Effect of Gibberellin on Germination of Lettuce Seed

Tailored biosynthesis of gibberellin plant hormones in yeast

The application of small amounts of natural plant growth hormones, such as gibberellins (GAs), can increase the productivity and quality of many vegetable and fruit crops. However, gibberellin growth hormones usage is limited by the high cost of their production, which is currently based on fermentation of a natural fungal producer Fusarium fujikuroi that produces a mix of several GAs. We explored the potential of the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica to produce specific profiles of GAs. Firstly, the production of the GA-precursor ent-kaurenoic acid (KA) at 3.75 mg/L was achieved by expression of biosynthetic enzymes from the plant Arabidopsis thaliana and upregulation of the mevalonate (MVA) pathway.

We then built a GA₄-producing strain by extending the GA-biosynthetic pathway and upregulating the MVA-pathway further, resulting in 17.29 mg/L GA₄. Additional expression of the F. fujikoroi GA-biosynthetic enzymes resulted in the production of GA₇ (trace amounts) and GA₃ (2.93 mg/L). Lastly, through protein engineering and the expression of additional KA-biosynthetic genes, we increased the GA₃-production 4.4-fold resulting in 12.81 mg/L. The developed system presents a promising resource for the recombinant production of specific gibberellins, identifying bottlenecks in GA biosynthesis, and discovering new GA biosynthetic genes.

Classification

Biological Sciences, Applied Biological Sciences.

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A complete biosynthetic pathway towards gibberellins was reconstructed in a microbial host

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The pathway towards ent-kaurenoic acid consisted of Arabidopsis thaliana enzymes

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The pathway from ent-kaurenoic acid to gibberellins GA₃, GA₄ and GA₇ consisted of Fusarium fujikuroi enzymes

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Y. lipolytica expressed 14 heterologous genes for gibberellins biosynthesis and had 5 genome edits for improved mevalonate flux

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The strains produced up to 12 mg/L of GA₃ and up to 17 mg/L GA₄ in small-scale cultivations

Methods to promote germination of dormant Setaria viridis seeds

Setaria viridis has recently emerged as a promising genetic model system to study diverse aspects of monocot biology. While the post-germination life cycle of S. viridis is approximately 8 weeks long, the prolonged dormancy of freshly harvested seeds can more than double the total time required between successive generations. Here we describe methods that promote seed germination in S. viridis. Our results demonstrate that treating S. viridis seeds with liquid smoke or a GA₃ and KNO₃ solution improves germination rates to 90% or higher even in seeds that are 6 days post-harvest with similar results obtained whether seeds are planted in soil or on gel-based media. Importantly, we show that these treatments have no significant effect on the growth of the adult plant. We have tested these treatments on diverse S. viridis accessions and show variation in their response. The methods described here will help advance research using this model grass species by increasing the pace at which successive generations of plants can be analyzed.

Arabidopsis DELLA and JAZ proteins bind the WD-repeat/bHLH/MYB complex to modulate gibberellin and jasmonate signaling synergy

Integration of diverse environmental and endogenous signals to coordinately regulate growth, development, and defense is essential for plants to survive in their natural habitat. The hormonal signals gibberellin (GA) and jasmonate (JA) antagonistically and synergistically regulate diverse aspects of plant growth, development, and defense. GA and JA synergistically induce initiation of trichomes, which assist seed dispersal and act as barriers to protect plants against insect attack, pathogen infection, excessive water loss, and UV irradiation. However, the molecular mechanism underlying such synergism between GA and JA signaling remains unclear. In this study, we revealed a mechanism for GA and JA signaling synergy and identified a signaling complex of the GA pathway in regulation of trichome initiation. Molecular, biochemical, and genetic evidence showed that the WD-repeat/bHLH/MYB complex acts as a direct target of DELLAs in the GA pathway and that both DELLAs and JAZs interacted with the WD-repeat/bHLH/MYB complex to mediate synergism between GA and JA signaling in regulating trichome development. GA and JA induce degradation of DELLAs and JASMONATE ZIM-domain proteins to coordinately activate the WD-repeat/bHLH/MYB complex and synergistically and mutually dependently induce trichome initiation. This study provides deep insights into the molecular mechanisms for integration of different hormonal signals to synergistically regulate plant development.

Gibberellins accumulate in the elongating endodermal cells of Arabidopsis root

Plant hormones are small-molecule signaling compounds that are collectively involved in all aspects of plant growth and development. Unlike animals, plants actively regulate the spatial distribution of several of their hormones. For example, auxin transport results in the formation of auxin maxima that have a key role in developmental patterning. However, the spatial distribution of the other plant hormones, including gibberellic acid (GA), is largely unknown. To address this, we generated two bioactive fluorescent GA compounds and studied their distribution in Arabidopsis thaliana roots. The labeled GAs specifically accumulated in the endodermal cells of the root elongation zone. Pharmacological studies, along with examination of mutants affected in endodermal specification, indicate that GA accumulation is an active and highly regulated process. Our results strongly suggest the presence of an active GA transport mechanism that would represent an additional level of GA regulation.

Interaction of light and hormone signals in germinating seeds

Seed germination is regulated by several environmental factors, such as moisture, oxygen, temperature, light, and nutrients. Light is a critical regulator of seed germination in small-seeded plants, including Arabidopsis and lettuce. Phytochromes, a class of photoreceptors, play a major role in perceiving light to induce seed germination. Classical physiological studies have long suggested the involvement of gibberellin (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) in the phytochrome-mediated germination response. Recent studies have demonstrated that phytochromes modulate endogenous levels of GA and ABA, as well as GA responsiveness. Several key components that link the perception of light and the modulation of hormone levels and responsiveness have been identified. Complex regulatory loops between light, GA and ABA signaling pathways have been uncovered.

Germination of photoblastic lettuce seeds is regulated via the control of endogenous physiologically active gibberellin content, rather than of gibberellin responsiveness

Phytochrome regulates lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Grand Rapids) seed germination via the control of the endogenous level of bioactive gibberellin (GA). In addition to the previously identified LsGA20ox1, LsGA20ox2, LsGA3ox1, LsGA3ox2, LsGA2ox1, and LsGA2ox2, five cDNAs were isolated from lettuce seeds: LsCPS, LsKS, LsKO1, LsKO2, and LsKAO. Using an Escherichia coli expression system and functional assays, it is shown that LsCPS and LsKS encode ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase and ent-kaurene synthase, respectively. Using a Pichia pastoris system, it was found that LsKO1 and LsKO2 encode ent-kaurene oxidases and LsKAO encodes ent-kaurenoic acid oxidase. A comprehensive expression analysis of GA metabolism genes using the quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction suggested that transcripts of LsGA3ox1 and LsGA3ox2, both of which encode GA 3-oxidase for GA activation, were primarily expressed in the hypocotyl end of lettuce seeds, were expressed at much lower levels than the other genes tested, and were potently up-regulated by phytochrome. Furthermore, LsDELLA1 and LsDELLA2 cDNAs that encode DELLA proteins, which act as negative regulators in the GA signalling pathway, were isolated from lettuce seeds. The transcript levels of these two genes were little affected by light. Lettuce seeds in which de novo GA biosynthesis was suppressed responded almost identically to exogenously applied GA, irrespective of the light conditions, suggesting that GA responsiveness is not significantly affected by light in lettuce seeds. It is proposed that lettuce seed germination is regulated mainly via the control of the endogenous content of bioactive GA, rather than the control of GA responsiveness.

Preparation and phytotoxicity of novel kaurane diterpene amides with potential use as herbicides

Novel kaurane ditepene monoamides were synthesized in good yields directly from kaurenoic ( 1) and grandiflorenic ( 2) acids and unprotected symmetrical diamines, using a modified protocol for monoacylation. Amides from 1 and 2 and monoamines were also obtained and tested against seed germination and growth of radicle and shoot of Lactuca sativa (lettuce), at 10 (-3), 10 (-5), and 10 (-7) M. Amides from symmetrical diamines showed significant inhibitory activity at higher concentrations.

A phytochrome-dependent embryonic factor modulates gibberellin responses in the embryo and micropylar endosperm of Datura ferox seeds

The promotion of germination by phytochrome is associated with extensive changes both in the embryo and in the micropylar region of the endosperm (ME) of Datura ferox seeds. These changes require de novo gibberellins (GAs) biosynthesis in the embryo, the site where the light stimulus is perceived. GAs stimulate embryo growth potential and move to ME, promoting the expression of genes related with weakening. We report here that, in addition, phytochrome stimulates the sensitivity of the seeds to gibberellic acid (GA). The phytochrome-induced signal is produced in the embryo and enhances the stimulus by GA of embryo growth potential (EGP) and the promotion of the expression of proteins thought to participate in ME weakening: endo-beta-mannanase (EC 3.2.1.78), endo-beta-mannosidase (EC 3.2.1.25) and expansin. Our results suggest that the cytokinins may be a component of the embryonic signal. Phytochrome also modulates DfPHOR and DfMYB transcript levels in ME. These genes show a high identity with components of GAs signaling identified in other species. Expression of DfPHOR in the ME is apparently regulated by phytochrome through the supply of GAs from the embryo to ME, whereas DfMYB expression is regulated by an embryonic factor with some of the characteristics of the one that modulates seed sensitivity to GAs.

Phytochrome regulates gibberellin biosynthesis during germination of photoblastic lettuce seeds

Germination of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seed is regulated by phytochrome. The requirement for red light is circumvented by the application of gibberellin (GA). We have previously shown that the endogenous content of GA1, the main bioactive GA in lettuce seeds, increases after red-light treatment. To clarify which step of GA1 synthesis is regulated by phytochrome, cDNAs encoding GA 20-oxidases (Ls20ox1 and Ls20ox2, for L. sativa GA 20-oxidase) and 3beta-hydroxylases (Ls3h1 and Ls3h2 for L. sativa GA 3beta-hydroxylase) were isolated from lettuce seeds by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Functional analysis of recombinant proteins expressed in Escherichia coli confirmed that the Ls20ox and Ls3h encode GA 20-oxidases and 3beta-hydroxylases, respectively. Northern-blot analysis showed that Ls3h1 expression was dramatically induced by red-light treatment within 2 h, and that this effect was canceled by a subsequent far-red-light treatment. Ls3h2 mRNA was not detected in seeds that had been allowed to imbibe under any light conditions. Expression of the two Ls20ox genes was induced by initial imbibition alone in the dark. The level of Ls20ox2 mRNA decreased after the red-light treatment, whereas that of Ls20ox1 was unaffected by light. These results suggest that red light promotes GA1 synthesis in lettuce seeds by inducing Ls3h1 expression via phytochrome action.

Light-independent developmental regulation of cab gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings

We found a transient increase in the amount of mRNA for four nuclear genes encoding chloroplast proteins during early development of Arabidopsis thaliana. This increase began soon after germination as cotyledons emerged from the seed coat; it occurred in total darkness and was not affected by external factors, such as gibberellins or light treatments used to stimulate germination. Three members of the cab gene family and the rbcS-1A gene exhibited this expression pattern. Because timing of the increase coincided with cotyledon emergence and because it occurred independently of external stimuli, we suggest that this increase represents developmental regulation of these genes. Further, 1.34 kilobases of the cab1 promoter was sufficient to confer this expression pattern on a reporter gene in transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings. The ability of the cab genes to respond to phytochrome preceded this developmental increase, showing that these two types of regulation are independent.

An enzyme to degrade lettuce endosperm cell walls. Appearance of a mannanase following phytochrome- and gibberellin-induced germination

Lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Grand Rapids) stimulated to germinate by gibberellin and red light produce large amounts of endo-β-mannanase. This enzyme increases markedly following radicle emergence and is capable of degrading mannose-containing polysaccharides, which are the major components of the endosperm cell wall. Non-germinated seeds contain little enzyme and under conditions where gibberellin- or red light-stimulated germination is prevented (eg. by abscisic acid or prolonged far red light) enzyme levels remain low. Cycloheximide inhibits the increase in enzyme levels when supplied to germinating seeds, but the enzyme once produced is stable in vivo in the presence of this inhibitor for at least 24h. The majority of the extractable mannanase activity is located in the endosperm and we propose that the function of this enzyme is to mobilise the endosperm cell wall polysaccharides as a nutrient source for the growing embryo.

[Low energy photocontrol of amaranthin formation in seedlings of Amarantus tricolor L. var. bicolor ruber Hort]

A grating monochromator has been used to study the effect of narrow wave-bands (5 nm) at a low energy level between 420 and 800 nm on the biosynthesis of amaranthin in Amarantus tricolor L. var. bicolor ruber Hort. seedlings. Besides a sharp peak in the red with a maximum at 660 nm, a narrow zone of activity in the blue has been detected (max. 440 nm).When seedlings cultivated on different substrates were sequentially exposed either to red (660 nm) and far red or to blue (440 nm) and far red, the second treatment, i.e. far red (730 or 735 nm), annihilated the effect of the first one, without having any influence on the chemical inductive treatments (kinetin or dihydroxy-3,4-phenylalanine).

Interactions between ethylene-bis-nitrourethane and Gibberellic acid during the germination of lettuce seed

Exposing lettuce seed (variety Grand Rapids) to temperatures from 30°-42° C inhibits subsequent germination at 25° C. This inhibition can be overcome by the addition of gibberellic acid (GA) either during or after the heat treatment. Ethylene-bis-nitrourethane (EBNU) and ethylene dinitramine (EDNA), although without effect when applied alone, have been shown to increase the activity of GA when present in admixture during the heat treatment. The compounds act synergistically only when the seeds are kept at 30° and 35° C for 72 hours or longer.EBNU and EDNA do not increase the effectiveness of GA in breaking natural or heat induced dormancy in lettuce seeds.

Physiological activities of helminthosporol in comparison with those of gibberellin and auxin

Helminthosporol, a metabolic product of Helminthosporium sativum, remarkably stimulated elongation of the second leaf sheath of rice seedlings of various varieties. It also stimulated the elongation of hypocotyls of cucumber seedlings. This substance did not have any effect on the growth of peas, tomato, sunflower and the dwarf mutants of maize. This substance did not have auxin-like activities.

Dependence of gibberellic acid-induced dark germination of lettuce seed on RNA synthesis

Gibberellicacid-induced dark germination of Grand Rapids lettude seed was completely inhibited by 6-azauracil and partly by 2-thiouracil. Other inhibitors of nucleic acid and protein synthesis used were without effect. Inhibition of gibberellic acid-induced dark germination was reversed by uracil but not by thymine, deoxycytidine and orotic acid. The results suggest that gibberellic acid-induced dark germination is dependent on RNA synthesis and not on DNA synthesis.Gibberellic acid-induced lettuce hypocotyl growth was inhibited by all the inhibiters of nucleic acid and protein synthesis used, including actinomycin D, puromycin, chloramphenicol and p-fluorophenylalanine.

Germination of Melampyrum lineare : Interrelated Effects of Afterripening and Gibberellic Acid

Seed germination of Melampyrum lineare proceeds only after activation followed by an extended period of chilling. Up to one-third of seeds can be activated by storage at room temperature, while all seeds are activated if treated with gibberellic acid. Chilling before activation is ineffective.