic behaviors and demonstration of a nonclassic "flinch" response to air gun signals. Furthermore, scallops showed persistent alterations in recessing reflex behavior following exposure, with the rate of recessing increasing with repeated exposure. Hemolymph (blood analog) physiology showed a compromised capacity for homeostasis and potential immunodeficiency, as a range of hemolymph biochemistry parameters were altered and the density of circulating hemocytes (blood cell analog) was significantly reduced, with effects observed over acute (hours to days) and chronic (months) scales. The size of the air gun had no effect, but repeated exposure intensified responses. We postulate that the observed impacts resulted from high seabed ground accelerations driven by the air gun signal. Given the scope of physiological disruption, we conclude that seismic exposure can harm scallops.

Improving spatial prioritisation for remote marine regions: optimising biodiversity conservation and sustainable development trade-offs

Creating large conservation zones in remote areas, with less intense stakeholder overlap and limited environmental information, requires periodic review to ensure zonation mitigates primary threats and fill gaps in representation, while achieving conservation targets. Follow-up reviews can utilise improved methods and data, potentially identifying new planning options yielding a desirable balance between stakeholder interests. This research explored a marine zoning system in north-west Australia-a biodiverse area with poorly documented biota. Although remote, it is economically significant (i.e. petroleum extraction and fishing). Stakeholder engagement was used to source the best available biodiversity and socio-economic data and advanced spatial analyses produced 765 high resolution data layers, including 674 species distributions representing 119 families. Gap analysis revealed the current proposed zoning system as inadequate, with 98.2% of species below the Convention on Biological Diversity 10% representation targets. A systematic conservation planning algorithm Maxan provided zoning options to meet representation targets while balancing this with industry interests. Resulting scenarios revealed that conservation targets could be met with minimal impacts on petroleum and fishing industries, with estimated losses of 4.9% and 7.2% respectively. The approach addressed important knowledge gaps and provided a powerful and transparent method to reconcile industry interests with marine conservation.

Health effects of non-occupational exposure to oil extraction

Oil extraction may cause extensive environmental impact that can affect health of populations living in surrounding areas. Large populations are potentially exposed to oil extraction related contamination through residence in areas where oil extraction is conducted, especially in low and middle income countries (LMICs). Health effects among people residentially exposed to upstream oil industry contaminants have been poorly studied. Health effects of exposure to oil related contamination have been mainly studied among cleanup workers after oil spills from tankers or offshore platforms.In this paper we aim to identify the type and extension of residential exposures related to oil extraction activities and to comment on the few health studies available. We estimated that 638 million persons in LMICs inhabit rural areas close to conventional oil reservoirs. It is relevant to specifically study people residentially exposed to upstream oil industry for the following reasons: First, persons are exposed during long periods of time to oil related contamination. Second, routes of exposure differ between workers and people living close to oil fields, who can be exposed by ingestion of contaminated waters/foods and by dermal contact with contaminated water and/or land during daily activities (e.g. bathing, agricultural activities, etc.). Third, individuals potentially more susceptible to the effect of oil related contamination and not normally occupationally exposed, such as infants, children, pregnant women, elderly or people with previous health conditions, are also exposed.There are few papers studying the potential health effects of residential exposure to oil related contamination, and most of them share important limitations. There is a need for more research through the conduct of methodologically robust studies in exposed populations worldwide. Despite the difficulties in the conduct of studies in remote areas, novel approaches, such as measurement of individual exposure using biomarkers of exposure and effect, should be used. These studies should be promoted to understand the health risks associated to residential exposure to oil related contamination, support effective control policies to avoid such contamination and to sustain public health recommendations and policies to avoid exposure in already contaminated areas.

The crowded sea: incorporating multiple marine activities in conservation plans can significantly alter spatial priorities

Successful implementation of marine conservation plans is largely inhibited by inadequate consideration of the broader social and economic context within which conservation operates. Marine waters and their biodiversity are shared by a host of stakeholders, such as commercial fishers, recreational users and offshore developers. Hence, to improve implementation success of conservation plans, we must incorporate other marine activities while explicitly examining trade-offs that may be required. In this study, we test how the inclusion of multiple marine activities can shape conservation plans. We used the entire Mediterranean territorial waters of Israel as a case study to compare four planning scenarios with increasing levels of complexity, where additional zones, threats and activities were added (e.g., commercial fisheries, hydrocarbon exploration interests, aquaculture, and shipping lanes). We applied the marine zoning decision support tool Marxan to each planning scenario and tested a) the ability of each scenario to reach biodiversity targets, b) the change in opportunity cost and c) the alteration of spatial conservation priorities. We found that by including increasing numbers of marine activities and zones in the planning process, greater compromises are required to reach conservation objectives. Complex plans with more activities incurred greater opportunity cost and did not reach biodiversity targets as easily as simplified plans with less marine activities. We discovered that including hydrocarbon data in the planning process significantly alters spatial priorities. For the territorial waters of Israel we found that in order to protect at least 10% of the range of 166 marine biodiversity features there would be a loss of ∼15% of annual commercial fishery revenue and ∼5% of prospective hydrocarbon revenue. This case study follows an illustrated framework for adopting a transparent systematic process to balance biodiversity goals and economic considerations within a country's territorial waters.