1
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Marti H, Biggel M, Shima K, Onorini D, Rupp J, Charette SJ, Borel N. Chlamydia suis displays high transformation capacity with complete cloning vector integration into the chromosomal rrn-nqrF plasticity zone. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0237823. [PMID: 37882558 PMCID: PMC10715202 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02378-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The obligate intracellular Chlamydia genus contains many pathogens with a negative impact on global health and economy. Despite recent progress, there is still a lack of genetic tools limiting our understanding of these complex bacteria. This study provides new insights into genetic manipulation of Chlamydia with the opportunistic porcine pathogen Chlamydia suis, the only chlamydial species naturally harboring an antibiotic resistance gene, originally obtained by horizontal gene transfer. C. suis is transmissible to humans, posing a potential public health concern. We report that C. suis can take up vectors that lack the native plasmid, a requirement for most chlamydial transformation systems described to date. Additionally, we show that C. trachomatis, the most common cause for bacterial sexually transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide, can be transformed with C. suis vectors. Finally, the chromosomal region that harbors the resistance gene of C. suis is highly susceptible to complete vector integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kensuke Shima
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Delia Onorini
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Rupp
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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2
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Gökengin D, Noori T, Alemany A, Bienkowski C, Liegon G, İnkaya AÇ, Carrillo J, Stary G, Knapp K, Mitja O, Molina JM. Prevention strategies for sexually transmitted infections, HIV, and viral hepatitis in Europe. THE LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH. EUROPE 2023; 34:100738. [PMID: 37927439 PMCID: PMC10625023 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
The current prevention efforts for STIs, HIV and viral hepatitis in the WHO European Region, especially in the Central and Eastern subregions, are hindered by healthcare disparities, data gaps, and limited resources. In this comprehensive narrative review, we aim to highlight both achievements and persisting challenges while also exploring new developments that could significantly impact the prevention of these infections in the near future. While pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV has been broadly approved and implemented in 38 out of 53 countries in the region, challenges remain, including cost, limited licensing, and incomplete adherence. We explore innovative approaches like on-demand PrEP, long-acting injectable cabotegravir, and intravaginal rings that have shown promising results, alongside the use of six-monthly lenacapavir, the outcomes of which are pending. Additionally, the potential of doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis has been discussed, revealing efficacy in reducing chlamydia and syphilis risk, but effectiveness against gonorrhoea being contingent on tetracycline resistance rates, and the need of further data to determine potential resistance development in other bacteria and its impact on the gut microbiome. We examine successful vaccination campaigns against HBV and HPV, the ongoing development of vaccines for chlamydia, syphilis, herpesvirus, and gonorrhoea, and challenges in HIV vaccine research, including lines of research with significant potential like sequential immunization, T-cell responses, and mRNA technology. This review underscores the research endeavors that pave the way for a more resilient and robust approach to combating STIs, HIV, and viral hepatitis in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Gökengin
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Turkiye
- Ege University HIV/AIDS Practice and Research Center, Izmir, Turkiye
| | - Teymur Noori
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control STI, Blood-Borne Viruses and TB DPR, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andrea Alemany
- Skin Neglected Tropical Diseases and Sexually Transmitted Infections Section, Fight Infectious Diseases Foundation, University Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
| | - Carlo Bienkowski
- Department of Adults' Infectious Diseases, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland and Hospital for Infectious Diseases in Warsaw, Poland
| | - Geoffroy Liegon
- Section of Infectious Diseases and Global Health University of Chicago Medicine Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Ahmet Çağkan İnkaya
- Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine Department of Infectious Diseases Ankara, Turkey
| | - Jorge Carrillo
- IrsiCaixa AIDS Research Institute, Campus Can Ruti, Badalona, Spain
- Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Campus Can Ruti, Badalona, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, Instituto de Salud Carlos IIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Georg Stary
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Knapp
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Oriol Mitja
- Skin Neglected Tropical Diseases and Sexually Transmitted Infections Section, Fight Infectious Diseases Foundation, University Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
| | - Jean-Michel Molina
- University of Paris Cité and Department of Infectious Diseases Saint-Louis and Lariboisiére Hospitals, APHP, Paris, France
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3
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Villa L, Boga JA, Otero L, Vazquez F, Milagro A, Salmerón P, Vall-Mayans M, Maciá MD, Bernal S, Piñeiro L. Phenotypic and Genotypic Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Chlamydia trachomatis Isolates from Patients with Persistent or Clinical Treatment Failure in Spain. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:975. [PMID: 37370294 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12060975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this multicentre project (seven hospitals across the Spanish National Health Service) was to study the phenotypic and genotypic susceptibility of C. trachomatis to the main antimicrobials used (macrolides, doxycycline, and quinolones) in isolates from patients with clinical treatment failure in whom reinfection had been ruled out. During 2018-2019, 73 clinical isolates were selected. Sixty-nine clinical specimens were inoculated onto confluent McCoy cell monolayers for phenotypic susceptibility testing. The minimum inhibitory concentration for azithromycin and doxycycline was defined as the lowest concentration associated with an at least 95% reduction in inclusion-forming units after one passage in the presence of the antibiotic compared to the initial inoculum for each strain (control). Sequencing analysis was performed for the genotypic detection of resistance to macrolides, analysing mutations in the 23S rRNA gene (at positions 2057, 2058, 2059, and 2611), and quinolones, analysing a fragment of the gyrA gene, and searching for the G248T mutation (Ser83->Ile). For tetracyclines, in-house RT-PCR was used to test for the tet(C) gene. The phenotypic susceptibility testing was successful for 10 isolates. All the isolates had minimum inhibitory concentrations for azithromycin ≤ 0.125 mg/L and for doxycycline ≤ 0.064 mg/L and were considered sensitive. Of the 73 strains studied, no mutations were found at positions T2611C or G248T of the gyrA gene. We successfully sequenced 66 isolates. No macrolide resistance-associated mutations were found at positions 2057, 2058, 2059, or T2611C. None of the isolates carried the tet(C) gene. We found no evidence for genomic resistance in this large, clinically relevant dataset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Villa
- Microbiology Department, Central University Hospital of Asturias and Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Antonio Boga
- Microbiology Department, Central University Hospital of Asturias and Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
| | - Luis Otero
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Cabueñes University Hospital, and Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), 33394 Gijón, Spain
| | - Fernando Vazquez
- Microbiology Department, Central University Hospital of Asturias and Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Department of Functional Biology, Microbiology Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oviedo, 33003 Oviedo, Spain
| | - Ana Milagro
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Paula Salmerón
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Vall d'Hebrón University Hospital, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Martí Vall-Mayans
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Vall'Hebron-Drassanes STI Unit, Infectious Diseases, Vall d'Hebrón University Hospital, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Dolores Maciá
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Son Espases University Hospital, 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Samuel Bernal
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Unit, Valme University Hospital, 41014 Seville, Spain
| | - Luis Piñeiro
- Sexually Transmitted Infections Study Group of the Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology Spanish Society (GEITS-SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Donostia University Hospital-Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain
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Lu B, Qiao Q, Park ER, Wang Y, Gilleran JA, Pan M, Pilch DS, Wu X, Roberge JY, Fan H. Acylpyrazoline-Based Third-Generation Selective Antichlamydial Compounds with Enhanced Potency. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:6597-6607. [PMID: 36844602 PMCID: PMC9947980 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria and widespread pathogens in humans and animals. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are currently used to treat chlamydial infections. However, broad-spectrum drugs also kill beneficial bacteria. Recently, two generations of benzal acylhydrazones have been shown to selectively inhibit chlamydiae without toxicity to human cells and lactobacilli, which are dominating, beneficial bacteria in the vagina of reproductive-age women. Here, we report the identification of two acylpyrazoline-based third-generation selective antichlamydials (SACs). With minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of 10-25 μM against Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia muridarum, these new antichlamydials are 2- to 5-fold more potent over the benzal acylhydrazone-based second-generation selective antichlamydial lead SF3. Both acylpyrazoline-based SACs are well tolerated by Lactobacillus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, and Salmonella as well as host cells. These third-generation selective antichlamydials merit further evaluation for therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Lu
- Department
of Parasitology, Central South University
Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
- Department
of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Qi Qiao
- Molecular
Design and Synthesis Core, RUBRIC, Office for Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Elizabeth R. Park
- Molecular
Design and Synthesis Core, RUBRIC, Office for Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers,
The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Yuxuan Wang
- Department
of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - John A. Gilleran
- Molecular
Design and Synthesis Core, RUBRIC, Office for Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Matthew Pan
- Department
of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Daniel S. Pilch
- Department
of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Xiang Wu
- Department
of Parasitology, Central South University
Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Jacques Y. Roberge
- Molecular
Design and Synthesis Core, RUBRIC, Office for Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Huizhou Fan
- Department
of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
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5
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Berk Cam H. Treatment of Chlamydial Infections. Infect Dis (Lond) 2023. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.109648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a major health problem with an estimated burden of disease transmission as high as one million new cases per day globally. Chlamydia trachomatis, a member of the genus Chlamydia, is one of the most common and curable causative agents of STIs. C. trochomatis infections usually affect sexually active young adults and adolescents; and are composed of a broad spectrum of diseases varying from asymptomatic infection to severe genito-urinary infection leading to infertility and acute or chronic ocular infection (trachoma), which may result in blindness and pneumonia. Among the members of the genus Chlamydia, there are also two pathogenic species, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia psittaci which are responsible for acute respiratory tract infections and febrile illness in humans. The incidence, pathophysiology, and diagnostic methods are discussed in detail in the previous chapters. The purpose of this chapter is to elucidate the management of infections due to C. trachomatis, C. pneumoniae, and C. psittaci including antibiotic susceptibility and resistance mechanisms, treatment recommendations for ocular infections, genito-urinary and respiratory tract infections, and management of sex partners, pregnant women, neonates, and children according to the latest data.
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6
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Marti H, Bommana S, Read TD, Pesch T, Prähauser B, Dean D, Borel N. Generation of Tetracycline and Rifamycin Resistant Chlamydia Suis Recombinants. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:630293. [PMID: 34276577 PMCID: PMC8278220 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.630293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are a family of obligate intracellular, gram-negative bacteria known to readily exchange DNA by homologous recombination upon co-culture in vitro, allowing the transfer of antibiotic resistance residing on the chlamydial chromosome. Among all the obligate intracellular bacteria, only Chlamydia (C.) suis naturally integrated a tetracycline resistance gene into its chromosome. Therefore, in order to further investigate the readiness of Chlamydia to exchange DNA and especially antibiotic resistance, C. suis is an excellent model to advance existing co-culture protocols allowing the identification of factors crucial to promote homologous recombination in vitro. With this strategy, we co-cultured tetracycline-resistant with rifamycin group-resistant C. suis, which resulted in an allover recombination efficiency of 28%. We found that simultaneous selection is crucial to increase the number of recombinants, that sub-inhibitory concentrations of tetracycline inhibit rather than promote the selection of double-resistant recombinants, and identified a recombination-deficient C. suis field isolate, strain SWA-110 (1-28b). While tetracycline resistance was detected in field isolates, rifampicin/rifamycin resistance (RifR) had to be induced in vitro. Here, we describe the protocol with which RifR C. suis strains were generated and confirmed. Subsequent whole-genome sequencing then revealed that G530E and D461A mutations in rpoB, a gene encoding for the β-subunit of the bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP), was likely responsible for rifampicin and rifamycin resistance, respectively. Finally, whole-genome sequencing of recombinants obtained by co-culture revealed that recombinants picked from the same plate may be sibling clones and confirmed C. suis genome plasticity by revealing variable, apparently non-specific areas of recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sankhya Bommana
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Timothy D Read
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Theresa Pesch
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Prähauser
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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7
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Dimond ZE, Hefty PS. Comprehensive genome analysis and comparisons of the swine pathogen, Chlamydia suis reveals unique ORFs and candidate host-specificity factors. Pathog Dis 2020; 79:5868767. [PMID: 32639528 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis, a ubiquitous swine pathogen, has the potential for zoonotic transmission to humans and often encodes for resistance to the primary treatment antibiotic, tetracycline. Because of this emerging threat, comparative genomics for swine isolate R19 with inter- and intra-species genomes was performed. A 1.094 Mb genome was determined through de novo assembly of Illumina high throughput sequencing reads. Annotation and subsystem analyses were conducted, revealing 986 putative genes (Chls_###) that are predominantly orthologs to other known Chlamydia genes. Subsequent comparative genomics revealed a high level of genomic synteny and overall sequence identity with other Chlamydia while 92 unique C. suis open reading frames were annotated. Direct comparison of Chlamydia-specific gene families that included the plasticity zone, inclusion membrane proteins, polymorphic membrane proteins and the major outer membrane protein, demonstrated high gene content identity with C. trachomatis and C. muridarum. These comparisons also identified diverse components that potentially could contribute to host-specificity. This study constitutes the first genome-wide comparative analysis for C. suis, generating a fully annotated reference genome. These studies will enable focused efforts on factors that provide key species specificity and adaptation to cognate hosts that are attributed to chlamydial infections, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe E Dimond
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
| | - P Scott Hefty
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
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8
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Isolation of Tetracycline-Resistant Chlamydia suis from a Pig Herd Affected by Reproductive Disorders and Conjunctivitis. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:antibiotics9040187. [PMID: 32316412 PMCID: PMC7235844 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to various challenges in diagnosing chlamydiosis in pigs, antibiotic treatment is usually performed before any molecular or antibiotic susceptibility testing. This could increase the occurrence of tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia (C.) suis isolates in the affected pig population and potentiate the reoccurrence of clinical signs. Here, we present a case of an Austrian pig farm, where tetracycline resistant and sensitive C. suis isolates were isolated from four finishers with conjunctivitis. On herd-level, 10% of the finishers suffered from severe conjunctivitis and sows showed a high percentage of irregular return to estrus. Subsequent treatment of whole-herd using oxytetracycline led to a significant reduction of clinical signs. Retrospective antibiotic susceptibility testing revealed tetracycline resistance and decreased susceptibility to doxycycline in half of the ocular C. suis isolates, and all isolates were able to partially recover following a single-dose tetracycline treatment in vitro. These findings were later confirmed in vivo, when all former clinical signs recurred three months later. This case report raises awareness of tetracycline resistance in C. suis and emphasizes the importance of preventative selection of tetracycline resistant C. suis isolates.
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PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIACEAE AND TETRACYCLINE RESISTANCE GENES IN WILD BOARS OF CENTRAL EUROPE. J Wildl Dis 2020; 56:512-522. [PMID: 32216676 DOI: 10.7589/2019-11-275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate the occurrence and distribution of Chlamydia suis and other Chlamydiaceae in the wild boar (Sus scrofa) population of Switzerland and Northern Italy and the detection of tetracycline resistance genes by PCR. We collected a total of 471 conjunctival swabs (n=292), rectal swabs (n=147), and lung tissue samples (n=32) belonging to 292 wild boars. The prevalence of Chlamydiaceae in the investigated wild boar populations was very low (1.4%, 4/292). We found C. suis in rectal or conjunctival swabs but not in lung samples. The low chlamydial prevalence might be attributed to limited contacts between wild boars and outdoor domestic pigs due to strict biosecurity measures or limited numbers of rural pig herds. The tetA(C) gene fragment was detected in six samples, which were all negative for Chlamydiaceae, and was probably not of chlamydial origin but more likely from other bacteria. The low tetracycline resistance rate in wild boar might be explained by the lack of selective pressure. However, transmission of resistance genes from domestic pigs to wild boar or selective pressure in the environment could lead to the development and spread of tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains in wild boars.
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10
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Chromosomal Recombination Targets in Chlamydia Interspecies Lateral Gene Transfer. J Bacteriol 2019; 201:JB.00365-19. [PMID: 31501285 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00365-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) among Chlamydia trachomatis strains is common, in both isolates generated in the laboratory and those examined directly from patients. In contrast, there are very few examples of recent acquisition of DNA by any Chlamydia spp. from any other species. Interspecies LGT in this system was analyzed using crosses of tetracycline (Tc)-resistant C. trachomatis L2/434 and chloramphenicol (Cam)-resistant C. muridarum VR-123. Parental C. muridarum strains were created using a plasmid-based Himar transposition system, which led to integration of the Camr marker randomly across the chromosome. Fragments encompassing 79% of the C. muridarum chromosome were introduced into a C. trachomatis background, with the total coverage contained on 142 independent recombinant clones. Genome sequence analysis of progeny strains identified candidate recombination hot spots, a property not consistent with in vitro C. trachomatis × C. trachomatis (intraspecies) crosses. In both interspecies and intraspecies crosses, there were examples of duplications, mosaic recombination endpoints, and recombined sequences that were not linked to the selection marker. Quantitative analysis of the distribution and constitution of inserted sequences indicated that there are different constraints on interspecies LGT than on intraspecies crosses. These constraints may help explain why there is so little evidence of interspecies genetic exchange in this system, which is in contrast to very widespread intraspecies exchange in C. trachomatis IMPORTANCE Genome sequence analysis has demonstrated that there is widespread lateral gene transfer among strains within the species C. trachomatis and with other closely related Chlamydia species in laboratory experiments. This is in contrast to the complete absence of foreign DNA in the genomes of sequenced clinical C. trachomatis strains. There is no understanding of any mechanisms of genetic transfer in this important group of pathogens. In this report, we demonstrate that interspecies genetic exchange can occur but that the nature of the fragments exchanged is different than those observed in intraspecies crosses. We also generated a large hybrid strain library that can be exploited to examine important aspects of chlamydial disease.
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11
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Zhang H, Vellappan S, Tang MM, Bao X, Fan H. GrgA as a potential target of selective antichlamydials. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0212874. [PMID: 30822328 PMCID: PMC6396966 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0212874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia is a common pathogen that can causes serious complications in the reproductive system and eyes. Lack of vaccine and other effective prophylactic measures coupled with the largely asymptomatic nature and unrare clinical treatment failure calls for development of new antichlamydials, particularly selective antichlamydials without adverse effects on humans and the beneficial microbiota. We previously reported that benzal-N-acylhydrazones (BAH) can inhibit chlamydiae without detectable adverse effects on host cells and beneficial lactobacilli that dominate the human vaginal microbiota among reproductive-age women. However, the antichlamydial mechanism of BAH is not known. Whereas 4 single nucleotide polymorphisms (i.e., SNP1-4) were identified in a rare Chlamydia variant with a low level of BAH resistance, termed MCR, previous studies failed to establish a causal effect of any particular SNP(s). In the present work, we performed recombination to segregate the four SNPs. Susceptibility tests indicate that the R51G GrgA allele is both necessary and sufficient for the low level of BAH resistance. Thus, the Chlamydia-specific transcription factor GrgA either is a direct target of BAH or regulates BAH susceptibility. We further confirm an extremely low rate of BAH resistance in Chlamydia. Our findings warrant exploration of GrgA as a therapeutic and prophylactic target for chlamydial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huirong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Sangeevan Vellappan
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- The George H. Cook Undergraduate Honors Scholars Program, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - M. Matt Tang
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Physiology and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Xiaofeng Bao
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Huizhou Fan
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Physiology and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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12
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Antimicrobial Resistance in Chlamydiales, Rickettsia, Coxiella, and Other Intracellular Pathogens. Microbiol Spectr 2018; 6. [PMID: 29651977 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.arba-0003-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This article will provide current insights into antimicrobial susceptibilities and resistance of an important group of bacterial pathogens that are not phylogenetically related but share lifestyle similarities in that they are generally considered to be obligate intracellular microbes. As such, there are shared challenges regarding methods for their detection and subsequent clinical management. Similarly, from the laboratory perspective, susceptibility testing is rarely undertaken, though molecular approaches might provide new insights. One should also bear in mind that the highly specialized microbial lifestyle restricts the opportunity for lateral gene transfer and, consequently, acquisition of resistance.
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13
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Marti H, Borel N, Dean D, Leonard CA. Evaluating the Antibiotic Susceptibility of Chlamydia - New Approaches for in Vitro Assays. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1414. [PMID: 30018602 PMCID: PMC6037721 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigs are the natural hosts of Chlamydia suis, the only Chlamydia species known to spontaneously acquire homotypic resistance conferred by a class C tetracycline resistance gene. Various susceptibility assays have existed for several years, but there is no widely accepted, standardized assay to determine chlamydial antibiotic susceptibility. In this study, we developed new approaches to determine the in vitro susceptibility of Chlamydia to different antibiotics in view of existing protocols. Specifically, the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) is based on a consensus of both inclusion number reduction and alteration of inclusion size and morphology upon antibiotic exposure. In addition to these, we employed a recovery assay, allowing observation of the chlamydial response to drug removal and subsequent recovery, as compared to both continued exposure and to the unexposed control. We propose a simple and fast screening method to detect tetracycline resistant C. suis strains within 2 to 3 days with minimal use of consumables. For proof of principle, we evaluated the susceptibility of three C. suis field strains and the reference strain S45/6 to tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and penicillin, antibiotics commonly used to prevent respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases on fattening pig farms. We found that tetracycline sensitive strains can easily be distinguished from resistant strains using the evaluation parameters proposed in this study. Moreover, we report that S45/6 is sensitive to sulfamethoxazole while all evaluated C. suis field strains showed some degree of sulfamethoxazole resistance. Finally, we confirm that Penicillin G induces the chlamydial stress response in all evaluated C. suis strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States.,School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Cory A Leonard
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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14
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Borel N, Polkinghorne A, Pospischil A. A Review on Chlamydial Diseases in Animals: Still a Challenge for Pathologists? Vet Pathol 2018; 55:374-390. [PMID: 29310550 DOI: 10.1177/0300985817751218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydiae have a worldwide distribution causing a wide range of diseases in human hosts, livestock, and companion animals as well as in wildlife and exotic species. Moreover, they can persist in their hosts as asymptomatic infections for extended periods of time. The introduction of molecular techniques has revolutionized the Chlamydia field by expanding the host range of known chlamydial species but also by discovering new species and even new families of bacteria in the broader order Chlamydiales. The wide range of hosts, diseases, and tissues affected by chlamydiae complicate the diagnosis such that standard diagnostic approaches for these bacteria are rare. Bacteria of the Chlamydiales order are small and their inclusions are difficult to detect by standard microscopy. With the exception of avian and ovine chlamydiosis, macroscopic and/or histologic changes might not be pathognomic or indicative for a chlamydial infection or even not present at all. Moreover, detection of chlamydial DNA in specimens in the absence of other methods or related pathological lesions questions the significance of such findings. The pathogenic potential of the majority of recently identified Chlamydia-related bacteria remains largely unknown and awaits investigation through experimental or natural infection models including histomorphological characterization of associated lesions. This review aims to summarize the historical background and the most important developments in the field of animal chlamydial research in the past 5 years with a special focus on pathology. It will summarize the current nomenclature, present critical thoughts about diagnostics, and give an update on chlamydial infections in domesticated animals such as livestock, companion animals and birds, as well as free-ranging and captive wild animals such as reptiles, fish, and marsupials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Borel
- 1 Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- 2 Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia
| | - Andreas Pospischil
- 1 Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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15
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Li M, Jelocnik M, Yang F, Gong J, Kaltenboeck B, Polkinghorne A, Feng Z, Pannekoek Y, Borel N, Song C, Jiang P, Li J, Zhang J, Wang Y, Wang J, Zhou X, Wang C. Asymptomatic infections with highly polymorphic Chlamydia suis are ubiquitous in pigs. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:370. [PMID: 29191191 PMCID: PMC5710075 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chlamydia suis is an important, globally distributed, highly prevalent and diverse obligate intracellular pathogen infecting pigs. To investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of C. suis in China, 2,137 nasal, conjunctival, and rectal swabs as well as whole blood and lung samples of pigs were collected in 19 regions from ten provinces of China in this study. Results We report an overall positivity of 62.4% (1,334/2,137) of C. suis following screening by Chlamydia spp. 23S rRNA-based FRET-PCR and high-resolution melting curve analysis and confirmatory sequencing. For C. suis-positive samples, 33.3 % of whole blood and 62.5% of rectal swabs were found to be positive for the C. suis tetR(C) gene, while 13.3% of whole blood and 87.0% of rectal swabs were positive for the C. suis tet(C) gene. Phylogenetic comparison of partial C. suis ompA gene sequences revealed significant genetic diversity in the C. suis strains. This genetic diversity was confirmed by C. suis-specific multilocus sequence typing (MLST), which identified 26 novel sequence types among 27 examined strains. Tanglegrams based on MLST and ompA sequences provided evidence of C. suis recombination amongst the strains analyzed. Conclusions Genetically highly diverse C. suis strains are exceedingly prevalent in pigs. As it stands, the potential pathogenic effect of C. suis on pig health and production of C. suis remains unclear and will be the subject of further investigations. Further study is also required to address the transmission of C. suis between pigs and the risk of 'spill-over' and 'spill-back' of infections to wild animals and humans. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Feng Yang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianseng Gong
- Poultry Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | | | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Zhixin Feng
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-Products, Nanjing, China
| | - Yvonne Pannekoek
- Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Chunlian Song
- Yunnan Agricultural University College of Animal Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ping Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Immunology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jilei Zhang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaoyao Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiawei Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengming Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China. .,College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
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16
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Zhang H, Kunadia A, Lin Y, Fondell JD, Seidel D, Fan H. Identification of a strong and specific antichlamydial N-acylhydrazone. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0185783. [PMID: 28973037 PMCID: PMC5626472 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis is an extremely common infection and often leads to serious complications including infertility and pelvic inflammatory syndrome. Several broad-spectrum antibiotics are currently used to treat C. trachomatis. Although effective, they also kill beneficial vaginal lactobacilli. Two N-acylhydrazones, CF0001 and CF0002, have been shown previously to inhibit chlamydial growth without toxicity to human cells and Lactobacillus spp. Of particular significance, the rate of random mutation leading to resistance of these inhibitors appears to be extremely low. Here, we report three analogs of CF0001 and CF0002 with significantly stronger inhibitory effects on chlamydiae. Even though the new compounds (termed SF1, SF2 and SF3) displayed slightly decreased inhibition efficiencies for a rare Chlamydia variant selected for CF0001 resistance (Chlamydia muridarum MCR), they completely overcame the resistance when used at concentrations of 75–100 μM. Importantly, SF1, SF2 and SF3 did not shown any toxic effect on lactobacilli, whereas SF3 was also well tolerated by human host cells. An effort to isolate SF3-resistant variants was unsuccessful. By comparison, variants resistant to rifampin or spectinomycin were obtained from smaller numbers of chlamydiae. Our findings suggest that SF3 utilizes an antichlamydial mechanism similar to that of CF0001 and CF0002, and will be more difficult for chlamydiae to develop resistance to, potentially making it a more effective antichlamydial agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huirong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Anuj Kunadia
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Yingfu Lin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Joseph D. Fondell
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Daniel Seidel
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DS); (HF)
| | - Huizhou Fan
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DS); (HF)
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17
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Leonard CA, Schoborg RV, Borel N. Productive and Penicillin-Stressed Chlamydia pecorum Infection Induces Nuclear Factor Kappa B Activation and Interleukin-6 Secretion In Vitro. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:180. [PMID: 28553623 PMCID: PMC5425588 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) is an inflammatory transcription factor that plays an important role in the host immune response to infection. The potential for chlamydiae to activate NFκB has been an area of interest, however most work has focused on chlamydiae impacting human health. Given that inflammation characteristic of chlamydial infection may be associated with severe disease outcomes or contribute to poor overall fitness in farmed animals, we evaluated the ability of porcine chlamydiae to induce NFκB activation in vitro. C. pecorum infection induced both NFκB nuclear translocation and activation at 2 hours post infection (hpi), an effect strongly enhanced by suppression of host de novo protein synthesis. C. suis and C. trachomatis showed less capacity for NFκB activation compared to C. pecorum, suggesting a species-specific variation in NFκB activation. At 24 hpi, C. pecorum induced significant NFκB activation, an effect not abolished by penicillin (beta lactam)-induced chlamydial stress. C. pecorum-dependent secretion of interleukin 6 was also detected in the culture supernatant of infected cells at 24 hpi, and this effect, too, was unchanged by penicillin-induced chlamydial stress. Taken together, these results suggest that NFκB participates in the early inflammatory response to C. pecorum and that stressed chlamydiae can promote inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory A Leonard
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - Robert V Schoborg
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Inflammation, Infectious Disease and Immunity, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State UniversityJohnson City, TN, USA
| | - Nicole Borel
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
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18
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Seth-Smith HM, Wanninger S, Bachmann N, Marti H, Qi W, Donati M, di Francesco A, Polkinghorne A, Borel N. The Chlamydia suis Genome Exhibits High Levels of Diversity, Plasticity, and Mobile Antibiotic Resistance: Comparative Genomics of a Recent Livestock Cohort Shows Influence of Treatment Regimes. Genome Biol Evol 2017; 9:750-760. [PMID: 28338777 PMCID: PMC5381551 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis is an endemic pig pathogen, belonging to a fascinating genus of obligate intracellular pathogens. Of particular interest, this is the only chlamydial species to have naturally acquired genes encoding for tetracycline resistance. To date, the distribution and mobility of the Tet-island are not well understood. Our study focused on whole genome sequencing of 29 C. suis isolates from a recent porcine cohort within Switzerland, combined with data from USA tetracycline-resistant isolates. Our findings show that the genome of C. suis is very plastic, with unprecedented diversity, highly affected by recombination and plasmid exchange. A large diversity of isolates circulates within Europe, even within individual Swiss farms, suggesting that C. suis originated around Europe. New World isolates have more restricted diversity and appear to derive from European isolates, indicating that historical strain transfers to the United States have occurred. The architecture of the Tet-island is variable, but the tetA(C) gene is always intact, and recombination has been a major factor in its transmission within C. suis. Selective pressure from tetracycline use within pigs leads to a higher number of Tet-island carrying isolates, which appear to be lost in the absence of such pressure, whereas the loss or gain of the Tet-island from individual strains is not observed. The Tet-island appears to be a recent import into the genome of C. suis, with a possible American origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena M.B. Seth-Smith
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Wanninger
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nathan Bachmann
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, Australia
| | - Hanna Marti
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Weihong Qi
- Functional Genomics Centre Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Donati
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonietta di Francesco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Bologna, Italy
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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19
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De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Vanrompay D, De Vos WH. Quantifying the growth of chlamydia suis in cell culture using high-content microscopy. Microsc Res Tech 2016; 80:350-356. [PMID: 27862609 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The porcine pathogen Chlamydia suis is widespread in pig farming. Isolation of Chlamydia suis in cell culture is crucial for the generation and characterization of new isolates. However, isolation of Chlamydia suis strains from field samples is fastidious. Therefore, we exploited high-content microscopy to quantify the growth of Chlamydia suis strains in different cell lines. We found that the cell line yielding optimal propagation of Chlamydia suis differed among isolates, and we identified cell lines outperforming those routinely used for chlamydial isolation. We conclude that adaptation of the propagation procedure to the origin of the putative field isolate is highly recommended to improve the recovery rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leentje De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Winnok H De Vos
- Lab of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Cell Systems and Imaging, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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20
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Trypanosoma cruzi Differentiates and Multiplies within Chimeric Parasitophorous Vacuoles in Macrophages Coinfected with Leishmania amazonensis. Infect Immun 2016; 84:1603-1614. [PMID: 26975994 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01470-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The trypanosomatids Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi are excellent models for the study of the cell biology of intracellular protozoan infections. After their uptake by mammalian cells, the parasitic protozoan flagellates L. amazonensis and T. cruzi lodge within acidified parasitophorous vacuoles (PVs). However, whereas L. amazonensis develops in spacious, phagolysosome-like PVs that may enclose numerous parasites, T. cruzi is transiently hosted within smaller vacuoles from which it soon escapes to the host cell cytosol. To investigate if parasite-specific vacuoles are required for the survival and differentiation of T. cruzi, we constructed chimeric vacuoles by infection of L. amazonensis amastigote-infected macrophages with T. cruzi epimastigotes (EPIs) or metacyclic trypomastigotes (MTs). These chimeric vacuoles, easily observed by microscopy, allowed the entry and fate of T. cruzi in L. amazonensis PVs to be dynamically recorded by multidimensional imaging of coinfected cells. We found that although T. cruzi EPIs remained motile and conserved their morphology in chimeric vacuoles, T. cruzi MTs differentiated into amastigote-like forms capable of multiplying. These results demonstrate that the large adaptive vacuoles of L. amazonensis are permissive to T. cruzi survival and differentiation and that noninfective EPIs are spared from destruction within the chimeric PVs. We conclude that T. cruzi differentiation can take place in Leishmania-containing vacuoles, suggesting this occurs prior to their escape into the host cell cytosol.
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21
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Emancipating Chlamydia: Advances in the Genetic Manipulation of a Recalcitrant Intracellular Pathogen. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:411-27. [PMID: 27030552 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00071-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia species infect millions of individuals worldwide and are important etiological agents of sexually transmitted disease, infertility, and blinding trachoma. Historically, the genetic intractability of this intracellular pathogen has hindered the molecular dissection of virulence factors contributing to its pathogenesis. The obligate intracellular life cycle of Chlamydia and restrictions on the use of antibiotics as selectable markers have impeded the development of molecular tools to genetically manipulate these pathogens. However, recent developments in the field have resulted in significant gains in our ability to alter the genome of Chlamydia, which will expedite the elucidation of virulence mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the challenges affecting the development of molecular genetic tools for Chlamydia and the work that laid the foundation for recent advancements in the genetic analysis of this recalcitrant pathogen.
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22
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Chlamydial Antibiotic Resistance and Treatment Failure in Veterinary and Human Medicine. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2016; 3:10-18. [PMID: 27218014 PMCID: PMC4845085 DOI: 10.1007/s40588-016-0028-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are widespread pathogens of both humans and animals. Chlamydia trachomatis infection causes blinding trachoma and reproductive complications in humans. Chlamydia pneumoniae causes human respiratory tract infections and atypical pneumonia. Chlamydia suis infection is associated with conjunctivitis, diarrhea, and failure to gain weight in domestic swine. Chlamydial infections in humans and domesticated animals are generally controlled by antibiotic treatment—particularly macrolides (usually azithromycin) and tetracyclines (tetracycline and doxycycline). Tetracycline-containing feed has also been used to limit infections and promote growth in livestock populations, although its use has decreased because of growing concerns about antimicrobial resistance development. Because Sandoz and Rockey published an elegant review of chlamydial anti-microbial resistance in 2010, we will review the following: (i) antibiotic resistance in C. suis, (ii) recent evidence for acquired resistance in human chlamydial infections, and (iii) recent non-genetic mechanisms of antibiotic resistance that may contribute to treatment failure.
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23
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Hoffmann K, Schott F, Donati M, Di Francesco A, Hässig M, Wanninger S, Sidler X, Borel N. Prevalence of Chlamydial Infections in Fattening Pigs and Their Influencing Factors. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143576. [PMID: 26619187 PMCID: PMC4664257 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydial infections in pigs are associated with respiratory disease, diarrhea, conjunctivitis and other pathologies. The aim of this study was to define the prevalence of Chlamydiaceae in Swiss fattening pigs by applying sensitive and specific detection methods and to correlate prior antibiotic treatment and farm related factors with differences in prevalence. Conjunctival and fecal swabs were collected from 636 pigs in 29 Swiss fattening pig farms with and without antibiotic treatment, at the beginning and the end of the fattening period. The swabs were screened by real-time PCR for Chlamydiaceae. For the chlamydial detection and species-identification, a DNA-microarray analysis was performed. All farms were positive for Chlamydiaceae with 94.3 and 92.0% prevalence in fecal swabs as well as 45.9 and 32.6% in conjunctival swabs at the first and second time points, respectively. Antibiotic treatment could not clear the infection on herd level. Potential contact with wild boars was a significant risk factor, while hygiene criteria did not influence chlamydial prevalence. A correlation of chlamydial positivity to diarrhea, but not to conjunctivitis was evident. Chlamydia suis was the predominant species. Mixed infections with C. suis and C. pecorum were common, with a substantial increase in C. pecorum positivity at the end of the fattening period, and this finding was associated with ruminant contact. C. abortus was detected in one conjunctival swab. In this study, C. suis inhabited the intestinal tract of nearly all examined pigs, implying a long-term infection. C. pecorum was also common and might be transmitted to pigs by ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolin Hoffmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franziska Schott
- Department of Farm Animals, Division of Swine Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Donati
- DIMES, Microbiology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Michael Hässig
- Department for Farm Animals, Section for Herd Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Wanninger
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xaver Sidler
- Department of Farm Animals, Division of Swine Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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24
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De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Braeckman L, Morré SA, Cox E, Vanrompay D. Assessment of Chlamydia suis Infection in Pig Farmers. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:826-833. [PMID: 26576707 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia suis infections are endemic in domestic pigs in Europe and can lead to conjunctivitis, pneumonia, enteritis and reproductive failure. Currently, the knowledge on the zoonotic potential of C. suis is limited. Moreover, the last decades, porcine tetracycline resistant C. suis strains have been isolated, which interfere with treatment of chlamydial infections. In this study, the presence of C. suis was examined on nine Belgian pig farms, using Chlamydia culture and a C. suis specific real-time PCR in both pigs and farmers. In addition to diagnosis for C. suis, the farmers' samples were examined using a Chlamydia trachomatis PCR. Additionally, the Chlamydia isolates were tested for the presence of the tet(C) resistance gene. C. DNA was demonstrated in pigs on all farms, and eight of nine farmers were positive in at least one anatomical site. None of the farmers tested positive for C. trachomatis. Chlamydia suis isolates were obtained from pigs of eight farms. Nine porcine C. suis isolates possessing a tet(C) gene were retrieved, originating from three farms. Moreover, C. suis isolates were identified in three human samples, including one pharyngeal and two rectal samples. These findings suggest further research on the zoonotic transfer of C. suis from pigs to humans is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - K De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - L Braeckman
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - S A Morré
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Infection Control, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Institute for Public Health Genomics (IPHG), Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, GROW (School for Oncology & Developmental Biology), Faculty of Health, Medicine & Life Sciences, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - E Cox
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - D Vanrompay
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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Enrofloxacin and macrolides alone or in combination with rifampicin as antimicrobial treatment in a bovine model of acute Chlamydia psittaci infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119736. [PMID: 25768665 PMCID: PMC4358964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia psittaci is a zoonotic bacterium with a wide host range that can cause respiratory disease in humans and cattle. In the present study, effects of treatment with macrolides and quinolones applied alone or in combination with rifampicin were tested in a previously established bovine model of respiratory C. psittaci infection. Fifty animals were inoculated intrabronchially at the age of 6-8 weeks. Seven served as untreated controls, the others were assigned to seven treatment groups: (i) rifampicin, (ii) enrofloxacin, (iii) enrofloxacin + rifampicin, (iv) azithromycin, (v) azithromycin + rifampicin, (vi) erythromycin, and (vii) erythromycin + rifampicin. Treatment started 30 hours after inoculation and continued until 14 days after inoculation (dpi), when all animals were necropsied. The infection was successful in all animals and sufficient antibiotic levels were detected in blood plasma and tissue of the treated animals. Reisolation of the pathogen was achieved more often from untreated animals than from other groups. Nevertheless, pathogen detection by PCR was possible to the same extent in all animals and there were no significant differences between treated and untreated animals in terms of local (i.e., cell count and differentiation of BALF-cells) and systemic inflammation (i.e. white blood cells and concentration of acute phase protein LBP), clinical signs, and pathological findings at necropsy. Regardless of the reduced reisolation rate in treated animals, the treatment of experimentally induced respiratory C. psittaci infection with enrofloxacin, azithromycin or erythromycin alone or in combination with rifampicin was without obvious benefit for the host, since no significant differences in clinical and pathological findings or inflammatory parameters were detected and all animals recovered clinically within two weeks.
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Prohl A, Lohr M, Ostermann C, Liebler-Tenorio E, Berndt A, Schroedl W, Rothe M, Schubert E, Sachse K, Reinhold P. Evaluation of antimicrobial treatment in a bovine model of acute Chlamydia psittaci infection: tetracycline versus tetracycline plus rifampicin. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:1-12. [PMID: 25113145 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment of chlamydial infections is known to be of limited efficacy. In this study, effects of doxycycline (D), usually the drug of choice, were compared with the combined therapy of doxycycline and rifampicin (R) in a bovine model of respiratory Chlamydia psittaci infection. After intrabronchial inoculation of the pathogen, 30 animals were assigned to five groups (n = 6 per group): untreated controls, monotherapy with D (5 mg kg(-1)day(-1) or 10 mg kg(-1)day(-1)), and combination therapy of D and R (600 mg day(-1)). Treatment continued until day 14 post inoculation (d.p.i.). Clinical signs, inflammatory markers, and pathological findings confirmed successful infection in all animals. Reisolation of the pathogen was possible in 4/6 untreated animals and in 4/12 animals treated with D alone until 4 d.p.i., but in none of the calves of the two D + R groups. Pathogen detection was possible in all animals without significant differences among groups. Severity of disease and time course of its resolution, assessed by clinical and pathological findings as well as inflammatory parameters, were not significantly different between untreated controls and calves receiving D alone or in combination with R. Regardless of the treatment regimen, all groups recovered clinically and cleared the infection within 2 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Prohl
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Lohr
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Carola Ostermann
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Liebler-Tenorio
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Angela Berndt
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Wieland Schroedl
- Institute of Bacteriology and Mycology, Veterinary Faculty at The University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Evelyn Schubert
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany OIE Reference Laboratory for Chlamydiosis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Konrad Sachse
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany OIE Reference Laboratory for Chlamydiosis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Petra Reinhold
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
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De Puysseleyr K, De Puysseleyr L, Dhondt H, Geens T, Braeckman L, Morré SA, Cox E, Vanrompay D. Evaluation of the presence and zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia suis in a pig slaughterhouse. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14:560. [PMID: 25358497 PMCID: PMC4216655 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-014-0560-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A significant number of studies on pig farms and wild boars worldwide, demonstrate the endemic presence of Chlamydia suis in pigs. However, the zoonotic potential of this pathogen, phylogenetically closely related to Chlamydia trachomatis, is still uninvestigated. Therefore, this study aims to examine the zoonotic transmission in a Belgian pig abattoir. Methods Presence of Chlamydia suis in pigs, contact surfaces, air and employees was assessed using a Chlamydia suis specific real-time PCR and culture. Furthermore, Chlamydia suis isolates were tested for the presence of the tet(C) gene. Results Chlamydia suis bacteria could be demonstrated in samples from pigs, the air and contact surfaces. Moreover, eye swabs of two employees were positive for Chlamydia suis by both PCR and culture. The tet(C) gene was absent in both human Chlamydia suis isolates and no clinical signs were reported. Conclusions These findings suggest the need for further epidemiological and clinical research to elucidate the significance of human ocular Chlamydia suis infections. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-014-0560-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Coupure Links 653, Gent, B-9000, Belgium.
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Evidence of a conserved role for Chlamydia HtrA in the replication phase of the chlamydial developmental cycle. Microbes Infect 2014; 16:690-4. [PMID: 25066238 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Revised: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Identification of the HtrA inhibitor JO146 previously enabled us to demonstrate an essential function for HtrA during the mid-replicative phase of the Chlamydia trachomatis developmental cycle. Here we extend our investigations to other members of the Chlamydia genus. C. trachomatis isolates with distinct replicative phase growth kinetics showed significant loss of viable infectious progeny after HtrA was inhibited during the replicative phase. Mid-replicative phase addition of JO146 was also significantly detrimental to Chlamydia pecorum, Chlamydia suis and Chlamydia cavie. These data combined indicate that HtrA has a conserved critical role during the replicative phase of the chlamydial developmental cycle.
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29
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De Puysseleyr K, De Puysseleyr L, Geldhof J, Cox E, Vanrompay D. Development and validation of a real-time PCR for Chlamydia suis diagnosis in swine and humans. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96704. [PMID: 24816542 PMCID: PMC4016100 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigs are the natural host for Chlamydia suis, a pathogen which is phylogenetically highly related to the human pathogen C. trachomatis. Chlamydia suis infections are generally treated with tetracyclines. In 1998, tetracyline resistant C. suis strains emerged on U.S. pig farms and they are currently present in the Belgian, Cypriote, German, Israeli, Italian and Swiss pig industry. Infections with tetracycline resistant C. suis strains are mainly associated with severe reproductive failure leading to marked economical loss. We developed a sensitive and specific TaqMan probe-based C. suis real-time PCR for examining clinical samples of both pigs and humans. The analytical sensitivity of the real-time PCR is 10 rDNA copies/reaction without cross-amplifying DNA of other Chlamydia species. The PCR was successfully validated using conjunctival, pharyngeal and stool samples of slaughterhouse employees, as well as porcine samples from two farms with evidence of reproductive failure and one farm without clinical disease. Chlamydia suis was only detected in diseased pigs and in the eyes of humans. Positive humans had no clinical complaints. PCR results were confirmed by culture in McCoy cells. In addition, Chlamydia suis isolates were also examined by the tet(C) PCR, designed for demonstrating the tetracycline resistance gene tet(C). The tet(C) gene was only present in porcine C. suis isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
- * E-mail:
| | - Leentje De Puysseleyr
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Julie Geldhof
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Eric Cox
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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30
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Flammer K, Massey JG, Roudybush T, Meek CJ, Papich MG. Assessment of Plasma Concentrations and Potential Adverse Effects of Doxycycline in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) Fed a Medicated Pelleted Diet. J Avian Med Surg 2013; 27:187-93. [DOI: 10.1647/1082-6742-27.3.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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31
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Bannantine JP, Olsen SC, Kehrli ME, Stanton TB, Casas E, Whipple DL, Zuelke KA. High-impact animal health research conducted at the USDA's National Animal Disease Center. Vet Microbiol 2013; 165:224-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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32
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O’Neill CE, Seth-Smith HMB, Van Der Pol B, Harris SR, Thomson NR, Cutcliffe LT, Clarke IN. Chlamydia trachomatis clinical isolates identified as tetracycline resistant do not exhibit resistance in vitro: whole-genome sequencing reveals a mutation in porB but no evidence for tetracycline resistance genes. Microbiology (Reading) 2013; 159:748-756. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.065391-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C. E. O’Neill
- Faculty of Medicine, CES Academic Unit, Level C, South Block, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton, UK
| | - H. M. B. Seth-Smith
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Pathogen Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - B. Van Der Pol
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - S. R. Harris
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Pathogen Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - N. R. Thomson
- The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Pathogen Genomics, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - L. T. Cutcliffe
- Faculty of Medicine, CES Academic Unit, Level C, South Block, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton, UK
| | - I. N. Clarke
- Faculty of Medicine, CES Academic Unit, Level C, South Block, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton, UK
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An automated image-based method for rapid analysis of Chlamydia infection as a tool for screening antichlamydial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:4184-8. [PMID: 22615279 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00427-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A major limitation in the identification of novel antichlamydial compounds is the paucity of effective methods for large-scale compound screening. The immunofluorescence assay is the preferred approach for accurate quantification of the intracellular growth of Chlamydia. In this study, an immunofluorescence image-based method (termed image-based automated chlamydial identification and enumeration [iBAChIE]) was customized for fully automated quantification of Chlamydia infection using the freely available open-source image analysis software program CellProfiler and the complementary data exploration software program CellProfiler Analyst. The method yielded enumeration of different species and strains of Chlamydia highly comparably to the conventional manual methods while drastically reducing the analysis time. The inhibitory capability of established antichlamydial activity was also evaluated. Overall, these data support that iBAChIE is a highly effective tool for automated quantification of Chlamydia infection and assessment of antichlamydial activities of molecules. Furthermore, iBAChIE is expected to be amenable to high-throughput screening studies for inhibitory compounds and fluorescently labeled molecules to study host-pathogen interactions.
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35
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Selection for tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis in treated pigs. Vet Microbiol 2012; 156:143-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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36
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Park SH, Chang JE, Hawkes HJK, Kang YH, Hwang KY. Structural analysis and serological test of arginine periplasmic binding protein 2 from Chlamydophila pneumoniae. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 418:518-24. [PMID: 22285188 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.01.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The 'art' genes encode specific arginine uptake proteins, and are repressed by the repressible promoters of ArgR, affecting transcription of artJ. Cpb0502, the arginine-binding periplasmic protein 2 precursor from Chlamydophila pneumoniae TW-183 strains, is responsible for arginine transport. As C. pneumoniae is difficult to isolate and culture, there have been many studies of better ways to detect it. A microimmunofluorescence assay (MIF) is still considered to be the 'gold standard' for detecting C. pneumoniae. Although MIF has its own limitations, a number of immunogenic antigens have been shown to be C. pneumoniae specific by this test. Here, we report Cpb0502 as a specific immunogenic antigen against C. pneumoniae as it was detected only in human infection sera of C. pneumoniae but not in Legionella pneumophila and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection sera, showing high specificity and sensitivity by MIF, western blot and ELISA analysis. And also the crystal structure of Cpb0502 was determined to be a dimer at 2.07Å, revealing a similar backbone structure to a histidine kinase receptor, HK29S. Therefore we may suggest that Cpb0502 is a candidate immunogenic antigen for better diagnosis of C. pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Ha Park
- Graduate School of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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37
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Entrican G, Wheelhouse N, Wattegedera SR, Longbottom D. New challenges for vaccination to prevent chlamydial abortion in sheep. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 35:271-6. [PMID: 22209689 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Revised: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Ovine enzootic abortion (OEA) is caused by the obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Chlamydia abortus. OEA remains a common cause of infectious abortion in many sheep-rearing countries despite the existence of commercially available vaccines that protect against the disease. There are a number of confounding factors that influence the uptake and use of these vaccines, which includes an inability to discriminate between infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA) using conventional serological diagnostic techniques. This suggests that the immunity elicited by current vaccines is similar to that observed in convalescent, immune sheep that have experienced OEA. The existence of these vaccines provides an opportunity to understand how protection against OEA is elicited and also to understand why vaccines can occasionally appear to fail, as has been reported recently for OEA. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), the cytokine that classically defines Th1-type adaptive immunity, is a strong correlate of protection against OEA in sheep and has been shown to inhibit the growth of C. abortus in vitro. Humoral immunity to C. abortus is observed in both vaccinated and naturally infected sheep, but antibody responses tend to be used more as diagnostic markers than targets for strategic vaccine design. A future successful DIVA vaccine against OEA should aim to elicit the immunological correlate of protection (IFN-γ) concomitantly with an antibody profile that is distinct from that of the natural infection. Such an approach requires careful selection of protective components of C. abortus combined with an effective delivery system that elicits IFN-γ-producing CD4+ve memory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Entrican
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ Scotland, United Kingdom.
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38
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Wheelhouse N, Longbottom D. Endemic and emerging chlamydial infections of animals and their zoonotic implications. Transbound Emerg Dis 2011; 59:283-91. [PMID: 22099945 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiae are a diverse group of obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria that are known to infect a wide variety of host species and are responsible for a wide range of diseases in animals and man. Many of these organisms have been extensively characterized and their zoonotic implications recognized. Studies of human disease first provided evidence for the disease-causing potential of Chlamydia-related bacteria; however, there is now increasing evidence that a number of these organisms may also be the causative agents for a number of pathogenic conditions of livestock that had previously remained undiagnosed. The aim of this review is to draw together the evidence for the role of the newly emerging chlamydial infections in livestock disease, the current understanding of their roles in human disease and highlight the potential for zoonotic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Wheelhouse
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK.
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39
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Peuchant O, Duvert JP, Clerc M, Raherison S, Bébéar C, Bébéar CM, de Barbeyrac B. Effects of antibiotics on Chlamydia trachomatis viability as determined by real-time quantitative PCR. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60:508-514. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.023887-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of antibiotics on Chlamydia trachomatis viability by using a quantitative real-time PCR assay that measured DNA replication and mRNA transcription of the structural omp1 and omp2 genes, 16S rRNA and the groEL1 gene with and without antibiotics. Ofloxacin, moxifloxacin, azithromycin and doxycycline were tested against the serovar D and L2 reference strains and a derivative mutant resistant to fluoroquinolones, L2-OFXR, obtained by in vitro selection. Using DNA quantification, the antibiotic MIC was calculated when the number of DNA copies was equal to that of the chlamydial inoculum at time zero. This method allowed the easy determination of MICs by DNA quantification of the four selected genes and gave similar results to those obtained by immunofluorescence staining without biased interpretation. By using cDNA quantification, the lowest antibiotic concentration for which no RNA was transcribed corresponded to the minimum bactericidal concentration. C. trachomatis still transcribed the16S rRNA and groEL1 genes, even at concentrations well above the MIC, showing a bacteriostatic effect for all antibiotics tested. This method allows the study of antibiotic activity on growth and viability of C. trachomatis by DNA and RNA quantification at the same time without additional cell-culture passaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Peuchant
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean Philippe Duvert
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Maïthé Clerc
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sophie Raherison
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Christiane Bébéar
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Cécile M. Bébéar
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
| | - Bertille de Barbeyrac
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie EA 3671, Infections Humaines à Mycoplasmes et Chlamydiae, Centre National de Référence des Infections à Chlamydiae, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France
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40
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Abstract
There are few documented reports of antibiotic resistance in Chlamydia and no examples of natural and stable antibiotic resistance in strains collected from humans. While there are several reports of clinical isolates exhibiting resistance to antibiotics, these strains either lost their resistance phenotype in vitro, or lost viability altogether. Differences in procedures for chlamydial culture in the laboratory, low recovery rates of clinical isolates and the unknown significance of heterotypic resistance observed in culture may interfere with the recognition and interpretation of antibiotic resistance. Although antibiotic resistance has not emerged in chlamydiae pathogenic to humans, several lines of evidence suggest they are capable of expressing significant resistant phenotypes. The adept ability of chlamydiae to evolve to antibiotic resistance in vitro is demonstrated by contemporary examples of mutagenesis, recombination and genetic transformation. The isolation of tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis strains from pigs also emphasizes their adaptive ability to acquire antibiotic resistance genes when exposed to significant selective pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsi M Sandoz
- Molecular & Cellular Biology Program & the Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331–4804, USA
| | - Daniel D Rockey
- Molecular & Cellular Biology Program & the Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331–4804, USA
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41
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Zhu H, Wang HP, Jiang Y, Hou SP, Liu YJ, Liu QZ. Mutations in 23S rRNA and ribosomal protein L4 account for resistance in Chlamydia trachomatis strains selected in vitro by macrolide passage. Andrologia 2010; 42:274-80. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0272.2009.01019.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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42
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Schautteet K, Beeckman DSA, Delava P, Vanrompay D. Possible pathogenic interplay between Chlamydia suis, Chlamydophila abortus and PCV-2 on a pig production farm. Vet Rec 2010; 166:329-33. [PMID: 20228367 DOI: 10.1136/vr.b4714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A concurrent outbreak of chlamydial disease in boars, sows and gilts and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) in weaned piglets was investigated on a large pig production farm in Estonia. Chlamydia suis DNA was detected in conjunctival swabs from boars, sows and gilts, but also in the faeces of boars and sows. Chlamydophila abortus DNA was found in semen, and in conjunctival swabs from sows; DNA was demonstrated by microarrays. Serum samples from boars were examined using a Chlamydiaceae-specific recombinant ELISA. All 10 serum samples examined were positive (1:960 to 1:3840). Chlamydiosis was characterised by reproductive failure and conjunctivitis. Piglets were not examined for Chlamydiaceae, as eye problems were not observed. Piglets showed wasting, respiratory signs, diarrhoea, enlargement of lymph nodes and increased mortality (10 per cent). Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) was detected in the lymph nodes of piglets by immunohistochemistry, and PCV-2 antibodies were demonstrated in all 10 serum samples from sows examined using an immunoperoxidase monolayer assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Schautteet
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Unemo M, Seth-Smith HMB, Cutcliffe LT, Skilton RJ, Barlow D, Goulding D, Persson K, Harris SR, Kelly A, Bjartling C, Fredlund H, Olcén P, Thomson NR, Clarke IN. The Swedish new variant of Chlamydia trachomatis: genome sequence, morphology, cell tropism and phenotypic characterization. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2010; 156:1394-1404. [PMID: 20093289 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.036830-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is a major cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections worldwide. In 2006, a new variant of C. trachomatis (nvCT), carrying a 377 bp deletion within the plasmid, was reported in Sweden. This deletion included the targets used by the commercial diagnostic systems from Roche and Abbott. The nvCT is clonal (serovar/genovar E) and it spread rapidly in Sweden, undiagnosed by these systems. The degree of spread may also indicate an increased biological fitness of nvCT. The aims of this study were to describe the genome of nvCT, to compare the nvCT genome to all available C. trachomatis genome sequences and to investigate the biological properties of nvCT. An early nvCT isolate (Sweden2) was analysed by genome sequencing, growth kinetics, microscopy, cell tropism assay and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. It was compared with relevant C. trachomatis isolates, including a similar serovar E C. trachomatis wild-type strain that circulated in Sweden prior to the initially undetected expansion of nvCT. The nvCT genome does not contain any major genetic polymorphisms - the genes for central metabolism, development cycle and virulence are conserved - or phenotypic characteristics that indicate any altered biological fitness. This is supported by the observations that the nvCT and wild-type C. trachomatis infections are very similar in terms of epidemiological distribution, and that differences in clinical signs are only described, in one study, in women. In conclusion, the nvCT does not appear to have any altered biological fitness. Therefore, the rapid transmission of nvCT in Sweden was due to the strong diagnostic selective advantage and its introduction into a high-frequency transmitting population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Unemo
- National Reference Laboratory for Pathogenic Neisseria, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, örebro University Hospital, örebro, Sweden
| | | | - Lesley T Cutcliffe
- Molecular Microbiology Group, University Medical School, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
| | - Rachel J Skilton
- Molecular Microbiology Group, University Medical School, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
| | - David Barlow
- Molecular Microbiology Group, University Medical School, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
| | - David Goulding
- Microbial Pathogenesis Electron Microscope Facility, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kenneth Persson
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Malmö University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Simon R Harris
- Pathogen Genomics, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridgeshire, UK
| | - Anne Kelly
- National Reference Laboratory for Pathogenic Neisseria, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, örebro University Hospital, örebro, Sweden
| | - Carina Bjartling
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Malmö University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Hans Fredlund
- National Reference Laboratory for Pathogenic Neisseria, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, örebro University Hospital, örebro, Sweden
| | - Per Olcén
- National Reference Laboratory for Pathogenic Neisseria, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, örebro University Hospital, örebro, Sweden
| | - Nicholas R Thomson
- Pathogen Genomics, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridgeshire, UK
| | - Ian N Clarke
- Molecular Microbiology Group, University Medical School, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
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Impact of azithromycin resistance mutations on the virulence and fitness of Chlamydia caviae in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:1094-101. [PMID: 20065052 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01321-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Azithromycin (AZM) is a major drug used in the treatment and prophylaxis of infections caused by Chlamydia, yet no significant clinical resistance has been reported for these obligate intracellular bacteria. Nevertheless, spontaneous AZM resistance (Azm(r)) arose in vitro at frequencies ranging from 3 x 10(-8) to 8 x 10(-10) for clonal isolates of Chlamydia caviae, which is a natural pathogen of guinea pigs. Sequencing of the unique 23S rRNA gene copy in 44 independent Azm(r) isolates identified single mutations at position A(2058) or A(2059) (Escherichia coli numbering system). While SP(6)AZ(1) (A(2058)C) and SP(6)AZ(2) (A(2059)C) Azm(r) mutants showed growth defects in cell culture and were less pathogenic in the guinea pig ocular infection model than in the parent SP(6), the three isogenic C. caviae isolates grew equally well in the animal. On the other hand, coinoculation of the C. caviae parent strain with one of the Azm(r) strains was detrimental for the mutant strain. This apparent lack of association between pathology and bacterial load in vivo showed that virulence of the two Azm(r) mutants of C. caviae was attenuated. While chlamydial growth in vitro reflects the ability of the bacteria to multiply in permissive cells, survival in the host is a balance between cellular multiplication and clearance by the host immune system. The obligate intracellular nature of Chlamydia may therefore limit emergence of resistance in vivo due to the strength of the immune response induced by the wild-type antibiotic-sensitive bacteria at the time of antibiotic treatment.
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Abstract
Doxycycline is a member of the tetracycline class of antibiotics and has been used clinically for more than 40 years. It is a well-tolerated drug that is bacteriostatic and acts via the inhibition of bacterial ribosomes. It is generally given at a dose of 100-mg daily or twice daily. It is well absorbed and has generally good tissue penetration. The serum half-life is 18-22 hours and dosage does not need to be adjusted in the presence of renal or hepatic impairment. Major side effects are gastro-intestinal and dermatological and it is generally contra-indicated in pregnancy or childhood because of concerns about discolouration of developing teeth and potential effects on growing bones. Drug interactions are not common although can occur with the concomitant use of methotrexate and the oral contraceptive pill, and its absorption can be reduced by the co-administration with some antacids and iron preparations. It has activity against many organisms, including Gram-positives, Gram-negatives and atypical bacteria. In addition, it appears to have some potentially clinically useful anti-inflammatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha E. Holmes
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Health, PO Box 5555, Heidelberg VIC 3084, Australia
| | - Patrick G.P. Charles
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Austin Health, PO Box 5555, Heidelberg VIC 3084, Australia
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Pospischil A, Borel N, Chowdhury EH, Guscetti F. Aberrant chlamydial developmental forms in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs spontaneously and experimentally infected with Chlamydia suis. Vet Microbiol 2009; 135:147-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Di Francesco A, Donati M, Rossi M, Pignanelli S, Shurdhi A, Baldelli R, Cevenini R. Tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis isolates in Italy. Vet Rec 2008; 163:251-2. [PMID: 18723867 DOI: 10.1136/vr.163.8.251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A Di Francesco
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Becker A, Lutz-Wohlgroth L, Brugnera E, Lu ZH, Zimmermann DR, Grimm F, Grosse Beilage E, Kaps S, Spiess B, Pospischil A, Vaughan L. Intensively kept pigs pre-disposed to chlamydial associated conjunctivitis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 54:307-13. [PMID: 17650151 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0442.2007.00963.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, ocular chlamydial infections in pigs that originate from two different farming systems were investigated. In particular, the aim was to test pigs with and without clinical ocular symptoms for the presence of Chlamydiaceae and for linked infections with Acanthamoebae spp. possibly acting as vectors for Chlamydia or Chlamydia-like organisms. In a total of 181 pigs, 102 from Germany (GER), representing the intensively kept animals and 79 from Switzerland (CH), which were kept extensively, were screened for the presence of different pathogens by PCR, including a new Chlamydiaceae-specific intergenic spacer rRNA gene PCR. Additionally, results of clinical examination and cytology were compared between the symptomatic and asymptomatic pigs of the two groups. Ocular symptomatic pigs showed a high prevalence of Chlamydia suis in both groups: CH 79%, GER 90%. Only 23% asymptomatic pigs from CH, but 88% asymptomatic pigs from GER were positive for C. suis by PCR. DNA of Chlamydia-like organisms were detected in 19% CH, but only in 2% GER pigs, whereas only 4% CH and 1% GER pigs were also positive for Acanthamoebae spp. A co-infection of Acanthamoebae spp. and C. suis was present in only 3% of the CH but 28% of the GER pigs. In general, the intensively kept pigs in our study seemed to be pre-disposed to ocular chlamydial infection and associated conjunctivitis. Infections with Chlamydia-like organisms alone and in combination with Acanthamoebae played no role for clinical findings within the tested pig groups, whereas a co-infection of Acanthamoebae and C. suis was able to cause serious ocular manifestations in half of the cases of intensively kept pigs being positive for these microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Becker
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterhurerstrasse 268, CH 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Dugan J, Andersen AA, Rockey DD. Functional characterization of IScs605, an insertion element carried by tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2007; 153:71-9. [PMID: 17185536 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.29253-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Stable tetracycline resistance in Chlamydia suis is mediated by a family of genomic islands [the tet(C) islands] that are integrated into the chlamydial chromosome. The tet(C) islands contain several plasmid-specific genes, the tet(C) resistance gene and, in most cases, a novel insertion element (IScs605) encoding two predicted transposases. The hypothesis that IScs605 mediated the integration of the tet(C) resistance islands into the C. suis genome was tested using a plasmid-based transposition system in Escherichia coli. Both high- and medium-copy-number plasmids were used as carriers of IScs605 in these experiments. IScs605 integrated into a target plasmid (pOX38) when delivered by either donor plasmid, and integration of the entire donor plasmid was common. IScs605-mediated integration occurred at many positions within pOX38, with 36 of 38 events adjacent to a 5'-TTCAA-3' sequence. Deletions in each of the candidate transposase genes within IScs605 demonstrated that only one of the two ORFs was necessary for the observed transposition activity and target specificity. Analysis of progeny from the mating assays also indicated that IScs605 can excise following integration into a target DNA, and, in each tested case, the sequence 5'-AATTCAA-3' remained at the site of excision. Collectively, these results are consistent with the nucleotide sequence data collected for the tet(C) islands, and strongly suggest that a transposase within IScs605 is responsible for integration of these genomic islands into the C. suis chromosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Dugan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and the Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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Alzhanov DT, Suchland RJ, Bakke AC, Stamm WE, Rockey DD. Clonal isolation of chlamydia-infected cells using flow cytometry. J Microbiol Methods 2007; 68:201-8. [PMID: 16997404 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2006.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Revised: 07/17/2006] [Accepted: 07/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This manuscript describes a new technique for the microbiological cloning of chlamydia-infected cells using a fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS). The approach exploits chlamydial acquisition of the fluorescent, Golgi-specific, stain 6-((N-7-(-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-hexanoyl)sphingosine (C6-NBD-cer). This fluorescent lipid is delivered from the Golgi apparatus to the chlamydial inclusion membrane and then to the developmental forms within the inclusion in living, infected cells. Labeling with C6-NBD-cer results in easily identifiable chlamydial inclusions that can then be analyzed and sorted by FACS. This technique was used successfully to sort individual chlamydia-infected cells into individual wells of a culture dish and, in this experimental system, resulted in the isolation of cloned chlamydial isolates. FACS-based sorting was used to isolate clonal populations of prototype strains from Chlamydia trachomatis, C. caviae and C. suis. Recent clinical isolates were also successfully cloned using FACS. The procedure is simple and rapid, with single cloning cycles being completed 24 h post-culture of a sample. It is anticipated that FACS-based sorting of live chlamydia-infected cells will be a significant technical tool for the isolation of clonal populations of any chlamydial strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damir T Alzhanov
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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