Specific interaction of type I receptors of the TGF-beta family with the immunophilin FKBP-12

Rapamycin exerts neuroprotective effects by inhibiting FKBP12 instead of mTORC1 in the mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD), characterized by the selective loss of nigral dopaminergic neurons, is a common neurodegenerative disorder for which effective disease-modifying therapies remain unavailable. Rapamycin, a clinical immunosuppressant used for decades, has demonstrated neuroprotective effects in various animal models of neurological diseases, including PD. These effects are believed to be mediated through the inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling, with rapamycin binding to FKBP12. However, recent studies have suggested that mTOR activation can be neuroprotective in degenerating dopaminergic neurons, presenting a paradox to the neuroprotective mechanism of rapamycin via mTORC1 inhibition. In this study, we showed that mTORC1 signaling was inactivated in nigral dopaminergic neurons in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of PD. Notably, the optimal neuroprotective dose of rapamycin did not inhibit mTORC1 signaling nor restore autophagy defects in nigral dopaminergic neurons of MPTP-treated male C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, acute Raptor knockout in dopaminergic neurons, which abolishes mTORC1 activity, did not diminish rapamycin's neuroprotective effects, suggesting that its protection is independent of mTORC1 inhibition. Importantly, rapamycin is also a potent inhibitor of FKBP12, a peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase highly expressed in the brain. Selective knockdown of FKBP12 in nigral dopaminergic neurons confers neuroprotective effects comparable to that of rapamycin, with no synergism observed when the two are combined. Collectively, our results indicate that rapamycin exerts neuroprotective effects in parkinsonian mice through inhibition of FKBP12 rather than mTORC1 signaling. These findings suggest that FKBP12 may serve as a novel target for disease-modifying therapies in PD.

Unraveling modulation effects on albumin synthesis and inflammation by Striatin, a bioactive protein fraction isolated from Channa striata: In silico proteomics and in vitro approaches

Hypoalbuminemia, associated with inflammation in severely ill patients, can emerge due to decreased albumin production. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) are critical signaling pathways responsible for decreased albumin expression. This study explores the protein content and modulation effects of Striatin on albumin synthesis and inflammation, employing in silico proteomics and in vitro investigations. In the in silico proteomics realm, LC/MS-MS protein sequencing, 3D modeling, protein-protein docking simulations, 100 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and MM/PBSA binding free energy calculations were carried out. Complementing this, in vitro studies examined Albumin gene expression and extracellular secretion in HepG2 cells subjected to lipopolysaccharides-induced hypoalbuminemia. Furthermore, the study probed Striatin's influence on the NF-ᴋB expression, given albumin's role as a negative acute-phase protein. The results unveiled nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NdK) and parvalbumin (PV) as the prominent constituents within Striatin. Notably, NdK and PV exhibited the ability to disrupt hydrogen bonds with specific residues in both TGF-β and NF-κB complexes, thereby enhancing their flexibility, akin to the action of the FKBP12 complex (antagonist complex). In the in vitro experiments, Striatin demonstrated a dose and time-dependent inhibition of hypoalbuminemia, with peak efficacy observed at a concentration of 20 μg/mL. At this concentration, Striatin also suppressed NF-κB expression when co-incubated with lipopolysaccharides. While these findings suggest potential inhibitory effects of Striatin on TGF-β and NF-κB activities, they are preliminary and warrant further investigation. This study highlights Striatin's potential as a therapeutic agent for inflammation-related hypoalbuminemia, though additional research is needed to fully validate these results.

SPI1 activates TGF-β1/PI3K/Akt signaling through transcriptional upregulation of FKBP12 to support the mesenchymal phenotype of glioma stem cells

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) exhibit diverse molecular subtypes with the mesenchymal (MES) population representing the most malignant variant. The oncogenic potential of Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 (SPI1), an oncogenic transcription factor, has been established across various human malignancies. In this study, we explored the association between the SPI1 pathway and the MES GSC phenotype. Through comprehensive analysis of the Cancer Genome Atlas and Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas glioma databases, along with patient-derived GSC cultures, we analyzed SPI1 expression. Using genetic knockdown and overexpression techniques, we assessed the functional impact of SPI1 on GSC MES marker expression, invasion, proliferation, self-renewal, and sensitivity to radiation in vitro, as well as its influence on tumor formation in vivo. Additionally, we investigated the downstream signaling cascades activated by SPI1. Our findings revealed a positive correlation between elevated SPI1 expression and the MES phenotype, which in turn, correlated with poor survival. SPI1 enhanced GSC MES differentiation, self-renewal, and radioresistance in vitro, promoting tumorigenicity in vivo. Mechanistically, SPI1 augmented the transcriptional activity of both TGF-β1 and FKBP12 while activating the non-canonical PI3K/Akt pathway. Notably, inhibition of TGF-β1/PI3K/Akt signaling partially attenuated SPI1-induced GSC MES differentiation and its associated malignant phenotype. Collectively, our results underscore SPI1's role in activating TGF-β1/PI3K/Akt signaling through transcriptional upregulation of FKBP12, thereby supporting the aggressive MES phenotype of GSCs. Therefore, SPI1 emerges as a potential therapeutic target in glioma treatment.

FKBP12 is a major regulator of ALK2 activity in multiple myeloma cells

BACKGROUND

The immunophilin FKBP12 binds to TGF-β family type I receptors, including the BMP type I receptor ALK2. FKBP12 keeps the type I receptor in an inactive state and controls signaling activity. Removal of FKBP12 with drugs such as the FKBP-ligand FK506 enhances BMP activity in various cell types. In multiple myeloma cells, activation of SMAD1/5/8 leads to apoptosis. We hypothesized that removing FKBP12 from ALK2 in myeloma cells would potentiate BMP-induced ALK2-SMAD1/5/8 activity and in consequence cell death.

METHODS

Multiple myeloma cell lines were treated with FK506, or other FKBP-binding compounds, combined with different BMPs before analyzing SMAD1/5/8 activity and cell viability. SMAD1/5/8 activity was also investigated using a reporter cell line, INA-6 BRE-luc. To characterize the functional signaling receptor complex, we genetically manipulated receptor expression by siRNA, shRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 technology.

RESULTS

FK506 potentiated BMP-induced SMAD1/5/8 activation and apoptosis in multiple myeloma cell lines. By using FKBP-binding compounds with different affinity profiles, and siRNA targeting FKBP12, we show that the FK506 effect is mediated by binding to FKBP12. Ligands that typically signal via ALK3 in myeloma cells, BMP2, BMP4, and BMP10, did not induce apoptosis in cells lacking ALK3. Notably, BMP10 competed with BMP6 and BMP9 and antagonized their activity via ALK2. However, upon addition of FK506, we saw a surprising shift in specificity, as the ALK3 ligands gained the ability to signal via ALK2 and induce apoptosis. This indicates that the receptor complex can switch from an inactive non-signaling complex (NSC) to an active one by adding FK506. This gain of activity was also seen in other cell types, indicating that the observed effects have broader relevance. BMP2, BMP4 and BMP10 depended on BMPR2 as type II receptor to signal, which contrasts with BMP6 and BMP9, that activate ALK2 more potently when BMPR2 is knocked down.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our data suggest that FKBP12 is a major regulator of ALK2 activity in multiple myeloma cells, partly by switching an NSC into an active signaling complex. FKBP12 targeting compounds devoid of immunosuppressing activity could have potential in novel treatment strategies aiming at reducing multiple myeloma tumor load. Video Abstract.

Targeting calcineurin induces cardiomyocyte proliferation in adult mice

The mammalian neonatal heart can regenerate for 1 week after birth, after which, the majority of cardiomyocytes exit the cell cycle. Recent studies demonstrated that calcineurin mediates cell-cycle arrest of postnatal cardiomyocytes, partly through induction of nuclear translocation of the transcription factor Hoxb13 (a cofactor of Meis1). Here we show that inducible cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of calcineurin B1 in adult cardiomyocytes markedly decreases cardiomyocyte size and promotes mitotic entry, resulting in increased total cardiomyocyte number and improved left ventricular (LV) systolic function after myocardial infarction (MI). Similarly, pharmacological inhibition of calcineurin activity using FK506 promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation in vivo and increases cardiomyocyte number; however, FK506 administration after MI in mice failed to improve LV systolic function, possibly due to inhibition of vasculogenesis and blunting of the post-MI inflammatory response. Collectively, our results demonstrate that loss of calcineurin activity in adult cardiomyocytes promotes cell cycle entry; however, the effects of the calcineurin inhibitor FK506 on other cell types preclude a significant improvement of LV systolic function after MI.

Anti-Müllerian Hormone Signal Transduction involved in Müllerian Duct Regression

Over seventy years ago it was proposed that the fetal testis produces a hormone distinct from testosterone that is required for complete male sexual development. At the time the hormone had not yet been identified but was invoked by Alfred Jost to explain why the Müllerian duct, which develops into the female reproductive tract, regresses in the male fetus. That hormone, anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), and its specific receptor, AMHR2, have now been extensively characterized and belong to the transforming growth factor-β families of protein ligands and receptors involved in growth and differentiation. Much is now known about the downstream events set in motion after AMH engages AMHR2 at the surface of specific Müllerian duct cells and initiates a cascade of molecular interactions that ultimately terminate in the nucleus as activated transcription factors. The signals generated by the AMH signaling pathway are then integrated with signals coming from other pathways and culminate in a complex gene regulatory program that redirects cellular functions and fates and leads to Müllerian duct regression.

Cyclosporin A: A Repurposable Drug in the Treatment of COVID-19?

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is now at the forefront of major health challenge faced globally, creating an urgent need for safe and efficient therapeutic strategies. Given the high attrition rates, high costs, and quite slow development of drug discovery, repurposing of known FDA-approved molecules is increasingly becoming an attractive issue in order to quickly find molecules capable of preventing and/or curing COVID-19 patients. Cyclosporin A (CsA), a common anti-rejection drug widely used in transplantation, has recently been shown to exhibit substantial anti-SARS-CoV-2 antiviral activity and anti-COVID-19 effect. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms of action of CsA in order to highlight why this molecule seems to be an interesting candidate for the therapeutic management of COVID-19 patients. We conclude that CsA could have at least three major targets in COVID-19 patients: (i) an anti-inflammatory effect reducing the production of proinflammatory cytokines, (ii) an antiviral effect preventing the formation of the viral RNA synthesis complex, and (iii) an effect on tissue damage and thrombosis by acting against the deleterious action of angiotensin II. Several preliminary CsA clinical trials performed on COVID-19 patients report lower incidence of death and suggest that this strategy should be investigated further in order to assess in which context the benefit/risk ratio of repurposing CsA as first-line therapy in COVID-19 is the most favorable.

Pathogenic ACVR1R206H activation by Activin A-induced receptor clustering and autophosphorylation

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) are debilitating diseases that share causal mutations in ACVR1, a TGF-β family type I receptor. ACVR1R206H is a frequent mutation in both diseases. Pathogenic signaling via the SMAD1/5 pathway is mediated by Activin A, but how the mutation triggers aberrant signaling is not known. We show that ACVR1 is essential for Activin A-mediated SMAD1/5 phosphorylation and is activated by two distinct mechanisms. Wild-type ACVR1 is activated by the Activin type I receptors, ACVR1B/C. In contrast, ACVR1R206H activation does not require upstream kinases, but is predominantly activated via Activin A-dependent receptor clustering, which induces its auto-activation. We use optogenetics and live-imaging approaches to demonstrate Activin A-induced receptor clustering and show it requires the type II receptors ACVR2A/B. Our data provide molecular mechanistic insight into the pathogenesis of FOP and DIPG by linking the causal activating genetic mutation to disrupted signaling.

Induced Dimerization Tools to Deplete Specific Phosphatidylinositol Phosphates

Chemical dimerization systems have been used to drive acute depletion of polyphosphoinsitides (PPIns). They do so by inducing subcellular localization of enzymes that catabolize PPIns. By using this approach, all seven PPIns can be depleted in living cells and in real time. The rapid permeation of dimerizer agents and the specific expression of recruiter proteins confer great spatial and temporal resolution with minimal cell perturbation. In this chapter, we provide detailed instructions to monitor and induce depletion of PPIns in live cells.

Structural and functional analyses of the PPIase domain of Arabidopsis thaliana CYP71 reveal its catalytic activity toward histone H3

Arabidopsis thaliana CYP71 (AtCYP71) is a chromatin-remodeling protein that promotes shoot apical meristem (SAM) differentiation. The N terminus of AtCYP71 contains a noncanonical WD domain, and the C terminus contains an enzymatic peptidyl-prolyl isomerase (PPIase) cyclophilin (CYP) domain. To date, there has been no characterization of CYP71, and its mode of action remains unknown. Here, we report the crystal structure of the CYP domain of AtCYP71 at 1.9 Å resolution. The structure shows key differences when compared to the canonical CYP fold of human CypA. To the best our knowledge, this is the first A. thaliana CYP structure with a conserved active site loop. Using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we demonstrate that the CYP domain is active toward histone H3. Our findings suggest that the PPIase activity of the CYP domain is important for the function of AtCYP71 in chromatin remodeling during organogenesis.

Fpr1, a primary target of rapamycin, functions as a transcription factor for ribosomal protein genes cooperatively with Hmo1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Fpr1 (FK506-sensitive proline rotamase 1), a protein of the FKBP12 (FK506-binding protein 12 kDa) family in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a primary target for the immunosuppressive agents FK506 and rapamycin. Fpr1 inhibits calcineurin and TORC1 (target of rapamycin complex 1) when bound to FK506 and rapamycin, respectively. Although Fpr1 is recognised to play a crucial role in the efficacy of these drugs, its physiological functions remain unclear. In a hmo1Δ (high mobility group family 1-deleted) yeast strain, deletion of FPR1 induced severe growth defects, which could be alleviated by increasing the copy number of RPL25 (ribosome protein of the large subunit 25), suggesting that RPL25 expression was affected in hmo1Δfpr1Δ cells. In the current study, extensive chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and ChIP-sequencing analyses revealed that Fpr1 associates specifically with the upstream activating sequences of nearly all RPG (ribosomal protein gene) promoters, presumably in a manner dependent on Rap1 (repressor/activator site binding protein 1). Intriguingly, Fpr1 promotes the binding of Fhl1/Ifh1 (forkhead-like 1/interacts with forkhead 1), two key regulators of RPG transcription, to certain RPG promoters independently of and/or cooperatively with Hmo1. Furthermore, mutation analyses of Fpr1 indicated that for transcriptional function on RPG promoters, Fpr1 requires its N-terminal domain and the binding surface for rapamycin, but not peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity. Notably, Fpr1 orthologues from other species also inhibit TORC1 when bound to rapamycin, but do not regulate transcription in yeast, which suggests that these two functions of Fpr1 are independent of each other.

TGFBR2 mediated phosphorylation of BUB1 at Ser-318 is required for transforming growth factor-β signaling

BUB1 (budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles-1) is required for efficient TGF-β signaling, through its role in stabilizing the TGFBR1 and TGFBR2 complex. Here we demonstrate that TGFBR2 phosphorylates BUB1 at Serine-318, which is conserved in primates. S318 phosphorylation abrogates the interaction of BUB1 with TGFBR1 and SMAD2. Using BUB1 truncation domains (1–241, 241–482 and 482–723), we demonstrate that multiple contact points exist between BUB1 and TGF-β signaling components and that these interactions are independent of the BUB1 tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain. Moreover, substitutions in the middle domain (241–482) encompassing S318 reveals that efficient interaction with TGFBR2 occurs only in its dephosphorylated state (241–482 S318A). In contrast, the phospho-mimicking mutant (241–482 S318D) exhibits efficient binding with SMAD2 and its over-expression results in a decrease in TGFBR1-TGFBR2 and TGFBR1-SMAD2 interactions. These findings suggest that TGFBR2 mediated BUB1 phosphorylation at S318 may serve as a switch for the dissociation of the SMAD2-TGFBR complex, and therefore represents a regulatory event for TGF-β signaling. Finally, we provide evidence that the BUB1-TGF-β signaling axis may mediate aggressive phenotypes in a variety of cancers.

Tacrolimus-Induced BMP/SMAD Signaling Associates With Metabolic Stress-Activated FOXO1 to Trigger β-Cell Failure

Active maintenance of β-cell identity through fine-tuned regulation of key transcription factors ensures β-cell function. Tacrolimus, a widely used immunosuppressant, accelerates onset of diabetes after organ transplantation, but underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Here we show that tacrolimus induces loss of human β-cell maturity and β-cell failure through activation of the BMP/SMAD signaling pathway when administered under mild metabolic stress conditions. Tacrolimus-induced phosphorylated SMAD1/5 acts in synergy with metabolic stress-activated FOXO1 through formation of a complex. This interaction is associated with reduced expression of the key β-cell transcription factor MAFA and abolished insulin secretion, both in vitro in primary human islets and in vivo in human islets transplanted into high-fat diet-fed mice. Pharmacological inhibition of BMP signaling protects human β-cells from tacrolimus-induced β-cell dysfunction in vitro. Furthermore, we confirm that BMP/SMAD signaling is activated in protocol pancreas allograft biopsies from recipients on tacrolimus. To conclude, we propose a novel mechanism underlying the diabetogenicity of tacrolimus in primary human β-cells. This insight could lead to new treatment strategies for new-onset diabetes and may have implications for other forms of diabetes.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Stem Cells Treated with Moringin or Cannabidiol: Analogies and Differences in Inflammation Pathways

Inflammation is a common feature of many neurodegenerative diseases. The treatment of stem cells as a therapeutic approach to repair damage in the central nervous system represents a valid alternative. In this study, using Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology, we analyzed the transcriptomic profile of human Gingival Mesenchymal Stem Cells (hGMSCs) treated with Moringin [4-(α-l-ramanosyloxy)-benzyl isothiocyanate] (hGMSCs-MOR) or with Cannabidiol (hGMSCs-CBD) at dose of 0.5 or 5 µM, respectively. Moreover, we compared their transcriptomic profiles in order to evaluate analogies and differences in pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways. The hGMSCs-MOR selectively downregulate TNF-α signaling from the beginning, reducing the expression of TNF-α receptor while hGMSCs-CBD limit its activity after the process started. The treatment with CBD downregulates the pro-inflammatory pathway mediated by the IL-1 family, including its receptor while MOR is less efficient. Furthermore, both the treatments are efficient in the IL-6 signaling. In particular, CBD reduces the effect of the pro-inflammatory JAK/STAT pathway while MOR enhances the pro-survival PI3K/AKT/mTOR. In addition, both hGMSCs-MOR and hGMSCs-CBD improve the anti-inflammatory activity enhancing the TGF-β pathway.

Effects of FKBP12 and type II BMP receptors on signal transduction by ALK2 activating mutations associated with genetic disorders

Various substitution mutations in ALK2, a transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), have been identified in patients with genetic disorders such as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) and heart defects. In this study, we characterized the ALK2 mutants R258G, G328V and F246Y, which were identified in patients with severe FOP, DIPG and unusual hereditary skeletal dysplasia, respectively. Both R258G and G328V were gain-of-function mutations, but F246Y was equivalent to wild-type ALK2. We also examined the effect of the suppressor FKBP12 on the signal transduction of a further 14 ALK2 mutations associated with FOP and/or DIPG. To varying extents FKBP12 over-expression suppressed the basal signaling induced by thirteen of the ALK2 mutants, whereas PF197-8L was uniquely resistant. In the PF197-8L mutant, the modelled ALK2 residue L197 induced a steric clash with the D36 residue in FKBP12 and dissociated their interaction. The co-expression of BMP type II receptors or stimulation with ligands relieved the suppression by FKBP12 by disrupting the interaction between mutant ALK2 and FKBP12. Taken together, FKBP12 binds to and suppresses mutant ALK2 proteins associated with FOP and DIPG, except for PF197-8L.

Establishing a Split Luciferase Assay for Proteinkinase G (PKG) Interaction Studies

Nitric oxide (NO/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-regulated cellular mechanisms are involved in a variety of (patho-) physiological processes. One of the main effector molecules in this system, proteinkinase G (PKG), serves as a molecular switch by phosphorylating different target proteins and thereby turning them on or off. To date, only a few interaction partners of PKG have been described although the identification of protein–protein interactions (PPI) is indispensable for the understanding of cellular processes and diseases. Conventionally used methods to detect PPIs exhibit several disadvantages, e.g., co-immunoprecipitations, which depend on suitable high-affinity antibodies. Therefore, we established a cell-based protein-fragment complementation assay (PCA) for the identification of PKG target proteins. Here, a reporter protein (click beetle luciferase) is split into two fragments and fused to two different possible interaction partners. If interaction occurs, the reporter protein is functionally complemented and the catalyzed reaction can then be quantitatively measured. By using this technique, we confirmed the regulator of G-Protein signaling 2 (RGS2) as an interaction partner of PKGIα (a PKG-isoform) following stimulation with 8-Br-cGMP and 8-pCPT-cGMP. Hence, our results support the conclusion that the established approach could serve as a novel tool for the rapid, easy and cost-efficient detection of novel PKG target proteins.

The orphan GPR50 receptor promotes constitutive TGFβ receptor signaling and protects against cancer development

Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signaling is initiated by the type I, II TGFβ receptor (TβRI/TβRII) complex. Here we report the formation of an alternative complex between TβRI and the orphan GPR50, belonging to the G protein-coupled receptor super-family. The interaction of GPR50 with TβRI induces spontaneous TβRI-dependent Smad and non-Smad signaling by stabilizing the active TβRI conformation and competing for the binding of the negative regulator FKBP12 to TβRI. GPR50 overexpression in MDA-MB-231 cells mimics the anti-proliferative effect of TβRI and decreases tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model. Inversely, targeted deletion of GPR50 in the MMTV/Neu spontaneous mammary cancer model shows decreased survival after tumor onset and increased tumor growth. Low GPR50 expression is associated with poor survival prognosis in human breast cancer irrespective of the breast cancer subtype. This describes a previously unappreciated spontaneous TGFβ-independent activation mode of TβRI and identifies GPR50 as a TβRI co-receptor with potential impact on cancer development.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) regulates many cellular processes. Here the authors show that the orphan G-protein coupled receptor GPR50 can activate the TGFβ receptor I, in the absence of TGFβ, by stabilizing its active conformation and show antitumor activity in a mouse model of breast cancer.

TGF-β uses a novel mode of receptor activation to phosphorylate SMAD1/5 and induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

The best characterized signaling pathway downstream of transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is through SMAD2 and SMAD3. However, TGF-β also induces phosphorylation of SMAD1 and SMAD5, but the mechanism of this phosphorylation and its functional relevance is not known. Here, we show that TGF-β-induced SMAD1/5 phosphorylation requires members of two classes of type I receptor, TGFBR1 and ACVR1, and establish a new paradigm for receptor activation where TGFBR1 phosphorylates and activates ACVR1, which phosphorylates SMAD1/5. We demonstrate the biological significance of this pathway by showing that approximately a quarter of the TGF-β-induced transcriptome depends on SMAD1/5 signaling, with major early transcriptional targets being the ID genes. Finally, we show that TGF-β-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition requires signaling via both the SMAD3 and SMAD1/5 pathways, with SMAD1/5 signaling being essential to induce ID1. Therefore, combinatorial signaling via both SMAD pathways is essential for the full TGF-β-induced transcriptional program and physiological responses.

Acquired resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors may be linked with the decreased sensitivity to X-ray irradiation

Acquired resistance to chemotherapy and radiation therapy is one of the major obstacles decreasing efficiency of treatment of the oncologic diseases. In this study, on the two cell lines (ovarian carcinoma SKOV-3 and neuroblastoma NGP-127), we modeled acquired resistance to five target anticancer drugs. The cells were grown on gradually increasing concentrations of the clinically relevant tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) Sorafenib, Pazopanib and Sunitinib, and rapalogs Everolimus and Temsirolimus, for 20 weeks. After 20 weeks of culturing, the half-inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) increased by 25 – 186% for the particular combinations of the drugs and cell types. We next subjected cells to 10 Gy irradiation, a dose frequently used in clinical radiation therapy. For the SKOV-3, but not NGP-127 cells, for the TKIs Sorafenib, Pazopanib and Sunitinib, we noticed statistically significant increase in capacity to repair radiation-induced DNA double strand breaks compared to naïve control cells not previously treated with TKIs. These peculiarities were linked with the increased activation of ATM DNA repair pathway in the TKI-treated SKOV-3, but not NGP-127 cells. Our results provide a new cell culture model for studying anti-cancer therapy efficiency and evidence that there may be a tissue-specific radioresistance emerging as a side effect of treatment with TKIs.

Polymodal allosteric regulation of Type 1 Serine/Threonine Kinase Receptors via a conserved electrostatic lock

Type 1 Serine/Threonine Kinase Receptors (STKR1) transduce a wide spectrum of biological signals mediated by TGF-β superfamily members. The STKR1 activity is tightly controlled by their regulatory glycine-serine rich (GS) domain adjacent to the kinase domain. Despite decades of studies, it remains unknown how physiological or pathological GS domain modifications are coupled to STKR1 kinase activity. Here, by performing molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculation of Activin-Like Kinase 2 (ALK2), we found that GS domain phosphorylation, FKBP12 dissociation, and disease mutations all destabilize a D354-R375 salt-bridge, which normally acts as an electrostatic lock to prevent coordination of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the catalytic site. We developed a WAFEX-guided principal analysis and unraveled how phosphorylation destabilizes this highly conserved salt-bridge in temporal and physical space. Using current-flow betweenness scores, we identified an allosteric network of residue-residue contacts between the GS domain and the catalytic site that controls the formation and disruption of this salt bridge. Importantly, our novel network analysis approach revealed how certain disease-causing mutations bypass FKBP12-mediated kinase inhibition to produce leaky signaling. We further provide experimental evidence that this salt-bridge lock exists in other STKR1s, and acts as a general safety mechanism in STKR1 to prevent pathological leaky signaling. In summary, our study provides a compelling and unifying allosteric activation mechanism in STKR1 kinases that reconciles a large number of experimental studies and sheds light on a novel therapeutic avenue to target disease-related STKR1 mutants.

Kinases play central role in essential physiological process and are attractive therapeutic drug targets. One of the important kinase families is Type 1 Serine/Threonine Kinase Receptors (STKR1), which control gene expression in response to extracellular growth factors. The activities of STKR1 are tightly controlled by their regulatory domain, which is distant from the kinase catalytic site. The underlying molecular mechanism is elucidated here. We identified that formation or disruption of a highly conserved charge-charge interaction located near the ATP binding site, mediates the physiological inhibition or activation of STKR1. We find that the stability of this charge-charge interaction is remotely controlled by interactions propagated from the distant regulatory domain. Several disease-causing mutations are located at the regulatory domain. We demonstrate how those mutations bypass these endogenous STKR1 inhibition mechanisms to produce pathological phenotypes. This study provides a general activation mechanism in STKR1 kinases, thus may benefit understanding the molecular mechanism of diseases and drug development.

Extension of Health Span and Life Span in Drosophila by S107 Requires the calstabin Homologue FK506-BP2

The accumulation of oxidative damage is strongly linked to age-dependent declines in cell function, but the contribution of oxidative damage to morbidity is still debated. Many organisms seem to tolerate oxidative damage, and the extension of health span and life span by augmenting antioxidant activity has been inconsistent. Here we use the Drosophila model system to investigate the relationship among oxidative stress, health span, and life span. The oxidation-dependent dissociation of the Calstabin protein from the ryanodine receptor has been shown to result in reduced muscle function in mammals. The S107 molecule is able to reestablish this binding resulting in improved muscle function. We find that S107 is able to restore motor function in aging Drosophila to young levels, and this effect of S107 is absent in calstabin (FK506-BP2) mutants. Interestingly, FK506-BP2 mutant flies have reduced sensitivity to the effects of age and oxidative stress on motor function between 7 and 35 days of age. Muscle expression of FK506-BP2 in FK506-BP2 mutants completely restores the sensitivity of motor function to both age and oxidative stress, supporting the idea that the age-dependent decline in motor function in Drosophila requires FK506-BP2 function within the muscle. Although FK506-BP2 mutant flies are found to have less sensitivity to oxidative stress, FK506-BP2 mutants do not live longer than wild type. These results demonstrate that the deleterious effects of oxidation on motor function early in life are the result of a singular event that does not compromise survival.

High-Throughput Fluorescence Polarization Method for Identification of FKBP12 Ligands

FKBP12 is best known as the target of the widely used immunosuppressive drug FK506 but may also play a role in neuronal survival. Nonimmunosuppressive ligands of FKBP12 have been shown to have neuroprotective and neuroregenerative activity both in vitro and in vivo, stimulating interest in the development of high-throughput screens to rapidly identify novel ligands. FKBP12 was expressed as a His6-fusion in bacteria and purified by metal ion affinity and gel filtration chromatography. A high-throughput fluorescence polarization assay was developed to identify novel ligands of FKBP12. Dissociation constant values of known FKBP12 ligands measured by the new method agreed closely with Kivalues obtained by assaying inhibition of the rotamase activity of the enzyme. The fluorescence polarization assay is rapid, robust, and inexpensive and does not generate radioactive waste. It is very well suited for high-throughput screening efforts.

Comparing pharmacophore models derived from crystal structures and from molecular dynamics simulations

ABSTRACT

Pharmacophore modeling is a widely used technique in computer-aided drug discovery. Structure-based pharmacophore models of a ligand in complex with a protein have proven to be useful for supporting in silico hit discovery, hit to lead expansion, and lead optimization. As a structure-based approach it depends on the correct interpretation of ligand-protein interactions. There are legitimate concerns about the fidelity of the bound ligand and about non-physiological contacts with parts of the crystal and the solvent effects that influence the protein structure. A possible way to refine the structure of a protein-ligand system is to use the final structure of a given MD simulation. In this study we compare pharmacophore models built using the initial protein-ligand structure obtained from the protein data bank (PDB) with pharmacophore models built with the final structure of a molecular dynamics simulation. We show that the pharmacophore models differ in feature number and feature type and that the pharmacophore models built from the last structure of a MD simulation shows in some cases better ability to distinguish between active and decoy ligand structures.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Structural insights into BMP receptors: Specificity, activation and inhibition

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor-β family (TGFβ), which signal through hetero-tetrameric complexes of type I and type II receptors. In humans there are many more TGFβ ligands than receptors, leading to the question of how particular ligands can initiate specific signaling responses. Here we review structural features of the ligands and receptors that contribute to this specificity. Ligand activity is determined by receptor-ligand interactions, growth factor prodomains, extracellular modulator proteins, receptor assembly and phosphorylation of intracellular signaling proteins, including Smad transcription factors. Detailed knowledge about the receptors has enabled the development of BMP-specific type I receptor kinase inhibitors. In future these may help to treat human diseases such as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva.

Characterization of the rapamycin-inducible EBV LMP1 activation system

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent infection membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is required for EBV-mediated B lymphocyte transformation into proliferating lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCL). LMP1 oligomerizes spontaneously in membrane lipid rafts via its transmembrane domain and constitutively activates signal transduction pathways, including NF-κB, p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK). Since LMP1 mimics the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR), CD40, it may be effectively utilized to study the effects of constitutive activation of signal transduction pathways on cellular physiology. On the other hand, LMP1 presents a disadvantage in terms of determining the sequential events and factors involved in signaling pathways. A CD40-LMP1 chimeric molecule has been generated to overcome this limitation but does not represent the authentic and physiological nature of LMP1. In the current study, a ligand-dependent activation system for LMP1 using rapamycin-inducible dimerization was generated to delineate the LMP1 signaling pathway.

Peptidyl-prolyl isomerases: functionality and potential therapeutic targets in cardiovascular disease

Peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases) are a conserved group of enzymes that catalyse the conversion between cis and trans conformations of proline imidic peptide bonds. These enzymes play critical roles in regulatory mechanisms of cellular function and pathophysiology of disease. There are three different classes of PPIases and increasing interest in the development of specific PPIase inhibitors. Cyclosporine A, FK506, rapamycin and juglone are known PPIase inhibitors. Herein, we review recent advances in elucidating the role and regulation of the PPIase family in vascular disease. We focus on peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase NIMA-interacting 1 (Pin1), an important member of the PPIase family that plays a role in cell cycle progression, gene expression, cell signalling and cell proliferation. In addition, Pin1 may be involved in atherosclerosis. The unique role of Pin1 as a molecular switch that impacts on multiple downstream pathways necessitates the evaluation of a highly specific Pin1 inhibitor to aid in potential therapeutic drug discovery.

Chronic activation of mTOR complex 1 by branched chain amino acids and organ hypertrophy

The mitochondrial branched chain aminotransferase-deficient mouse model (BCATm KO), which exhibits elevated plasma and tissue branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), was used to study the effect of BCAAs on mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) regulation of organ size. BCATm is the first enzyme in the BCAA catabolic pathway. BCATm KO mouse exhibited hypertrophy of heart, kidneys, and spleen. On the other hand, the mass of the gastrocnemius was reduced relative to body mass. Feeding the mice with a diet supplemented with rapamycin prevented the enlargement of the heart and spleen, suggesting that mTORC1 is the mediator of these effects. Consistently, enlargement of these organs was accompanied by the activation of mTORC1 complex as evidenced by enhanced levels of S6 and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation. HSP20, HSP27 and GAPDH were also increased in the heart but not gastrocnemius, consistent with mTORC1 activation. Liver, however, displayed no weight difference between the KO and the wild-type mice despite the highest activation level of mTORC1 complex. These observations suggest that the anabolic effect of mTORC1 activation at the organ level by BCAAs and inhibition by rapamycin are complex phenomenon and tissue-specific. In addition, it suggests that rapamycin can be used to counter hypertrophy of the organs when activation of mTORC1 is the underlying cause.

FKBP12 regulates the localization and processing of amyloid precursor protein in human cell lines

One of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease is the presence of insoluble extracellular amyloid plaques. These plaques are mainly constituted of amyloid beta peptide (A beta), a proteolytic product of amyloid precursor protein (APP). APP processing also generates the APP intracellular domain (AICD). We have previously demonstrated that AICD interacts with FKBP12, a peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) ubiquitous in nerve systems. This interaction was interfered by FK506, a clinically used immunosuppressant that has recently been reported to be neuroprotective. To elucidate the roles of FKBP12 in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, the effect of FKBP12 overexpression on APP processing was evaluated. Our results revealed that APP processing was shifted towards the amyloidogenic pathway, accompanied by a change in the subcellular localization of APP, upon FKBP12 overexpression. This FKBP12-overexpression-induced effect was reverted by FK506. These findings support our hypothesis that FKBP12 may participate in the regulation of APP processing. FKBP12 overexpression may lead to the stabilization of a certain isomer (presumably the cis form) of the Thr668-Pro669 peptide bond in AICD, therefore change its affinity to flotillin-1 or other raft-associated proteins, and eventually change the localization pattern and cause a shift in the proteolytic processing of APP.

Tacrolimus increases Nox4 expression in human renal fibroblasts and induces fibrosis-related genes by aberrant TGF-beta receptor signalling

Chronic nephrotoxicity of immunosuppressives is one of the main limiting factors in the long-term outcome of kidney transplants, leading to tissue fibrosis and ultimate organ failure. The cytokine TGF-β is considered a key factor in this process. In the human renal fibroblast cell line TK-173, the macrolide calcineurin inhibitor tacrolimus (FK-506) induced TGF-β-like effects, manifested by increased expression of NAD(P)H-oxidase 4 (Nox4), transgelin, tropomyosin 1, and procollagen α1(V) mRNA after three days. The macrolide mTOR inhibitor rapamycin had similar effects, while cyclosporine A did not induce fibrose-related genes. Concentration dependence curves were sigmoid, where mRNA expression was induced already at low nanomolar levels of tacrolimus, and reached saturation at 100-300 nM. The effects were independent of extracellular TGF-β as confirmed by the use of neutralizing antibodies, and thus most likely caused by aberrant TGF-β receptor signaling, where binding of tacrolimus to the regulatory FKBP12 protein results in a "leaky" TGF-β receptor. The myofibroblast marker α-smooth muscle actin was neither induced by tacrolimus nor by TGF-β1, indicating an incomplete activation of TK-173 fibroblasts under culture conditions. Tacrolimus- and TGF-β1-induced Nox4 protein upregulation was confirmed by Western blotting, and was accompanied by a rise in intracellular H2O2 concentration. Si-RNA mediated knock-down of Nox4 expression prevented up-regulation of procollagen α1(V) mRNA in tacrolimus-treated cells, but induced procollagen α1(V) expression in control cells. Nox4 knock-down had no significant effect on the other genes tested. TGF-β is a key molecule in fibrosis, and the constant activation of aberrant receptor signaling by tacrolimus might contribute to the long-term development of interstitial kidney fibrosis in immunosuppressed patients. Nox4 levels possibly play a regulatory role in these processes.

Functional diversity and pharmacological profiles of the FKBPs and their complexes with small natural ligands

From 5 to 12 FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs) are encoded in the genomes of disparate marine organisms, which appeared at the dawn of evolutionary events giving rise to primordial multicellular organisms with elaborated internal body plan. Fifteen FKBPs, several FKBP-like proteins and some splicing variants of them are expressed in humans. Human FKBP12 and some of its paralogues bind to different macrocyclic antibiotics such as FK506 or rapamycin and their derivatives. FKBP12/(macrocyclic antibiotic) complexes induce diverse pharmacological activities such as immunosuppression in humans, anticancerous actions and as sustainers of quiescence in certain organisms. Since the FKBPs bind to various assemblies of proteins and other intracellular components, their complexes with the immunosuppressive drugs may differentially perturb miscellaneous cellular functions. Sequence-structure relationships and pharmacological profiles of diverse FKBPs and their involvement in crucial intracellular signalization pathways and modulation of cryptic intercellular communication networks were discussed.

A modified amino acid network model contains similar and dissimilar weight

For a more detailed description of the interaction between residues, this paper proposes an amino acid network model, which contains two types of weight—similar weight and dissimilar weight. The weight of the link is based on a self-consistent statistical contact potential between different types of amino acids. In this model, we can get a more reasonable representation of the distance between residues. Furthermore, with the network parameter, average shortest path length, we can get a more accurate reflection of the molecular size. This amino acid network is a “small-world” network, and the network parameter is sensitive to the conformation change of protein. For some disease-related proteins, the highly central residues of the amino acid network are highly correlated with the hot spots. In the compound with the related drug, these residues either interacted directly with the drug or with the residue which is in contact with the drug.

Structure of the bone morphogenetic protein receptor ALK2 and implications for fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) receptor kinases are tightly regulated to control development and tissue homeostasis. Mutant receptor kinase domains escape regulation leading to severely degenerative diseases and represent an important therapeutic target. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare but devastating disorder of extraskeletal bone formation. FOP-associated mutations in the BMP receptor ALK2 reduce binding of the inhibitor FKBP12 and promote leaky signaling in the absence of ligand. To establish structural mechanisms of receptor regulation and to address the effects of FOP mutation, we determined the crystal structure of the cytoplasmic domain of ALK2 in complex with the inhibitors FKBP12 and dorsomorphin. FOP mutations break critical interactions that stabilize the inactive state of the kinase, thereby facilitating structural rearrangements that diminish FKBP12 binding and promote the correct positioning of the glycine-serine-rich loop and αC helix for kinase activation. The balance of these effects accounts for the comparable activity of R206H and L196P. Kinase activation in the clinically benign mutant L196P is far weaker than R206H but yields equivalent signals due to the stronger interaction of FKBP12 with R206H. The presented ALK2 structure offers a valuable template for the further design of specific inhibitors of BMP signaling.

Rapamycin Augments the NMDA-Mediated TNF Suppression of MRSA-Stimulated RAW264.7 Murine Macrophages

Background. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) can stimulate massive cytokine release. Ketamine suppresses tumor necrosis factor (TNF) secretion by MRSA-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, and the mechanism likely involves N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonism. The downstream effects of NMDA-mediated TNF suppression, specifically the PI3K/Akt and mTOR modulation, have not been described. Methods. RAW264.7 cells were stimulated for 18 hrs with 10⁵ to 10⁷ CFU/mL inocula of either of two prototypical community-acquired- (CA-) MRSA isolates, USA300 strain LAC and USA400 strain MW2. Then we added the NMDA inhibitors ketamine or 2R-amino-5-phosphonopentanoate (AP5), NMDA substrate, LY294002, and rapamycin in various combinations. Results. NMDA inhibition suppressed TNF secretion by almost a third compared to the no-ketamine control. When NMDA substrate was added, the TNF secretion increased by 10%. Addition of LY294002 suppressed TNF production by macrophages by 20%. Rapamycin exhibited a concentration-dependent TNF induction-suppression response: induction at doses of 0.1 and 1 ng/mL and suppression at 10 and 100 ng/mL. Induction of TNF was abolished when LY294002 was added and the suppression became uniform. Ketamine-induced suppression of TNF secretion was intensified 10–15% when rapamycin was added, but not when LY294002 was added. Conclusion. These findings suggest that NMDA-induced TNF suppression can be augmented by concurrent mTOR inhibition.

Subgroup-specific structural variation across 1,000 medulloblastoma genomes

Medulloblastoma, the most common malignant paediatric brain tumour, is currently treated with nonspecific cytotoxic therapies including surgery, whole-brain radiation, and aggressive chemotherapy. As medulloblastoma exhibits marked intertumoural heterogeneity, with at least four distinct molecular variants, previous attempts to identify targets for therapy have been underpowered because of small samples sizes. Here we report somatic copy number aberrations (SCNAs) in 1,087 unique medulloblastomas. SCNAs are common in medulloblastoma, and are predominantly subgroup-enriched. The most common region of focal copy number gain is a tandem duplication of SNCAIP, a gene associated with Parkinson's disease, which is exquisitely restricted to Group 4α. Recurrent translocations of PVT1, including PVT1-MYC and PVT1-NDRG1, that arise through chromothripsis are restricted to Group 3. Numerous targetable SCNAs, including recurrent events targeting TGF-β signalling in Group 3, and NF-κB signalling in Group 4, suggest future avenues for rational, targeted therapy.

Drug choices in autoimmune hepatitis: part B--Nonsteroids

Nonsteroidal medications, previously unfamiliar in the management of autoimmune hepatitis, can supplement or replace conventional corticosteroid regimens, especially in problematic patients. Mycophenolate mofetil is a next-generation purine antagonist that has been useful in treating patients with azathioprine intolerance. It has been less effective in salvaging patients with steroid-refractory disease. Azathioprine is the choice as a corticosteroid-sparing agent in treatment-naive patients and in individuals with corticosteroid intolerance, incomplete response and relapse after drug withdrawal. Tacrolimus is preferred over cyclosporine for recalcitrant disease because of its established preference in organ transplantation, but replacement with cyclosporine should be considered if the disease worsens on treatment. Rapamycin has antiproliferative and proapoptotic actions that warrant further study in autoimmune hepatitis. The nonstandard, nonsteroidal medications are mainly salvage therapies with off-label indications that must be used in highly individualized and well-monitored clinical situations.

Advances in the current treatment of autoimmune hepatitis

Current treatment strategies for autoimmune hepatitis are complicated by frequent relapse after drug withdrawal, medication intolerance, and refractory disease. The objective of this review is to describe advances that have improved treatment outcomes by defining the optimum objectives of initial therapy, managing relapse more effectively, identifying problematic patients early, and incorporating the new pharmacological interventions that have emerged as frontline and salvage therapies. Initial corticosteroid treatment should be continued until serum aminotransferase, γ-globulin, and immunoglobulin G levels are normal, and maintenance of this improvement for 3-8 months before liver tissue assessment. Improvement to normal liver tissue is the ideal histological result that justifies drug withdrawal, but it is achievable in only 22 % of patients. Minimum portal hepatitis, inactive cirrhosis, or minimally active cirrhosis is the most common treatment end point. Relapse after drug withdrawal warrants institution of a long-term maintenance regimen, preferably with azathioprine. Mathematical models can identify problematic adult patients early, as also can clinical phenotype (age ≤ 30 years and HLA DRB1 03), rapidity of treatment response (≤ 24 months), presence of antibodies to soluble liver antigen, and non-white ethnicity. The calcineurin inhibitors (cyclosporine and tacrolimus) can be effective in steroid-refractory disease; mycophenolate mofetil can be corticosteroid-sparing and effective for azathioprine intolerance; budesonide combined with azathioprine can be effective for treatment-naïve, non-cirrhotic patients. Standard treatment regimens for autoimmune hepatitis can be upgraded without adjustments that require major new expertise.

RANK-ORDERING THE BINDING AFFINITY FOR FKBP12 AND H1N1 NEURAMINIDASE INHIBITORS IN THE COMBINATION OF A PROTEIN MODEL WITH DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY

The quantum mechanical interaction energies between FKBP12 as well as H1N1 neuraminidase and their inhibitors were directly calculated with an efficient density functional theory by mimicking the whole protein with a protein model composed of the amino acids surrounding the ligands. It was found that the calculated quantum mechanical interaction energies correlate well with the experimental binding free energies with the correlation coefficients of 0.88, 0.86, and the standard deviation of 0.93 and 1.00 kcal/mol, respectively. To compare with force field approach, the binding free energies with the correlation coefficient R = 0.80 and 0.47 were estimated by AutoDock 4.0 programs. It was indicated that the quantum interaction energy shows a better performance in rank-ordering the binding affinity between FKBP12 and H1N1 neuraminidase inhibitors than those of AutoDock 4.0 program. In combination protein model with density functional theory, the estimated quantum interaction energy could be a good predictor or scoring function in structure-based computer-aided drug design. Finally, five new FKBP12 inhibitors were designed based on calculated quantum mechanical interaction energy. In particular, the theoretical K i value of one compound is as low as 0.05 nM, nearly 8-fold more active than FK506.

Identifying inhibitors of epithelial-mesenchymal transition by connectivity map-based systems approach

BACKGROUND

Acquisition of mesenchymal phenotype by epithelial cells by means of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is considered as an early event in the multistep process of tumor metastasis. Therefore, inhibition of EMT might be a rational strategy to prevent metastasis.

METHODS

Using the global gene expression profile from a cell culture model of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-induced EMT, we identified potential EMT inhibitors. We used a publicly available database (www.broad.mit.edu/cmap) comprising gene expression profiles obtained from multiple different cell lines in response to various drugs to derive negative correlations to EMT gene expression profile using Connectivity Map, a pattern matching tool.

RESULTS

Experimental validation of the identified compounds showed rapamycin as a novel inhibitor of TGF-β signaling along with 17-AAG, a known modulator of TGF-β pathway. Both of these compounds completely blocked EMT and the associated migratory and invasive phenotype. The other identified compound, LY294002, demonstrated a selective inhibition of mesenchymal markers, cell migration and invasion, without affecting the loss of E-cadherin expression or Smad phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data reveal that rapamycin is a novel modulator of TGF-β signaling, and along with 17-AAG and LY294002, could be used as therapeutic agent for inhibiting EMT. This study demonstrates the potential of a systems approach in identifying novel modulators of a complex biological process.

Genome-wide analysis of genes encoding FK506-binding proteins in rice

The FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs) are a class of peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase enzymes, some of which can also operate as molecular chaperones. FKBPs comprise a large ubiquitous family, found in virtually every part of the cell and involved in diverse processes from protein folding to stress response. Higher plant genomes typically encode about 20 FKBPs, half of these found in the chloroplast thylakoid lumen. Several FKBPs in plants are regulators of hormone signalling pathways, with important roles in seed germination, plant growth and stress response. Some FKBP isoforms exists as homologous duplicates operating in finely tuned mechanisms to cope with abiotic stress. In order to understand the roles of the plant FKBPs, especially in view of the warming environment, we have identified and analysed the gene families encoding these proteins in rice using computational approaches. The work has led to identification of all FKBPs from the rice genome, including novel high molecular weight forms. The rice FKBP family appears to have evolved by duplications of FKBP genes, which may be a strategy for increased stress tolerance.

Casein kinase 2beta as a novel enhancer of activin-like receptor-1 signaling

ALK-1 is a transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily receptor that is predominantly expressed in endothelial cells and is essential for angiogenesis, as demonstrated by the embryonic lethal phentoype when targeted for deletion in mice and its mutation in the human disease hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. Although ALK-1 and the endothelial-specific TGF-beta superfamily coreceptor, endoglin, form a heteromeric complex and bind similar TGF-beta superfamily ligands, their signaling mechanisms remain poorly characterized. Here we report the identification of CK2beta, the regulatory subunit of protein kinase CK2, as a novel enhancer of ALK-1 signaling. The cytoplasmic domain of ALK-1 specifically binds to CK2beta in vitro and in vivo. NAAIRS mutagenesis studies define amino acid sequences 181-199 of CK2beta and 207-212 of ALK-1 as the interaction domains, respectively. The ALK-1/CK2beta interaction specifically enhanced Smad1/5/8 phosphorylation and ALK-1-mediated reporter activation in response to TGF-beta1 and BMP-9 treatment. In a reciprocal manner, siRNA-mediated silencing of endogenous CK2beta inhibited TGF-beta1 and BMP-9-stimulated Smad1/5/8 phosphorylation and ALK-1-mediated reporter activation. Functionally, CK2beta enhanced the ability of activated or ligand-stimulated ALK-1 to inhibit endothelial cell migration. Similarly, ALK-1 and CK2beta antagonized endothelial tubule formation in Matrigel. These studies support CK2beta as an important regulator of ALK-1 signaling and ALK-1-mediated functions in endothelial cells.

Novel mutations in ACVR1 result in atypical features in two fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva patients

Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) is a rare, heritable condition typified by progression of extensive ossification within skeletal muscle, ligament and tendon together with defects in skeletal development. The condition is easily diagnosed by the presence of shortened great toes and there is severe advancement of disability with age. FOP has been shown to result from a point mutation (c.617G>A) in the ACVR1 gene in almost all patients reported. Very recently two other mutations have been described in three FOP patients. We present here evidence for two further unique mutations (c.605G>T and c.983G>A) in this gene in two FOP patients with some atypical digit abnormalities and other clinical features. The observation of disparate missense mutations mapped to the GS and kinase domains of the protein supports the disease model of mild kinase activation and provides a potential rationale for phenotypic variation.

Five-year study of tacrolimus as secondary intervention versus continuation of cyclosporine in renal transplant patients at risk for chronic renal allograft failure

BACKGROUND

Chronic allograft nephropathy is the most frequent cause of long-term kidney allograft loss. Studies are desperately needed to improve long-term survival. Tacrolimus has been associated with less rejection and better kidney function compared with cyclosporine in clinical trials. This study tested the hypothesis that conversion from cyclosporine to tacrolimus might improve long-term outcomes in patients with chronic allograft damage.

METHODS

In this multicenter Canadian clinical trial, cyclosporine-treated patients with biopsy-proven chronic allograft nephropathy and impaired renal function were randomly assigned (2:1) to convert to tacrolimus or continue on cyclosporine therapy. A total of 106 (70 tacrolimus and 36 cyclosporine treated) patients were followed-up for up to 5 years. The primary outcome was graft survival.

RESULTS

In an intention to treat analysis, subsequent graft (73% vs. 81%, P=0.2835, log-rank test) and patient survival (91% vs. 92%, P=0.8668, log-rank test) were not different between the tacrolimus and cyclosporine groups, respectively. Changes in Chronic Allograft Damage Index scores on protocol biopsies from baseline to 3 years were not different (+0.4+/-1.8 vs. +1.3+/-3.2, P=0.5910, cyclosporine vs. tacrolimus, respectively). There were no significant differences in biopsy-proven acute rejection (6 [8.6%] vs. 2 [5.6%], tacrolimus vs. cyclosporine, respectively, P=0.5906).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, patients with chronic allograft damage converted from cyclosporine to tacrolimus demonstrated no apparent benefit.

FKBP12 deficiency reduces strength deficits after eccentric contraction-induced muscle injury

Strength deficits associated with eccentric contraction-induced muscle injury stem, in part, from excitation-contraction uncoupling. FKBP12 is a 12-kDa binding protein known to bind to the skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channel [ryanodine receptor (RyR1)] and plays an important role in excitation-contraction coupling. To assess the effects of FKBP12 deficiency on muscle injury and recovery, we measured anterior crural muscle (tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles) strength in skeletal muscle-specific FKBP12-deficient and wild-type (WT) mice before and after a single bout of 150 eccentric contractions, as well as before and after the performance of six injury bouts. Histological damage of the tibialis anterior muscle was assessed after injury. Body weight and peak isometric and eccentric torques were lower in FKBP12-deficient mice compared with WT mice. There were no differences between FKBP12-deficient and WT mice in preinjury peak isometric and eccentric torques when normalized to body weight, and no differences in the relative decreases in eccentric torque with a single or multiple injury bouts. After a single injury bout, FKBP12-deficient mice had less initial strength deficits and recovered faster (especially females) than WT mice, despite no differences in the degree of histological damage. After multiple injury bouts, FKBP12-deficient mice recovered muscle strength faster than WT mice and exhibited significantly less histological muscle damage than WT mice. In summary, FKBP12 deficiency results in less initial strength deficits and enhanced recovery from single (especially females) and repeated bouts of injury than WT mice.