Pleiotrophin promotes vascular abnormalization in gliomas and correlates with poor survival in patients with astrocytomas

VLDLR mediates Semliki Forest virus neuroinvasion through the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier

Semliki Forest virus (SFV) is a neuropathogenic alphavirus which is of interest both as a model neurotropic alphavirus and as an oncolytic virus with proven potency in preclinical cancer models. In laboratory mice, peripherally administered SFV infiltrates the central nervous system (CNS) and causes encephalitis of varying severity. The route of SFV CNS entrance is poorly understood but has been considered to occur through the blood-brain barrier. Here we show that neuroinvasion of intravenously administered SFV is strictly dependent on very-low-density-lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR) which acts as an entry receptor for SFV. Moreover, SFV primarily enters the CNS through the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (B-CSF) barrier via infecting choroid plexus epithelial cells which show distinctly high expression of VLDLR. This is the first indication of neurotropic alphavirus utilizing choroid plexus for CNS entry, and VLDLR playing a specific and crucial role for mediating SFV entry through this pathway.

SOX4 promotes vascular abnormality in glioblastoma and is a novel target to improve drug delivery

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults with dismal prognosis. Vascular abnormality is a hallmark of GBM, and aggravates diseases progression by increasing hypoxia, inducing life-threaten edema and hindering drug delivery. Nonetheless, the intricate mechanism underlying vascular abnormality remains inadequately understood. Here, we revealed a key role of SOX4 on vascular abnormality in GBM. SOX4 expression was increased in endothelial cells (ECs) from human brain tumors compared with ECs from paired normal brain tissue. Knockdown of SOX4 in mouse brain ECs restrained cell migration and proliferation. Furthermore, in vitro suppression of SOX4 in brain ECs and in vivo conditional knockout of SOX4 in tumor ECs led to the downregulation of genes linked with vascular abnormality. Notably, specific depletion of SOX4 in ECs enhanced drug delivery and sensitive tumor to chemotherapeutic drugs in GBM. Taken together, these results demonstrated that SOX4 is a novel regulator for tumor angiogenesis and vascular abnormality in GBM. Our findings identify SOX4 as a potential vascular therapeutic target to improve drug delivery for GBM treatment.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts barrier breaking via TGF-β blockade paved way for docetaxel micelles delivery to treat pancreatic cancer

TGF-β is a crucial regulator in tumor microenvironment (TME), especially for myofibroblastic cancer-associated fibroblasts (myCAFs). The myCAFs can be motivated by TGF-β signaling to erect pro-tumor TME, meanwhile, myCAFs overexpress TGF-β to mediate the crosstalk between tumor and stromal cells. The blockade of TGF-β can break cancer-associated fibroblasts barrier, consequently opening the access for drugs into tumor. The TGF-β is a promising target in anti-tumor therapy. Herein, we introduced a two-stage combination therapy (TC-Therapy), including TGF-β receptor I inhibitor SB525334 (SB) and cytotoxicity agent docetaxel micelle (DTX-M). We found that SB and DTX-M synergistically inhibited myCAFs proliferation and elevated p53 protein expression in BxPC-3/3T3 mixed cells. Gene and protein tests demonstrated that SB cut off TGF-β signaling via receptor blockade and it did not arouse TGF-β legend compensated internal autocrine. On the contrary, two agents combined decreased TGF-β secretion and inhibited myCAFs viability marked by α-SMA and FAPα. TC-Therapy was applied in BxPc-3/3T3 mixed tumor-bearing mice model. After TC-Therapy, the α-SMA+/ FAPα+ myCAFs faded increasingly and collagenous fibers mainly secreted by myCAFs decreased dramatically as well. More than that, the myCAFs barrier breaking helped to normalize micro-vessels and paved way for micelle penetration. The TGF-β protein level of TC-Therapy in TME was much lower than that of simplex DTX-M, which might account for TME restoration. In conclusion, TGF-β inhibitor acted as the pioneer before nano chemotherapeutic agents. The TC-Therapy of TGF-β signaling inhibition and anti-tumor agent DTX-M is a promising regimen without arising metastasis risk to treat pancreatic cancer. The therapeutic regimen focused on TGF-β related myCAFs reminds clinicians to have a comprehensive understanding of pancreatic cancer.

Ethoxy-erianin phosphate inhibits angiogenesis in colorectal cancer by regulating the TMPO-AS1/miR-126-3p/PIK3R2 axis and inactivating the PI3k/AKT signaling pathway

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common malignancy, with increasing prevalence and mortality. How the ethoxy-erianin phosphate (EBTP) mediates CRC development remains unclear. Therefore, the current study evaluated the effects of EBTP on the proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of CRC cells using CCK-8, Wound-healing, Transwell, and Tube formation assays. RNA sequencing and molecular docking techniques helped predict that EBTP could inhibit angiogenesis by regulating PIK3R2 expression while clarifying the mechanism behind EBTP-mediated CRC angiogenesis. Subsequently, several in vitro experiments indicated that PIK3R2 overexpression significantly improved the proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of CRC cells while knocking down PIK3R2 expression inhibited their proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis. Simultaneously, PIK3R2 expression in CRC cells gradually decreased with increased EBTP concentration and action duration. Moreover, PIK3R2 overexpression in CRC cells could reverse the inhibitory EBTP effect in angiogenesis. Mouse experiments also depicted that EBTP inhibited CRC angiogenesis by down-regulating PIK3R2 expression. In addition, EBTP could inhibit PI3K/AKT pathway activity and indirectly control PIK3R2 expression through the lncRNA TMPO-AS1/miR-126-3p axis. Our findings highlighted that EBTP could inhibit CRC angiogenesis using the TMPO-AS1/miR-126-3p/PIK3R2/PI3k/AKT axis, providing a novel strategy for anti-angiogenic therapy in CRC.

Targeting of endothelial cells in brain tumours

BACKGROUND

Aggressive brain tumours, whether primary gliomas or secondary metastases, are characterised by hypervascularisation and are fatal. Recent research has emphasised the crucial involvement of endothelial cells (ECs) in all brain tumour genesis and development events, with various patterns and underlying mechanisms identified.

MAIN BODY

Here, we highlight recent advances in knowledge about the contributions of ECs to brain tumour development, providing a comprehensive summary including descriptions of interactions between ECs and tumour cells, the heterogeneity of ECs and new models for research on ECs in brain malignancies. We also discuss prospects for EC targeting in novel therapeutic approaches.

CONCLUSION

Interventions targeting ECs, as an adjunct to other therapies (e.g. immunotherapies, molecular-targeted therapies), have shown promising clinical efficacy due to the high degree of vascularisation in brain tumours. Developing precise strategies to target tumour-associated vessels based on the heterogeneity of ECs is expected to improve anti-vascular efficacy.

Understanding the role of endothelial cells in brain tumor formation and metastasis: a proposition to be explored for better therapy

Glioblastoma is one of the most devastating central nervous system disorders. Being a highly vascular brain tumor, it is distinguished by aberrant vessel architecture. This lends credence to the idea that endothelial cells (ECs) linked with glioblastoma vary fundamentally from ECs seen in the healthy human brain. To effectively design an antiangiogenic treatment, it is crucial to identify the functional and phenotypic characteristics of tumor-associated ECs. The ECs associated with glioblastoma are less prone to apoptosis than control cells and are resistant to cytotoxic treatments. Additionally, ECs associated with glioblastoma migrate more quickly than control ECs and naturally produce large amounts of growth factors such as endothelin-1, interleukin-8, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). For designing innovative antiangiogenic drugs that particularly target tumor-related ECs in gliomas, it is critical to comprehend these distinctive features of ECs associated with gliomas. This review discusses the process of angiogenesis, other factors involved in the genesis of tumors, and the possibility of ECs as a potential target in combating glioblastoma. It also sheds light on the association of tumor microenvironment and ECs with immunotherapy. This review, thus gives us the hope that neuro endothelial targeting with growth factors and angiogenesis regulators combined with gene therapy would open up new doorways and change our traditional perspective of treating cancer.

Cystathionine gamma-lyase (CTH) inhibition attenuates glioblastoma formation

PURPOSE

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common type of adult brain tumor with extremely poor survival. Cystathionine-gamma lyase (CTH) is one of the main Hydrogen Sulfide (H₂S) producing enzymes and its expression contributes to tumorigenesis and angiogenesis but its role in glioblastoma development remains poorly understood.

METHODS

and Principal Results: An established allogenic immunocompetent in vivo GBM model was used in C57BL/6J WT and CTH KO mice where the tumor volume and tumor microvessel density were blindly measured by stereological analysis. Tumor macrophage and stemness markers were measured by blinded immunohistochemistry. Mouse and human GBM cell lines were used for cell-based analyses. In human gliomas, the CTH expression was analyzed by bioinformatic analysis on different databases. In vivo, the genetic ablation of CTH in the host led to a significant reduction of the tumor volume and the protumorigenic and stemness transcription factor sex determining region Y-box 2 (SOX2). The tumor microvessel density (indicative of angiogenesis) and the expression levels of peritumoral macrophages showed no significant changes between the two genotypes. Bioinformatic analysis in human glioma tumors revealed that higher CTH expression is positively correlated to SOX2 expression and associated with worse overall survival in all grades of gliomas. Patients not responding to temozolomide have also higher CTH expression. In mouse or human GBM cells, pharmacological inhibition (PAG) or CTH knockdown (siRNA) attenuates GBM cell proliferation, migration and stem cell formation frequency.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Inhibition of CTH could be a new promising target against glioblastoma formation.

Tailoring vascular phenotype through AAV therapy promotes anti-tumor immunity in glioma

Glioblastomas are aggressive brain tumors that are largely immunotherapy resistant. This is associated with immunosuppression and a dysfunctional tumor vasculature, which hinder T cell infiltration. LIGHT/TNFSF14 can induce high endothelial venules (HEVs) and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS), suggesting that its therapeutic expression could promote T cell recruitment. Here, we use a brain endothelial cell-targeted adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector to express LIGHT in the glioma vasculature (AAV-LIGHT). We found that systemic AAV-LIGHT treatment induces tumor-associated HEVs and T cell-rich TLS, prolonging survival in αPD-1-resistant murine glioma. AAV-LIGHT treatment reduces T cell exhaustion and promotes TCF1⁺CD8⁺ stem-like T cells, which reside in TLS and intratumoral antigen-presenting niches. Tumor regression upon AAV-LIGHT therapy correlates with tumor-specific cytotoxic/memory T cell responses. Our work reveals that altering vascular phenotype through vessel-targeted expression of LIGHT promotes efficient anti-tumor T cell responses and prolongs survival in glioma. These findings have broader implications for treatment of other immunotherapy-resistant cancers.

Expression of Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK) in glioma and possible clinical correlations. A retrospective institutional study

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma is considered the most aggressive primary brain tumor. Recurrence after treatment is a significant problem with a failed response to optimal treatment. The recurrence of GBM is linked to different cellular and molecular pathways. Nationwide, in Egypt, astrocytic tumors are the most commonly diagnosed CNS tumor. Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK CD246) is an enzymatic protein (RTK) belonging to the insulin receptors superfamily.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study including sixty cases of astrocytic tumors (males = 40, mean age = 31.5), (females = 20, mean age = 37.77) obtained through collecting archived paraffin blocks of astrocytic tumor from the Pathology Department, Cairo University Faculty of Medicine during the period from January 2015 till January 2019. All cases were evaluated for ALK expression trying to find any clinical correlations with the clinical data.

RESULTS

Correlations were made using a scatterplot matrix correlogram. There was a significant correlation between tumor recurrence and ALK expression (r = 0.8, P < 0.01), and incidence of postoperative seizures (r = 0.8, P < 0.05), and between mean age and score tumor (r = 0.8, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Expression of ALK was found to be abundant among high-grade gliomas and tumor recurrence rate was higher in ALK-positive patients. Further studies are needed to evaluate the potential use of ALK as a prognostic marker in cases of GBM.

Interplay Between Extracellular Matrix Remodeling and Angiogenesis in Tumor Ecosystem

Studying the complex mechanisms of tumorigenesis and examining the interactions of neoplastic cells within tumor ecosystem are critical to explore the possibility of effective cancer treatment modalities. Dynamic tumor ecosystem is constantly evolving and is composed of tumor cells, extracellular matrix (ECM), secreted factors, and stromal cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), pericytes, endothelial cells (EC), adipocytes, and immune cells. ECM remodeling by synthesis, contraction, and/or proteolytic degradation of ECM components and release of matrix-sequestered growth factors create a microenvironment that promotes EC proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis. Stromal CAFs release multiple angiogenic cues (angiogenic growth factors, cytokines, and proteolytic enzymes) which interact with ECM proteins, thus contribute to enhance proangiogenic/promigratory properties and support aggressive tumor growth. Targeting angiogenesis brings about vascular changes including reduced adherence junction proteins, basement membrane and pericyte coverage, and increased leakiness. This facilitates ECM remodeling, metastatic colonization and chemoresistance. Owing to significant role of denser and stiffer ECM in inducing chemoresistance, direct or indirect targeting of ECM components is being reported as major axis of anticancer treatment. Exploring the agents targeting angiogenesis and ECM in a context specific manner may lead to reduced tumor burden by promoting conventional therapeutic effectiveness and overcoming the hurdles of therapy resistance.

Classical Angiogenic Signaling Pathways and Novel Anti-Angiogenic Strategies for Colorectal Cancer

Although productive progress has been made in colorectal cancer (CRC) researchs, CRC is the second most frequent type of malignancy and the major cause of cancer-related death among gastrointestinal cancers. As angiogenesis constitutes an important point in the control of CRC progression and metastasis, understanding the key signaling pathways that regulate CRC angiogenesis is critical in elucidating ways to inhibit CRC. Herein, we comprehensively summarized the angiogenesis-related pathways of CRC, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT), Wingless and int-1 (Wnt), and Notch signaling pathways. We divided the factors influencing the specific pathway into promoters and inhibitors. Among these, some drugs or natural compounds that have antiangiogenic effects were emphasized. Furthermore, the interactions of these pathways in angiogenesis were discussed. The current review provides a comprehensive overview of the key signaling pathways that are involved in the angiogenesis of CRC and contributes to the new anti-angiogenic strategies for CRC.

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the differentiation of glioma grade and mutational status by use of perfusion-based magnetic resonance imaging

Background

Molecular characterization plays a crucial role in glioma classification which impacts treatment strategy and patient outcome. Dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) and dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE) perfusion imaging have been suggested as methods to help characterize glioma in a non-invasive fashion. This study set out to review and meta-analyze the evidence on the accuracy of DSC and/or DCE perfusion MRI in predicting IDH genotype and 1p/19q integrity status.

Methods

After systematic literature search on Medline, EMBASE, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library, a qualitative meta-synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis were conducted. Meta-analysis was carried out on aggregated AUC data for different perfusion metrics.

Results

Of 680 papers, twelve were included for the qualitative meta-synthesis, totaling 1384 patients. It was observed that CBV, ktrans, Ve and Vp values were, in general, significantly higher in IDH wildtype compared to IDH mutated glioma. Meta-analysis comprising of five papers (totaling 316 patients) showed that the AUC of CBV, ktrans, Ve and Vp were 0.85 (95%-CI 0.75–0.93), 0.81 (95%-CI 0.74–0.89), 0.84 (95%-CI 0.71–0.97) and 0.76 (95%-CI 0.61–0.90), respectively. No conclusive data on the prediction of 1p/19q integrity was available from these studies.

Conclusions

Future research should aim to predict 1p/19q integrity based on perfusion MRI data. Additionally, correlations with other clinically relevant outcomes should be further investigated, including patient stratification for treatment and overall survival.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13244-022-01230-7.

Serum proteomics links suppression of tumor immunity to ancestry and lethal prostate cancer

There is evidence that tumor immunobiology and immunotherapy response may differ between African American and European American prostate cancer patients. Here, we determine if men of African descent harbor a unique systemic immune-oncological signature and measure 82 circulating proteins in almost 3000 Ghanaian, African American, and European American men. Protein signatures for suppression of tumor immunity and chemotaxis are elevated in men of West African ancestry. Importantly, the suppression of tumor immunity protein signature associates with metastatic and lethal prostate cancer, pointing to clinical importance. Moreover, two markers, pleiotrophin and TNFRSF9, predict poor disease survival specifically among African American men. These findings indicate that immune-oncology marker profiles differ between men of African and European descent. These differences may contribute to the disproportionate burden of lethal prostate cancer in men of African ancestry. The elevated peripheral suppression of tumor immunity may have important implication for guidance of cancer therapy which could particularly benefit African American patients.

Ancestry-related differences in immunobiology may explain the health disparities observed in prostate cancer patients, with men of African origin bearing the highest prostate cancer burden. By measuring immune-related proteins in serum samples, here the authors report that systemic cytokines linked to suppression of tumor immunity are upregulated in men of African ancestry and associated with reduced survival.

Uncovering a Key Role of ETS1 on Vascular Abnormality in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive type of brain tumor. Microvascular proliferation and abnormal vasculature are the hallmarks of the GBM, aggravating disease progression and increasing patient morbidity. Here, we uncovered a key role of ETS1 on vascular abnormality in glioblastoma. ETS1 was upregulated in endothelial cells from human tumors compared to endothelial cells from paired control brain tissue. Knockdown of Ets1 in mouse brain endothelial cells inhibited cell migration and proliferation, and suppressed expression of genes associated with vascular abnormality in GBM. ETS1 upregulation in tumor ECs was dependent on TGFβ signaling, and targeting TGFβ signaling by inhibitor decreased tumor angiogenesis and vascular abnormality in CT-2A glioma model. Our results identified ETS1 as a key factor regulating tumor angiogenesis, and suggested that TGFβ inhibition may suppress the vascular abnormality driven by ETS1.

Expression of Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase in Astrocytic Tumors (Histopathological and Immunohistochemical Study)

BACKGROUND: Astrocytic tumors are the most common primary brain tumors. Glioblastoma is the most common astrocytic tumor representing the highest World Health Organization (WHO) grade (WHO grade IV) with poor prognosis and short survival time. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) has a role in embryonic central nervous system development. ALK receptor is thought to contribute to nervous system function, repair, and metabolic homeostasis and is expressed in high-grade tumors like anaplastic large cell lymphoma that makes it a potential target for therapeutic intervention. AIM: This work aimed to examine the immunohistochemical expression of ALK in astrocytic tumors and its correlation with age, sex, clinical presentation, location, laterality, recurrence, and WHO grade to implicate possible therapeutic potential. METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted on sixty cases of archived, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue blocks that included different subtypes and grades of astrocytic tumors. Immunohistochemistry using ALK monoclonal antibody was performed using a standard avidin-biotin-peroxidase system. RESULTS: Of the sixty cases, 57 (95%) cases were negative for ALK, while three (5%) cases are positive for ALK; all showed the strong intensity of expression. No statistically significant association was found between ALK expression and astrocytic tumors in addition to other clinical variables of the studied tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Most cases of astrocytic tumors showed negative ALK expression apart from three positive cases seen in higher WHO grades, especially gliosarcoma. The high number of negative cases for ALK in our study group suggests that ALK expression is not associated with a prognostic significance toward astrocytic tumors whatever its grade.

Advances in understanding the role of P-gp in doxorubicin resistance: Molecular pathways, therapeutic strategies, and prospects

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a drug efflux transporter that triggers doxorubicin (DOX) resistance. In this review, we highlight the molecular avenues regulating P-gp, such as Nrf2, HIF-1α, miRNAs, and long noncoding (lnc)RNAs, to reveal their participation in DOX resistance. These antitumor compounds and genetic tools synergistically reduce P-gp expression. Furthermore, ATP depletion impairs P-gp activity to enhance the antitumor activity of DOX. Nanoarchitectures, including liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), and solid lipid nanocarriers, have been developed for the co-delivery of DOX with anticancer compounds and genes enhancing DOX cytotoxicity. Surface modification of nanocarriers, for instance with hyaluronic acid (HA), can promote selectivity toward cancer cells. We discuss these aspects with a focus on P-gp expression and activity.

Agonistic CD40 therapy induces tertiary lymphoid structures but impairs responses to checkpoint blockade in glioma

Gliomas are brain tumors characterized by an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Immunostimulatory agonistic CD40 antibodies (αCD40) are in clinical development for solid tumors, but are yet to be evaluated for glioma. Here, we demonstrate that systemic delivery of αCD40 in preclinical glioma models induces the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) in proximity of meningeal tissue. In treatment-naïve glioma patients, the presence of TLS correlates with increased T cell infiltration. However, systemic delivery of αCD40 induces hypofunctional T cells and impairs the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors in pre-clinical glioma models. This is associated with a systemic induction of suppressive CD11b⁺ B cells post-αCD40 treatment, which accumulate in the tumor microenvironment. Our work unveils the pleiotropic effects of αCD40 therapy in glioma and reveals that immunotherapies can modulate TLS formation in the brain, opening up for future opportunities to regulate the immune response.

Agonistic CD40 antibodies (αCD40) have broad immunostimulatory properties, however their efficacy in glioma remains unclear. Here the authors show that αCD40 promotes the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures but does not improve survival and impairs the response to immune checkpoint blockade in murine glioma models.

Uncovering a Distinct Gene Signature in Endothelial Cells Associated With Contrast Enhancement in Glioblastoma

Purpose

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal type of brain tumors. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been commonly used for GBM diagnosis. Contrast enhancement (CE) on T1-weighted sequences are presented in nearly all GBM as a result of high vascular permeability in glioblastomas. Although several radiomics studies indicated that CE is associated with distinct molecular signatures in tumors, the effects of vascular endothelial cells, the key component of blood brain barrier (BBB) controlling vascular permeability, on CE have not been thoroughly analyzed.

Methods

Endothelial cell enriched genes have been identified using transcriptome data from 128 patients by a systematic method based on correlation analysis. Distinct endothelial cell enriched genes associated with CE were identified by analyzing difference of correlation score between CE-high and CE–low GBM cases. Immunohistochemical staining was performed on in-house patient cohort to validate the selected genes associated with CE. Moreover, a survival analysis was conducted to uncover the relation between CE and patient survival.

Results

We illustrated that CE is associated with distinct vascular molecular imprints characterized by up-regulation of pro-inflammatory genes and deregulation of BBB related genes. Among them, PLVAP is up-regulated, whereas TJP1 and ABCG2 are down-regulated in the vasculature of GBM with high CE. In addition, we found that the high CE is associated with poor prognosis and GBM mesenchymal subtype.

Conclusion

We provide an additional insight to reveal the molecular trait for CE in MRI images with special focus on vascular endothelial cells, linking CE with BBB disruption in the molecular level. This study provides a potential new direction that may be applied for the treatment optimization based on MRI features.

Pleiotrophin interacts with glycosaminoglycans in a highly flexible and adaptable manner

Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a potent mitogenic cytokine whose activities are controlled by its interactions with glycosaminoglycan (GAG). We examined the specificity of PTN for several types of GAG oligosaccharides. Our data indicate that the interaction of PTN with GAGs is dependent on the sulfation density of GAGs. Surprisingly, an acidic peptide also had similar interactions with PTN as GAGs. This shows that the interaction of PTN with anionic polymers is flexible and adaptable and that the charge density is the main determinant of the interaction. In addition, we show that PTN can compensate for the loss of its termini in interactions with heparin oligosaccharides, allowing it to maintain its affinity for GAGs in the absence of the termini. Taken together, these data provide valuable insight into the interactions of PTN with its proteoglycan receptors.

1p/19q co-deletion status is associated with distinct tumor-associated macrophage infiltration in IDH mutated lower-grade gliomas

BACKGROUND

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM)s are critical regulators of glioma progression. As yet, however, TAMs in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutated lower-grade gliomas (LGGs) have not been thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to determine whether 1p/19q co-deletion status affects the TAM phenotype or its prevalence in IDH mutated LGGs.

METHODS

TAMs in IDH mutated LGGs were analyzed using transcriptome data from 230 samples in the TCGA database in combination with transcriptome data from single-cell RNA sequencing of IDH-mutated LGGs. Proteins potentially involved in TAM regulation were examined by immuno-staining in primary LGG samples harboring IDH mutations. Essential signaling pathways regulating TAM phenotypes were investigated in a glioma mouse model using small molecule inhibitors.

RESULTS

Most of the TAMs in IDH-mutated LGGs expressed the M1 activation markers CD86 and TNF, whereas a subset of individual TAMs co-expressed both M1 and M2-related markers. Bioinformatics analysis in combination with immuno-staining of IDH-mutated patient samples revealed higher amounts of TAMs expressing M2-related markers in 1p/19q non-codeletion IDH-mutated LGGs compared to 1p/19q codeletion LGGs. The levels of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) were significantly higher in 1p/19q non-codeletion LGGs than in 1p/19q codeletion LGGs. M-CSF and TGFβ1 signal inhibition decreased tumor growth and modulated the TAM phenotype in a glioma mouse model.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that 1p/19q co-deletion status relates to distinct TAM infiltration in gliomas, which is likely mediated by M-CSF and TGFβ1 signaling. M-CSF and TGFβ1 signaling may play a pivotal role in regulating the TAM phenotype in glioma.

Endothelial-Tumor Cell Interaction in Brain and CNS Malignancies

Glioblastoma and other brain or CNS malignancies (like neuroblastoma and medulloblastoma) are difficult to treat and are characterized by excessive vascularization that favors further tumor growth. Since the mean overall survival of these types of diseases is low, the finding of new therapeutic approaches is imperative. In this review, we discuss the importance of the interaction between the endothelium and the tumor cells in brain and CNS malignancies. The different mechanisms of formation of new vessels that supply the tumor with nutrients are discussed. We also describe how the tumor cells (TC) alter the endothelial cell (EC) physiology in a way that favors tumorigenesis. In particular, mechanisms of EC-TC interaction are described such as (a) communication using secreted growth factors (i.e., VEGF, TGF-β), (b) intercellular communication through gap junctions (i.e., Cx43), and (c) indirect interaction via intermediate cell types (pericytes, astrocytes, neurons, and immune cells). At the signaling level, we outline the role of important mediators, like the gasotransmitter nitric oxide and different types of reactive oxygen species and the systems producing them. Finally, we briefly discuss the current antiangiogenic therapies used against brain and CNS tumors and the potential of new pharmacological interventions that target the EC-TC interaction.

Long Non-Coding RNA AGAP2-AS1/miR-628-5p/PTN Axis Modulates Proliferation, Migration, Invasion, and Apoptosis of Glioma Cells

Purpose

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported to be involved in a variety of cancers, including glioma. However, the exact role and underlying mechanism of lncRNA AGAP2 antisense RNA 1 (AGAP2-AS1) in glioma have not yet been fully elucidated.

Methods

The expression levels of AGAP2-AS1, microRNA-628-5p (miR-628-5p) and pleiotrophin (PTN) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion were detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, flow cytometry, transwell assay, respectively. Western blot assay was used to detect the protein level of PTN. The interaction between miR-628-5p and AGAP2-AS1 or PTN was predicted by bioinformatics software and confirmed by the dual-luciferase reporter and RNA Immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays. Murine xenograft model was established to confirm the role of AGAP2-AS1 in glioma progression in vivo.

Results

AGAP2-AS1 expression was upregulated in glioma tissues and cells. Knockdown of AGAP2-AS1 inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion, but facilitated apoptosis in glioma cells. Moreover, AGAP2-AS1 could directly bind to miR-628-5p and its overexpression reversed the anti-tumor effect of miR-628-5p restoration on the progression of glioma cells. In addition, miR-628-5p directly targeted PTN and its inhibition abolished the inhibitory effect of PTN knockdown on the progression of glioma cells. Furthermore, AGAP2-AS1 functioned as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) by sponging miR-628-5p to modulate PTN expression. Besides, AGAP2-AS1 depletion reduced tumor growth by upregulating miR-628-5p and downregulating PTN.

Conclusion

AGAP2-AS1 knockdown suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion but promoted cell apoptosis in glioma cells by regulating miR-628-5p/PTN axis, providing novel avenues for treatment of glioma.

Regulation of Angiogenesis Discriminates Tissue Resident MSCs from Effective and Defective Osteogenic Environments

Background: The biological mechanisms that contribute to atrophic long bone non-union are poorly understood. Multipotential mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are key contributors to bone formation and are recognised as important mediators of blood vessel formation. This study examines the role of MSCs in tissue formation at the site of atrophic non-union. Materials and Methods: Tissue and MSCs from non-union sites (n = 20) and induced periosteal (IP) membrane formed following the Masquelet bone reconstruction technique (n = 15) or bone marrow (n = 8) were compared. MSC content, differentiation, and influence on angiogenesis were measured in vitro. Cell content and vasculature measurements were performed by flow cytometry and histology, and gene expression was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Results: MSCs from non-union sites had comparable differentiation potential to bone marrow MSCs. Compared with induced periosteum, non-union tissue contained similar proportion of colony-forming cells, but a greater proportion of pericytes (p = 0.036), and endothelial cells (p = 0.016) and blood vessels were more numerous (p = 0.001) with smaller luminal diameter (p = 0.046). MSCs showed marked differences in angiogenic transcripts depending on the source, and those from induced periosteum, but not non-union tissue, inhibited early stages of in vitro angiogenesis. Conclusions: In vitro, non-union site derived MSCs have no impairment of differentiation capacity, but they differ from IP-derived MSCs in mediating angiogenesis. Local MSCs may thus be strongly implicated in the formation of the immature vascular network at the non-union site. Attention should be given to their angiogenic support profile when selecting MSCs for regenerative therapy.

Tumor Cell Invasion in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a particularly devastating tumor with a median survival of about 16 months. Recent research has revealed novel insights into the outstanding heterogeneity of this type of brain cancer. However, all GBM subtypes share the hallmark feature of aggressive invasion into the surrounding tissue. Invasive glioblastoma cells escape surgery and focal therapies and thus represent a major obstacle for curative therapy. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of glioma invasion mechanisms with respect to tumor-cell-intrinsic properties as well as cues provided by the microenvironment. We discuss genetic programs that may influence the dissemination and plasticity of GBM cells as well as their different invasion patterns. We also review how tumor cells shape their microenvironment and how, vice versa, components of the extracellular matrix and factors from non-neoplastic cells influence tumor cell motility. We further discuss different research platforms for modeling invasion. Finally, we highlight the importance of accounting for the complex interplay between tumor cell invasion and treatment resistance in glioblastoma when considering new therapeutic approaches.

Pleiotrophin: Activity and mechanism

Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a potent mitogenic cytokine with a high affinity for the polysaccharide glycosaminoglycan (GAG). Although it is most strongly associated with neural development during embryogenesis and the neonatal period, its expression has also been linked to a plethora of other physiological events including cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, bone development, and inflammation. A considerable amount of research has been carried out to understand the mechanisms by which PTN regulates these events. In particular, PTN has now been shown to bind a diverse collection of receptors including many GAG-containing proteoglycans. These interactions lead to the activation of many intracellular kinases and, ultimately, activation and transformation of cells. Structural studies of PTN in complex with both GAG and domains from its non-proteoglycan receptors reveal a binding mechanism that relies on electrostatic interactions and points to PTN-induced receptor oligomerization as one of the possible ways PTN uses to control cellular functions.

Tumor angiogenesis: causes, consequences, challenges and opportunities

Tumor vascularization occurs through several distinct biological processes, which not only vary between tumor type and anatomic location, but also occur simultaneously within the same cancer tissue. These processes are orchestrated by a range of secreted factors and signaling pathways and can involve participation of non-endothelial cells, such as progenitors or cancer stem cells. Anti-angiogenic therapies using either antibodies or tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been approved to treat several types of cancer. However, the benefit of treatment has so far been modest, some patients not responding at all and others acquiring resistance. It is becoming increasingly clear that blocking tumors from accessing the circulation is not an easy task to accomplish. Tumor vessel functionality and gene expression often differ vastly when comparing different cancer subtypes, and vessel phenotype can be markedly heterogeneous within a single tumor. Here, we summarize the current understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in tumor angiogenesis and discuss challenges and opportunities associated with vascular targeting.

IDH mutation status is associated with distinct vascular gene expression signatures in lower-grade gliomas

Background

Vascular gene expression patterns in lower-grade gliomas (LGGs; diffuse World Health Organization [WHO] grades II–III gliomas) have not been thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to molecularly characterize LGG vessels and determine if tumor isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutation status affects vascular phenotype.

Methods

Gene expression was analyzed using an in-house dataset derived from microdissected vessels and total tumor samples from human glioma in combination with expression data from 289 LGG samples available in the database of The Cancer Genome Atlas. Vascular protein expression was examined by immunohistochemistry in human brain tumor tissue microarrays (TMAs) representing WHO grades II–IV gliomas and nonmalignant brain samples. Regulation of gene expression was examined in primary endothelial cells in vitro.

Results

Gene expression analysis of WHO grade II glioma indicated an intermediate stage of vascular abnormality, less severe than that of glioblastoma vessels but distinct from normal vessels. Enhanced expression of laminin subunit alpha 4 (LAMA4) and angiopoietin 2 (ANGPT2) in WHO grade II glioma was confirmed by staining of human TMAs. IDH wild-type LGGs displayed a specific angiogenic gene expression signature, including upregulation of ANGPT2 and serpin family H (SERPINH1), connected to enhanced endothelial cell migration and matrix remodeling. Transcription factor analysis indicated increased transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) and hypoxia signaling in IDH wild-type LGGs. A subset of genes specifically induced in IDH wild-type LGG vessels was upregulated by stimulation of endothelial cells with TGFβ2, vascular endothelial growth factor, or cobalt chloride in vitro.

Conclusion

IDH wild-type LGG vessels are molecularly distinct from the vasculature of IDH-mutated LGGs. TGFβ and hypoxia-related signaling pathways may be potential targets for anti-angiogenic therapy of IDH wild-type LGG.

Lymphatic outflow of cerebrospinal fluid is reduced in glioma

Glioblastoma is a malignant brain tumor with mean overall survival of less than 15 months. Blood vessel leakage and peritumoral edema lead to increased intracranial pressure and augment neurological deficits which profoundly decrease the quality of life of glioblastoma patients. It is unknown how the dynamics of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) turnover are affected during this process. By monitoring the transport of CSF tracers to the systemic blood circulation after infusion into the cisterna magna, we demonstrate that the outflow of CSF is dramatically reduced in glioma-bearing mice. Using a combination of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and near-infrared (NIR) imaging, we found that the circulation of CSF tracers was hindered after cisterna magna injection with reduced signals along the exiting cranial nerves and downstream lymph nodes, which represent the major CSF outflow route in mice. Due to blockage of the normal routes of CSF bulk flow within and from the cranial cavity, CSF tracers were redirected into the spinal space. In some mice, impaired CSF clearance from the cranium was compensated by a lymphatic outflow from the sacral spine.

Overlapping migratory mechanisms between neural progenitor cells and brain tumor stem cells

Neural stem cells present in the subventricular zone (SVZ), the largest neurogenic niche of the mammalian brain, are able to self-renew as well as generate neural progenitor cells (NPCs). NPCs are highly migratory and traverse the rostral migratory stream (RMS) to the olfactory bulb, where they terminally differentiate into mature interneurons. NPCs from the SVZ are some of the few cells in the CNS that migrate long distances during adulthood. The migratory process of NPCs is highly regulated by intracellular pathway activation and signaling from the surrounding microenvironment. It involves modulation of cell volume, cytoskeletal rearrangement, and isolation from compact extracellular matrix. In malignant brain tumors including high-grade gliomas, there are cells called brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) with similar stem cell characteristics to NPCs but with uncontrolled cell proliferation and contribute to tumor initiation capacity, tumor progression, invasion, and tumor maintenance. These BTSCs are resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and their presence is believed to lead to tumor recurrence at distal sites from the original tumor location, principally due to their high migratory capacity. BTSCs are able to invade the brain parenchyma by utilizing many of the migratory mechanisms used by NPCs. However, they have an increased ability to infiltrate the tight brain parenchyma and utilize brain structures such as myelin tracts and blood vessels as migratory paths. In this article, we summarize recent findings on the mechanisms of cellular migration that overlap between NPCs and BTSCs. A better understanding of the intersection between NPCs and BTSCs will to provide a better comprehension of the BTSCs' invasive capacity and the molecular mechanisms that govern their migration and eventually lead to the development of new therapies to improve the prognosis of patients with malignant gliomas.

A meta-analysis on the role of pleiotrophin (PTN) as a prognostic factor in cancer

Background

Some researchers reported that pleiotrophin (PTN) is associated with the development and metastasis of various tumors and it is a poor prognostic factor for the tumor patients. However, the results of other researches are inconsistent with them. It is obliged to do a meta-analysis to reach a definite conclusion.

Methods

The published studies relevant to PTN were searched in the databases including PubMed, Embase and Web of Science until March 20, 2018. A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the role of PTN in clinicopathological characteristics and overall survival (OS) of cancer patients.

Results

Our meta-analysis indicated that the high expression of PTN was remarkably associated with advanced TNM stage (OR = 2.79, 95%CI: 1.92–4.06, P<0.00001) and poor OS (HR = 1.77, 95%CI: 1.41–2.22, P<0.00001) in tumor patients. The expression of PTN was not associated with tumor size (OR = 1.12, 95% CI: 0.55–2.26, P = 0.76), lymph node metastasis (LNM) (OR = 1.95, 95%CI: 0.62–6.12, P = 0.25), distant metastasis (DM) (OR = 2.78, 95%CI: 0.72–10.74, P = 0.14) and histological grade (OR = 1.95, 95%CI: 0.98–3.87, P = 0.06).

Conclusion

The high expression of PTN is significantly relevant to the advanced TNM stage and poor OS in tumor patients. PTN can serve as a promising biomarker to predict unfavorable survival outcomes, and it may be a potential target for tumor treatment.

CD93 promotes β1 integrin activation and fibronectin fibrillogenesis during tumor angiogenesis

Tumor angiogenesis occurs through regulation of genes that orchestrate endothelial sprouting and vessel maturation, including deposition of a vessel-associated extracellular matrix. CD93 is a transmembrane receptor that is upregulated in tumor vessels in many cancers, including high-grade glioma. Here, we demonstrate that CD93 regulates β1 integrin signaling and organization of fibronectin fibrillogenesis during tumor vascularization. In endothelial cells and mouse retina, CD93 was found to be expressed in endothelial filopodia and to promote filopodia formation. The CD93 localization to endothelial filopodia was stabilized by interaction with multimerin-2 (MMRN2), which inhibited its proteolytic cleavage. The CD93-MMRN2 complex was required for activation of β1 integrin, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and fibronectin fibrillogenesis in endothelial cells. Consequently, tumor vessels in gliomas implanted orthotopically in CD93-deficient mice showed diminished activation of β1 integrin and lacked organization of fibronectin into fibrillar structures. These findings demonstrate a key role of CD93 in vascular maturation and organization of the extracellular matrix in tumors, identifying it as a potential target for therapy.

The enhancement of siPLK1 penetration across BBB and its anti glioblastoma activity in vivo by magnet and transferrin co-modified nanoparticle

In order to enhance the penetration of small interference RNA against the polo-like kinase I (siPLK1) across BBB to treat glioblastoma (GBM), transferrin (Tf) modified magnetic nanoparticle (Tf-PEG-PLL/MNP@siPLK1) was prepared. The in vitro experiments indicated that Tf-PEG-PLL/MNP@siPLK1 enhanced the cellular uptake of siPLK1, which resulted in an increase of gene silencing effect and cytotoxicity of Tf-PEG-PLL/MNP@siPLK1 on U87 cells. Besides, Tf-PEG-PLL/MNP@siPLK1 significantly inhibited the growth of U87 glioblastoma spheroids and markedly increased the BBB penetration efficiency of siPLK1 with the application of external magnetic field in in-vitro BBB model. The in vivo experiments indicated that siPLK1 selectively accumulated in the brain tissue, and markedly reduced tumor volume and prolonged the survival time of GBM-bearing mice after Tf-PEG-PLL/MNP@siPLK1 was injected to GBM-bearing mice via tail vein. The above data indicated that magnet and transferrin co-modified nanoparticle enhanced siPLK1 penetration across BBB and increased its anti GBM activity in vivo.

A Chimeric Antibody against ACKR3/CXCR7 in Combination with TMZ Activates Immune Responses and Extends Survival in Mouse GBM Models

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the least treatable type of brain tumor, afflicting over 15,000 people per year in the United States. Patients have a median survival of 16 months, and over 95% die within 5 years. The chemokine receptor ACKR3 is selectively expressed on both GBM cells and tumor-associated blood vessels. High tumor expression of ACKR3 correlates with poor prognosis and potential treatment resistance, making it an attractive therapeutic target. We engineered a single chain FV-human FC-immunoglobulin G1 (IgG₁) antibody, X7Ab, to target ACKR3 in human and mouse GBM cells. We used hydrodynamic gene transfer to overexpress the antibody, with efficacy in vivo. X7Ab kills GBM tumor cells and ACKR3-expressing vascular endothelial cells by engaging the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells and complement and the phagocytic activity of macrophages. Combining X7Ab with TMZ allows the TMZ dosage to be lowered, without compromising therapeutic efficacy. Mice treated with X7Ab and in combination with TMZ showed significant tumor reduction by MRI and longer survival overall. Brain-tumor-infiltrating leukocyte analysis revealed that X7Ab enhances the activation of M1 macrophages to support anti-tumor immune response in vivo. Targeting ACKR3 with immunotherapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in combination with standard of care therapies may prove effective in treating GBM.

Diagnostic Values of DCE-MRI and DSC-MRI for Differentiation Between High-grade and Low-grade Gliomas: A Comprehensive Meta-analysis

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to collect the studies on the role of dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) and dynamic susceptibility contrast MRI (DSC-MRI) in differentiating the grades of gliomas, and evaluate the diagnostic performances of relevant quantitative parameters in glioma grading.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We systematically searched studies on the diagnosis of gliomas with DCE-MRI or DSC-MRI in Medline, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure database, Cochrane Library, and Embase published between January 2005 and December 2016. Standardized mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for volume transfer coefficient (K^trans), volume fraction of extravascular extracellular space (V_e), rate constant of backflux (K_ep), relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV), and relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF) using Review Manager 5.2 software. Sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve (AUC), and Begg test were calculated by Stata 12.0.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies with available outcome data were included in the analysis. The standardized mean difference of K^trans values between high-grade glioma and low-grade glioma were 1.18 (0.91, 1.45); V_e values were 1.43 (1.06, 1.80); K_ep values were 0.65 (-0.05, 1.36); rCBV values were 1.44 (1.08, 1.81); and rCBF values were 1.17 (0.68, 1.67), respectively. The results were all significant statistically (P < .05) except K_ep values (P = .07), and high-grade glioma had higher K^trans, V_e, rCBV, and rCBF values than low-grade glioma. AUC values of K^trans, V_e, rCBV, and rCBF were 0.90, 0.88, 0.93, and 0.73, respectively; rCBV had the largest AUC among the four parameters (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Both DCE-MRI and DSC-MRI are reliable techniques in differentiating the grades of gliomas, and rCBV was found to be the most sensitive one.

Pleiotrophin enhances PDGFB-induced gliomagenesis through increased proliferation of neural progenitor cells

Pleiotrophin (PTN) augments tumor growth by increasing proliferation of tumor cells and promoting vascular abnormalization, but its role in early gliomagenesis has not been evaluated. Through analysis of publically available datasets, we demonstrate that increased PTN mRNA expression is associated with amplification of chromosome 7, identified as one of the earliest steps in glioblastoma development. To elucidate the role of PTN in tumor initiation we employed the RCAS/tv-a model that allows glioma induction by RCAS-virus mediated expression of oncogenes in neural progenitor cells. Intracranial injection of RCAS-PTN did not induce glioma formation when administrated alone, but significantly enhanced RCAS-platelet derived growth factor (PDGF)B-induced gliomagenesis. PTN co-treatment augmented PDGFB-induced Akt activation in neural progenitor cells in vitro, and enhanced neural sphere size associated with increased proliferation. Our data indicates that PTN expression is associated with chromosome 7 gain, and that PTN enhances PDGFB-induced gliomagenesis by stimulating proliferation of neural progenitor cells.

GBM-associated mutations and altered protein expression are more common in young patients

Background

Geriatric glioblastoma (GBM) patients have a poorer prognosis than younger patients, but IDH1/2 mutations (more common in younger patients) confer a favorable prognosis. We compared key GBM molecular alterations between an elderly (age ≥ 70) and younger (18 < = age < = 45) cohort to explore potential therapeutic opportunities.

Results

Alterations more prevalent in the young GBM cohort compared to the older cohort (P < 0.05) were: overexpression of ALK, RRM1, TUBB3 and mutation of ATRX, BRAF, IDH1, and TP53. However, PTEN mutation was significantly more frequent in older patients. Among patients with wild-type IDH1/2 status, TOPO1 expression was higher in younger patients, whereas MGMT methylation was more frequent in older patients. Within the molecularly-defined IDH wild-type GBM cohort, younger patients had significantly more mutations in PDGFRA, PTPN11, SMARCA4, BRAF and TP53.

Methods

GBMs from 178 elderly patients and 197 young patients were analyzed using DNA sequencing, immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, and MGMT-methylation assay to ascertain mutational and amplification/expressional status.

Conclusions

Significant molecular differences occurred in GBMs from elderly and young patients. Except for the older cohort's more frequent PTEN mutation and MGMT methylation, younger patients had a higher frequency of potential therapeutic targets.

The Tropism of Pleiotrophin: Orchestrating Glioma Brain Invasion

The lateral ventricle (LV) is a preferential location for brain tumor spread; however, the instructive cues responsible for this unique tropism were previously unknown. In this issue, Qin et al. elucidate the underlying mechanism, demonstrating that LV-neural progenitors secrete a pleiotrophin (PTN)-containing complex, which attracts glioma cells through ROCK/Rho activation.

New connections: Pleiotrophin and glioma

The cytokine pleiotrophin promotes the invasion and vascularization of glioma.

ALK signaling cascade confers multiple advantages to glioblastoma cells through neovascularization and cell proliferation

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), which is a receptor tyrosine kinase, is essentially and transiently expressed in the developing nervous system. Here we examined the functional role of the ALK gene in glioblastomas (GBMs). In clinical samples of GBMs, high ALK expression without gene rearrangements or mutations was frequently observed in perivascular lesions, in contrast to the relatively low expression in the perinecrotic areas, which was positively correlated with N-myc and phosphorylated (p) Stat3 scores and Ki-67 labeling indices. ALK immunoreactivity was also found to be associated with neovascular features including vascular co-option and vascular mimicry. In astrocytoma cell lines, cells stably overexpressing full-length ALK showed an increase in expression of pStat3 and pAkt proteins, as well as hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) mRNAs, in contrast to cells with knockdown of endogenous ALK which showed decreased expression of these molecules. Transfection of the constitutively active form of Stat3 induced an increase in HIF-1α promoter activity, and the overexpression of HIF-1α in turn resulted in enhancement of VEGF-A promoter activity. In addition, cells with overexpression or knockdown of ALK also showed a tendency toward increased and decreased proliferation, respectively, through changes in expression of pAkt and pStat3. Finally, ALK promoter was significantly activated by transfection of Sox4 and N-myc, which are known to contribute to neuronal properties. These findings therefore suggest that N-myc/Sox4-mediated ALK signaling cascades containing Stat3, Akt, HIF-1α, and VEGF-A confer multiple advantages to tumor growth through alterations in neovascularization and cell proliferation in GBMs.

Neural Precursor-Derived Pleiotrophin Mediates Subventricular Zone Invasion by Glioma

The lateral ventricle subventricular zone (SVZ) is a frequent and consequential site of pediatric and adult glioma spread, but the cellular and molecular mechanisms mediating this are poorly understood. We demonstrate that neural precursor cell (NPC):glioma cell communication underpins this propensity of glioma to colonize the SVZ through secretion of chemoattractant signals toward which glioma cells home. Biochemical, proteomic, and functional analyses of SVZ NPC-secreted factors revealed the neurite outgrowth-promoting factor pleiotrophin, along with required binding partners SPARC/SPARCL1 and HSP90B, as key mediators of this chemoattractant effect. Pleiotrophin expression is strongly enriched in the SVZ, and pleiotrophin knock down starkly reduced glioma invasion of the SVZ in the murine brain. Pleiotrophin, in complex with the binding partners, activated glioma Rho/ROCK signaling, and ROCK inhibition decreased invasion toward SVZ NPC-secreted factors. These findings demonstrate a pathogenic role for NPC:glioma interactions and potential therapeutic targets to limit glioma invasion. PAPERCLIP.

Pleiotrophin promotes chemoresistance to doxorubicin in osteosarcoma by upregulating P-glycoprotein

Chemoresistance is a major hindrance to successful treatment of osteosarcoma (OS). Pleiotrophin (PTN), a neurotrophic growth factor, has been linked to the malignant characteristics of various cancer types. We retrospectively examined the correlation between PTN expression and chemoresistance in OS in a cohort of 133 OS patients. Immunohistochemistry revealed that PTN expression correlated with the necrosis rate and local OS recurrence. In a prognostic analysis, high PTN expression was associated with poor overall and disease-free survival, and was an independent adverse prognostic factor for disease-free survival. In doxorubicin-treated OS cells, PTN knockdown enhanced cellular chemosensitivity, increased the apoptosis rate and inhibited clone formation, while PTN overexpression had the opposite effects. In a xenograft model, PTN knockdown and overexpression respectively enhanced and reduced cellular sensitivity to doxorubicin. PTN upregulated anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), p-Glycogen Synthase Kinase (GSK)3β, β-catenin and multidrug resistance protein 1/P-glycoprotein (MDR1/P-gp). In rescue assays with the β-catenin inhibitor XAV939 and the MDR1/P-gp inhibitor verapamil, PTN promoted chemoresistance to doxorubicin in OS cells by activating ALK/GSK3β/β-catenin signaling, thereby upregulating MDR1/P-gp. Therefore, PTN could be used as a biomarker predicting chemotherapeutic responses, and downregulating PTN could be a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent chemoresistance in OS patients.

Tumour-associated macrophages secrete pleiotrophin to promote PTPRZ1 signalling in glioblastoma stem cells for tumour growth

Intense infiltration of tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) facilitates malignant growth of glioblastoma (GBM), but the underlying mechanisms remain undefined. Herein, we report that TAMs secrete abundant pleiotrophin (PTN) to stimulate glioma stem cells (GSCs) through its receptor PTPRZ1 thus promoting GBM malignant growth through PTN–PTPRZ1 paracrine signalling. PTN expression correlates with infiltration of CD11b⁺/CD163⁺ TAMs and poor prognosis of GBM patients. Co-implantation of M2-like macrophages (MLCs) promoted GSC-driven tumour growth, but silencing PTN expression in MLCs mitigated their pro-tumorigenic activity. The PTN receptor PTPRZ1 is preferentially expressed in GSCs and also predicts GBM poor prognosis. Disrupting PTPRZ1 abrogated GSC maintenance and tumorigenic potential. Moreover, blocking the PTN–PTPRZ1 signalling by shRNA or anti-PTPRZ1 antibody potently suppressed GBM tumour growth and prolonged animal survival. Our study uncovered a critical molecular crosstalk between TAMs and GSCs through the PTN–PTPRZ1 paracrine signalling to support GBM malignant growth, indicating that targeting this signalling axis may have therapeutic potential.

Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) facilitate malignant growth of glioblastoma (GBM). Here, the authors show that TAMs support glioma stem cell renewal via paracrine signalling to the pleiotrophin receptor PTPRZ1 and that blocking this axis results in increased survival of tumour-bearing animals.

Pathogenic role and therapeutic potential of pleiotrophin in mouse models of ocular vascular disease

Angiogenic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR), neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) and retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Pleiotrophin, a well-known angiogenic factor, was recently reported to be upregulated in the vitreous fluid of patients with proliferative DR (PDR). However, its pathogenic role and therapeutic potential in ocular vascular diseases have not been defined in vivo. Here using corneal pocket assays, we demonstrated that pleiotrophin induced angiogenesis in vivo. To investigate the pathological role of pleiotrophin we used neutralizing antibody to block its function in multiple in vivo models of ocular vascular diseases. In a mouse model of DR, intravitreal injection of pleiotrophin-neutralizing antibody alleviated diabetic retinal vascular leakage. In a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR), which is a surrogate model of ROP and PDR, we demonstrated that intravitreal injection of anti-pleiotrophin antibody prevented OIR-induced pathological retinal neovascularization and aberrant vessel tufts. Finally, pleiotrophin-neutralizing antibody ameliorated laser-induced choroidal neovascularization, a mouse model of nAMD, suggesting that pleiotrophin is involved in choroidal vascular disease. These findings suggest that pleiotrophin plays an important role in the pathogenesis of DR with retinal vascular leakage, ROP with retinal neovascularization and nAMD with choroidal neovascularization. The results also support pleiotrophin as a promising target for anti-angiogenic therapy.

Pleiotrophin as a potential biomarker in breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Pleiotrophin (PTN), a multifunctional growth factor, is up-regulated in many tumors. PTN is reported to play an important role in the regulation of several cellular processes. The objective of this study is to evaluate the clinical significance of PTN as a tumor marker in breast cancer (BC).

METHODS

Serum PTN levels were detected in 105 BC patients and 40 healthy volunteers using ELISA. In addition, PTN expression was examined in 80 BC tissues in a nested case-control study by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Serum PTN levels were elevated in BC patients compared to healthy controls. Area under receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.878 (95% CI: 0.824-0.932). The sensitivity of serum PTN was superior to CEA and CA15-3. High serum PTN levels were associated with TNM stage, histology grade, and distant metastasis. Moreover, serum PTN levels decreased significantly after surgical treatment. In BC tissues, PTN expression was significantly higher in BC tissues relative to paired paracancerous tissues. Tissue PTN expression proved to be a prognostic factor for breast cancer according to multivariable logistic regression analysis.

CONCLUSION

PTN could be considered as a potential biomarker for the presence of breast cancer.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase expression and gene alterations in glioblastoma: correlations with clinical outcome

Aims

To study anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) protein expression and possible underlying gene alterations in glioblastoma (GBM), correlating them with clinical outcome.

Methods

We studied ALK immunohistochemical expression and fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH)-detected ALK gene alterations in 51 GBMs (46 isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 (IDH1)R132H-negative and 5 IDH-mutant (IDH1R132H-positive)). We compared two anti-ALK antibodies and immunohistochemical detection systems (5Α4/Nichirei Biosciences, D5F3/Ventana). The results were correlated with tumour cell proliferation and clinical outcome.

Results

Intense granular cytoplasmic ALK immunostaining was observed in 10/51 (19.61%) GBM and correlated with high Ki67 proliferation index; only 1 in 10 ALK-positive cases displayed multiple alk gene signals by FISH. Moderate ALK immunostaining was observed in 21 (41.17%), weak immunostaining in 5 (9.80%) while 15 (29.42%) cases were negative. p53 was expressed in 26/51 GBM (50.9%) (10% cut-off). IDH1R132H-negative GBM showed higher ALK expression compared with IDH-mutant GBM (65.2% vs 20%). ALK overexpression was more common in older patients but did not correlate with other clinicopathological variables or patient overall survival.

Conclusions

ALK overexpression can be identified in up to 70% of GBMs and does not correlate with underlying alk gene amplification. Despite being more common in rapidly growing, clinically aggressive GBM, ALK overexpression did not show correlation with prognosis in this study.

Heparanase Promotes Glioma Progression and Is Inversely Correlated with Patient Survival

Malignant glioma continues to be fatal, despite improved insight into its underlying molecular mechanisms. The most malignant form, glioblastoma (GBM), is characterized by aberrant activation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) and infiltrative growth. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), integral components of the extracellular matrix of brain tumors, can regulate activation of many RTK pathways. This prompted us to investigate heparanase (HPSE), which cleaves HSPGs, for its role in glioma. This hypothesis was evaluated using tissue microarrays, GBM cells derived from patients, murine in vitro and in vivo models of glioma, and public databases. Downregulation of HPSE attenuated glioma cell proliferation, whereas addition of HPSE stimulated growth and activated ERK and AKT signaling. Using HPSE transgenic and knockout mice, it was demonstrated that tumor development in vivo was positively correlated to HPSE levels in the brain. HPSE also modified the tumor microenvironment, influencing reactive astrocytes, microglia/monocytes, and tumor angiogenesis. Furthermore, inhibition of HPSE reduces tumor cell numbers, both in vitro and in vivo HPSE was highly expressed in human glioma and GBM cell lines, compared with normal brain tissue. Indeed, a correlation was observed between high levels of HPSE and shorter survival of patients with high-grade glioma. In conclusion, these data provide proof-of-concept for anti-HPSE treatment of malignant glioma, as well as novel insights for the development of HPSE as a therapeutic target.

IMPLICATIONS

This study aims to target both the malignant brain tumor cells per se and their microenvironment by changing the level of an enzyme, HPSE, that breaks down modified sugar chains on cell surfaces and in the extracellular space. Mol Cancer Res; 14(12); 1243-53. ©2016 AACR.

Pleiotrophin is a driver of vascular abnormalization in glioblastoma

In a recent report by Zhang et al., pleiotrophin (PTN) was demonstrated to enhance glioma growth by promoting vascular abnormalization. PTN stimulates glioma vessels through anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk)-mediated perivascular deposition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Targeting of Alk or VEGF signaling normalizes tumor vessels in PTN-expressing tumors.