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Mauker P, Beckmann D, Kitowski A, Heise C, Wientjens C, Davidson AJ, Wanderoy S, Fabre G, Harbauer AB, Wood W, Wilhelm C, Thorn-Seshold J, Misgeld T, Kerschensteiner M, Thorn-Seshold O. Fluorogenic Chemical Probes for Wash-free Imaging of Cell Membrane Damage in Ferroptosis, Necrosis, and Axon Injury. J Am Chem Soc 2024. [PMID: 38592946 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c07662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Selectively labeling cells with damaged membranes is needed not only for identifying dead cells in culture, but also for imaging membrane barrier dysfunction in pathologies in vivo. Most membrane permeability stains are permanently colored or fluorescent dyes that need washing to remove their non-uptaken extracellular background and reach good image contrast. Others are DNA-binding environment-dependent fluorophores, which lack design modularity, have potential toxicity, and can only detect permeabilization of cell volumes containing a nucleus (i.e., cannot delineate damaged volumes in vivo nor image non-nucleated cell types or compartments). Here, we develop modular fluorogenic probes that reveal the whole cytosolic volume of damaged cells, with near-zero background fluorescence so that no washing is needed. We identify a specific disulfonated fluorogenic probe type that only enters cells with damaged membranes, then is enzymatically activated and marks them. The esterase probe MDG1 is a reliable tool to reveal live cells that have been permeabilized by biological, biochemical, or physical membrane damage, and it can be used in multicolor microscopy. We confirm the modularity of this approach by also adapting it for improved hydrolytic stability, as the redox probe MDG2. We conclude by showing the unique performance of MDG probes in revealing axonal membrane damage (which DNA fluorogens cannot achieve) and in discriminating damage on a cell-by-cell basis in embryos in vivo. The MDG design thus provides powerful modular tools for wash-free in vivo imaging of membrane damage, and indicates how designs may be adapted for selective delivery of drug cargoes to these damaged cells: offering an outlook from selective diagnosis toward therapy of membrane-compromised cells in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Mauker
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 7, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Daniela Beckmann
- Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology, LMU University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Grosshaderner Strasse 9, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Annabel Kitowski
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 7, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Constanze Heise
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 7, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Chantal Wientjens
- Immunopathology Unit, Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Andrew J Davidson
- Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, U.K
| | - Simone Wanderoy
- University Hospital, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, 81675 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Gabin Fabre
- Pharmacology & Transplantation, UMR 1248 INSERM, University of Limoges, 87000 Limoges, France
| | - Angelika B Harbauer
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Feodor-Lynen-Strasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, Biedersteiner Straße 29, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Will Wood
- Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh BioQuarter, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, U.K
| | - Christoph Wilhelm
- Immunopathology Unit, Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Venusberg-Campus 1, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Julia Thorn-Seshold
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 7, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Misgeld
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Feodor-Lynen-Strasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, Biedersteiner Straße 29, 80802 Munich, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Feodor-Lynen-Strasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Kerschensteiner
- Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology, LMU University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Biomedical Center (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Grosshaderner Strasse 9, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Feodor-Lynen-Strasse 17, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Oliver Thorn-Seshold
- Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 7, 81377 Munich, Germany
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Gopal J, Anthonydhason V, Muthu M, Gansukh E, Jung S, Chul S, Iyyakkannu S. Authenticating apple cider vinegar’s home remedy claims: antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral properties and cytotoxicity aspect. Nat Prod Res 2017; 33:906-910. [DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1413567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judy Gopal
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Korea
| | - Vimala Anthonydhason
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology-Madras , Chennai, India
| | - Manikandan Muthu
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Korea
| | - Enkhtaivan Gansukh
- Department of Bioresources and Food Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Somang Jung
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Korea
| | - Sechul Chul
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Korea
| | - Sivanesan Iyyakkannu
- Department of Bioresources and Food Science, Konkuk University , Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Muthu M, Gopal J, Min SX, Chun S. Green Tea Versus Traditional Korean Teas: Antibacterial/Antifungal or Both? Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2016; 180:780-790. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-016-2132-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Kurakov AV, Lavrent’ev RB, Nechitailo TY, Golyshin PN, Zvyagintsev DG. Diversity of facultatively anaerobic microscopic mycelial fungi in soils. Microbiology (Reading) 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s002626170801013x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Baumstummler A, Chollet R, Meder H, Olivieri F, Rouillon S, Waiche G, Ribault S. Development of a nondestructive fluorescence-based enzymatic staining of microcolonies for enumerating bacterial contamination in filterable products. J Appl Microbiol 2010; 110:69-79. [PMID: 20880209 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04859.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Develop a nondestructive fluorescence-based staining procedure to rapidly detect and enumerate bacteria in filterable samples. METHODS AND RESULTS The study consists in the development of a staining solution and a protocol to fluorescently detect microcolonies on cellulose membranes. After detection, membranes can be re-incubated on media to yield colonies. Carboxyfluorescein diacetate was selected among other carboxyfluorescein derivatives for its staining efficiency and the absence of background. Several permeabilizers were evaluated for their ability to promote dye uptake into cells without affecting viability. We demonstrated that a combination of n-Octyl β-D-glucopyranoside, sodium hexametaphosphate, lithium chloride and rubidium chloride significantly increased the staining efficiency of bacteria without affecting their viability. The method developed allowed the detection in <9 h of all tested aerobic bacteria and in 48 h of the anaerobic slow grower Propionibacterium acnes. CONCLUSIONS This method allows the rapid detection of bacteria in filterable samples in at least three to five times faster than traditional microbiological method. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The advantage of this nondestructive procedure is to allow contaminants identification after membrane re-incubation. This method could be easily applied in routine in pharmaceutical, clinical and food and beverage industries to monitor contaminations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baumstummler
- Millipore, Bioprocess Division, Process Monitoring Tools, Applied Biology R&D Department, Molsheim, France.
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6
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A fast and cost-effective methodology for Fonsecaea pedrosoi ATCC46428 staining using ESIPT fluorescent dyes. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2010; 99:126-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2010.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2008] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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7
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Sträuber H, Müller S. Viability states of bacteria-Specific mechanisms of selected probes. Cytometry A 2010; 77:623-34. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.20920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Tocci N, Ferrari F, Santamaria A, Valletta A, Rovardi I, Pasqua G. Chitosan enhances xanthone production in Hypericum perforatum subsp. angustifolium cell cultures. Nat Prod Res 2010; 24:286-93. [DOI: 10.1080/14786410903006353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Tocci
- a Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
| | - F. Ferrari
- a Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
| | - A.R. Santamaria
- a Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
| | - A. Valletta
- a Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
| | - I. Rovardi
- b Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologia delle Sostanze Biologicamente Attive , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Rome, Italy
| | - G. Pasqua
- a Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale , Università degli Studi di Roma ‘Sapienza’ , Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
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Ashida N, Ishii S, Hayano S, Tago K, Tsuji T, Yoshimura Y, Otsuka S, Senoo K. Isolation of functional single cells from environments using a micromanipulator: application to study denitrifying bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 85:1211-7. [PMID: 19936739 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2330-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We developed a novel method to isolate functionally active single cells from environmental samples and named it the functional single-cell (FSC) isolation method. This method is based on a combination of substrate-responsive direct viable counts, live-cell staining with 5-carboxyfluorescein diacetate acetoxymethyl ester, and micromanipulation followed by cultivation in a medium. To evaluate this method, we applied it to study a denitrifying community in rice paddy soil. Similar denitrifier counts were obtained by the conventional most probable number analysis and our FSC isolation method. Using the FSC isolation method, 37 denitrifying bacteria were isolated, some of which harbored copper-containing nitrite reductase gene (nirK). The 16S rRNA gene analysis showed that members belonging to the genera Azospirillum and Ochrobactrum may be the major denitrifiers in the rice paddy soil. These results indicate that the FSC isolation method is a useful tool to obtain functionally active single cells from environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoaki Ashida
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Villadas PJ, Fernández-López M, Ramírez-Saad H, Toro N. Rhizosphere-bacterial community in Eperua falcata (Caesalpiniaceae) a putative nitrogen-fixing tree from French Guiana rainforest. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2007; 53:317-27. [PMID: 17186143 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-006-9158-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2006] [Revised: 07/04/2006] [Accepted: 08/18/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The rainforest of French Guiana is still largely unaffected by human activity. Various pristine sites like the Paracou Research Station are devoted to study this tropical ecosystem. We used culture-independent techniques, like polymerase chain reaction-temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, and construction of clone libraries of partial 16S rRNA and nifH genes, to analyze the composition of the bacterial community in the rhizosphere of mature trees of Eperua falcata and Dicorynia guianensis, both species within the Caesalpiniaceae family. E. falcata is one of the more abundant pioneer tree species in this ecosystem and so far, no root nodules have ever been found. However, its nitrogen-fixing status is regarded as "uncertain", whereas D. guianensis is clearly considered a non-nitrogen-fixing plant. The rhizospheres of these mature trees contain specific bacterial communities, including several currently found uncultured microorganisms. In these communities, there are putative nitrogen-fixing bacteria specifically associated to each tree: D. guianensis harbors several Rhizobium spp. and E. falcata members of the genera Burkholderia and Bradyrhizobium. In addition, nifH sequences in the rhizosphere of the latter tree were very diverse. Retrieved sequences were related to bacteria belonging to the alpha-, beta-, and gamma-Proteobacteria in the E. falcata rhizoplane, whereas only two sequences related to gamma-Proteobacteria were found in D. guianensis. Differences in the bacterial communities and the abundance and diversity of nifH sequences in E. falcata rhizosphere suggest that this tree could obtain nitrogen through a nonnodulating bacterial interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Villadas
- Grupo de Ecologia Genética, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, C/ Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
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11
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Attoumbré J, Charlet S, Baltora-Rosset S, Hano C, Raynaud-Le Grandic S, Gillet F, Bensaddek L, Mesnard F, Fliniaux MA. High accumulation of dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-4-beta-D: -glucoside in free and immobilized Linum usitatissimum cell cultures. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2006; 25:859-64. [PMID: 16523286 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-006-0137-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2006] [Revised: 01/24/2006] [Accepted: 02/07/2006] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
As flaxseed mainly accumulates lignans (secoisolariciresinol diglucoside and matairesinol), these compounds were barely or not detected in plant cell suspensions initiated from Linum usitatissimum. In contrast, these cell suspensions were shown to accumulate substantial amounts of a neolignan identified as dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-4-beta-D: -glucoside (DCG) (up to 47.7 mg g(-1) DW). The formation of this pharmacologically active compound was evaluated as a function of cell growth and in relation to phytohormone balance of the culture media. After establishment of efficient culture conditions, production of DCG was investigated in immobilized plant cell suspensions initiated from plantlet roots of L. usitatissimum. The results indicate that immobilization enhances the DCG production up to 60.0 mg g(-1) DW but depresses the cell growth resulting in no improvement of the total DCG yield. Nevertheless, with immobilized cell suspensions, a release of DCG into the medium is observed allowing an easier recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Attoumbré
- Biologie des plantes et contrôle des insectes ravageurs, EA 3900, Groupe de Phytotechnologie, Faculté de Pharmacie, 1 rue des Louvels, 80037, Amiens Cedex 1, France
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12
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Brouwer N, Kohen J, Jamie J, Vemulpad S. Modification of the fluorescein diacetate assay for screening of antifungal agents against Candida albicans: Comparison with the NCCLS methods. J Microbiol Methods 2006; 66:234-41. [PMID: 16406566 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2005.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2005] [Revised: 11/01/2005] [Accepted: 11/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A modified fluorescein diacetate (FDA) assay has been compared with standard NCCLS broth macrodilution and broth microdilution methods for the detection of antifungal activity. The FDA assay was performed in a medium containing bacteriological peptone, NaCl, yeast extract and glucose (0.2%, 0.1%, 0.1% and 1% w/v, respectively) and buffered with 10 mM BES buffer. The MICs of amphotericin B, fluconazole, miconazole and flucytosine (representing three major classes of antifungal agents) obtained by the three methods were compared. The results obtained with the FDA assays correlated well with the NCCLS macrodilution method for MICs of amphotericin B, miconazole and fluconazole, but not for flucytosine. However, the MIC values of flucytosine obtained with the FDA assay were well within the quality control range for the two reference strains recommended by the NCCLS. The FDA assay described is an attractive alternative to the NCCLS methods for screening for antifungal agents, with the added advantage of objectivity of fluorescence measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nynke Brouwer
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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TAKANO Y, KANEKO T, KOBAYASHI K, MARUMO K. Correlation coefficients between biomarkers and sub-surface microbial activities in terrestrial sediment over the past 10000 years. BUNSEKI KAGAKU 2004. [DOI: 10.2116/bunsekikagaku.53.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori TAKANO
- Institute for Marine Resources and Environment, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
| | - Takeo KANEKO
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Yokohama National University
| | - Kensei KOBAYASHI
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Yokohama National University
| | - Katsumi MARUMO
- Institute for Marine Resources and Environment, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
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Sugiura K, Kawasaki Y, Kinoshita M, Murakami A, Yoshida H, Ishikawa Y. A mathematical model for microcosms: formation of the colonies and coupled oscillation in population densities of bacteria. Ecol Modell 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3800(03)00196-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Grgic I, Perdih A. Passing of fluorescein derivatives into the hyphae of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2003; 48:199-202. [PMID: 12800503 DOI: 10.1007/bf02930956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescein derivatives added into the growth medium were decolorized during submerged cultivation of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The highest decrease of absorbance A450 was observed in the growth phase regardless of the presence of inducers Tween 80 or poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). Fluorescein linked to PEG was prepared and, after addition to cultures, shown to stimulate the production of lignin peroxidase. Passing of fluorescing substances into hyphae (observed by confocal microscopy) showed that they were concentrated on some structures inside hyphae.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Grgic
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Nohynek L, Saski E, Haikara A, Raaska L. Detection of bacterial contamination in starch and resin-based papermaking chemicals using fluorescence techniques. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2003; 30:239-44. [PMID: 12720090 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-003-0046-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2002] [Accepted: 02/26/2003] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Rapid fluorescence techniques were evaluated for the detection of bacterial contaminants in papermaking chemicals including starch and the resin-based sizes and starch slurries used in the paper industry. Viable and non-viable bacterial cells were visualised by fluorescent probes and detected by epifluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The best discrimination ability was obtained with the fluorescent probes LIVE/DEAD and SYBR Green, based on the staining of cellular nucleic acid, and ChemChrome V3, which demonstrated cellular enzymatic activity. The process samples had to be diluted and filtered before fluorescence staining and analysis because they were viscous and contained solid particles. Fluorescence microscopic counts of bacteria in highly contaminated process samples were similar to plate counts, but flow cytometric enumeration of bacterial cells in process samples yielded 2- to 10-fold lower counts compared with plate counts, depending on the consistency of the sample. The detection limits in flow cytometric analysis and in epifluorescence microscopy were 10(3)-10(6) cells ml(-1) and 10(5)-10(6) cells ml(-1), respectively. Intrinsic bacterial contamination was detectable with fluorescence techniques and highly contaminated process samples could be analysed with fluorescence methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liisa Nohynek
- VTT Biotechnology, P.O. Box 1500, 02044 VTT, Finland.
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Oh KB, Matsuoka H. Rapid viability assessment of yeast cells using vital staining with 2-NBDG, a fluorescent derivative of glucose. Int J Food Microbiol 2002; 76:47-53. [PMID: 12038577 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1605(01)00750-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A fluorescent glucose analogue, 2-[N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl) amino]-2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-NBDG), which had been developed previously for the analysis of glucose uptake activity by living cells, was investigated to evaluate its applicability for assaying the viability of yeasts. Fluorescence intensities of the yeast population were measured by fluorescence spectrophotometry upon exposure to antifungal agents after staining with 2-NBDG and were compared to the number of colony forming units (CFU). A good correlation was obtained between the yeast viability, determined by the CFU, and the accumulation of 2-NBDG by yeast cells (correlation constant: r=0.98). Susceptibility testing of amphotericin B and miconazole against yeast strains by plate count and 2-NBDG fluorescence method yielded corresponding results. In conclusion, we found that staining with 2-NBDG is a rapid and sensitive method for the assessment of yeast cell viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Bong Oh
- Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National University, Jongro, South Korea.
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In situ visualisation of fungi in soil thin sections: problems with crystallisation of the fluorochrome FB 28 (Calcofluor M2R) and improved staining by SCRI Renaissance 2200. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1017/s0953756202005749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Murakami Y, Fujita Y, Naganuma T, Iwatsuki T. Abundance and Viability of the Groundwater Microbial Communities from a Borehole in the Tono Uranium Deposit Area, Central Japan. Microbes Environ 2002. [DOI: 10.1264/jsme2.2002.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuka Fujita
- School of Biosphere Sciences, Hiroshima University
| | | | - Teruki Iwatsuki
- Tono Geosciene Center, Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute
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Abstract
Confocal microscopy offers several advantages over other conventional microscopic techniques as a tool for studying the interaction of bacteria with food and the role of food microstructure in product quality and safety. When using confocal microscopy, samples can be observed without extensive preparation processes, which allows for the evaluation of food without introducing artifacts. In addition, observations can be made in three dimensions without physically sectioning the specimen. The confocal microscope can be used to follow changes over a period of time, such as the development of the food structure or changes in microbial population during a process. Microbial attachment to and detachment from food and food contact surfaces with complex three-dimensional (3-D) structures can be observed in situ. The fate of microbial populations in food system depends on processing, distribution, and storage conditions as well as decontamination procedures that are applied to inactivate and remove them. The ability to determine the physiological status of microorganisms without disrupting their physical relationship with a food system can be useful for determining the means by which microorganisms survive decontamination treatments. Conventional culturing techniques can detect viable cells; however, these techniques lack the ability to locate viable cells in respect to the microscopic structures of food. Various microscopic methods take advantage of physiological changes in bacterial cells that are associated with the viability to assess the physiologic status of individual cells while retaining the ability to locate the cell within a food tissue system. This paper reviews the application of confocal microscopy in food research and direct observation of viable bacteria with emphasis on their use in food microbiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Takeuchi
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-2106, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Sincock
- Purdue Cytometry Laboratories, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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Nibbering PH, Ravensbergen E, Welling MM, van Berkel LA, van Berkel PH, Pauwels EK, Nuijens JH. Human lactoferrin and peptides derived from its N terminus are highly effective against infections with antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Infect Immun 2001; 69:1469-76. [PMID: 11179314 PMCID: PMC98043 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.3.1469-1476.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Since human lactoferrin (hLF) binds to bacterial products through its highly positively charged N terminus, we investigated which of the two cationic domains is involved in its bactericidal activity. The results revealed that hLF lacking the first three residues (hLF(-3N)) was less efficient than hLF in killing of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Both hLF preparations failed to kill Escherichia coli O54. In addition, hLF(-3N) was less effective than hLF in reducing the number of viable bacteria in mice infected with antibiotic-resistant S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. Studies with synthetic peptides corresponding to the first 11 N-terminal amino acids, designated hLF(1-11), and fragments thereof demonstrated that peptides lacking the first three N-terminal residues are less effective than hLF(1-11) in killing of bacteria. Furthermore, a peptide corresponding to residues 21 to 31, which comprises the second cationic domain, was less effective than hLF(1-11) in killing of bacteria in vitro and in mice having an infection with antibiotic-resistant S. aureus or K. pneumoniae. Using fluorescent probes, we found that bactericidal hLF peptides, but not nonbactericidal peptides, caused an increase of the membrane permeability. In addition, hLF killed the various bacteria, most probably by inducing intracellular changes in these bacteria without affecting the membrane permeability. Together, hLF and peptides derived from its N terminus are highly effective against infections with antibiotic-resistant S. aureus and K. pneumoniae, and the first two arginines play an essential role in this activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Nibbering
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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25
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Räsänen LA, Elväng AM, Jansson J, Lindström K. Effect of heat stress on cell activity and cell morphology of the tropical rhizobium, Sinorhizobium arboris. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2001. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00777.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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26
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Fuller ME, Streger SH, Rothmel RK, Mailloux BJ, Hall JA, Onstott TC, Fredrickson JK, Balkwill DL, DeFlaun MF. Development of a vital fluorescent staining method for monitoring bacterial transport in subsurface environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000; 66:4486-96. [PMID: 11010903 PMCID: PMC92329 DOI: 10.1128/aem.66.10.4486-4496.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous bacterial transport studies have utilized fluorophores which have been shown to adversely affect the physiology of stained cells. This research was undertaken to identify alternative fluorescent stains that do not adversely affect the transport or viability of bacteria. Initial work was performed with a groundwater isolate, Comamonas sp. strain DA001. Potential compounds were first screened to determine staining efficiencies and adverse side effects. 5-(And 6-)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate, succinimidyl ester (CFDA/SE) efficiently stained DA001 without causing undesirable effects on cell adhesion or viability. Members of many other gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial genera were also effectively stained with CFDA/SE. More than 95% of CFDA/SE-stained Comamonas sp. strain DA001 cells incubated in artificial groundwater (under no-growth conditions) remained fluorescent for at least 28 days as determined by epifluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry. No differences in the survival and culturability of CFDA/SE-stained and unstained DA001 cells in groundwater or saturated sediment microcosms were detected. The bright, yellow-green cells were readily distinguished from autofluorescing sediment particles by epifluorescence microscopy. A high throughput method using microplate spectrofluorometry was developed, which had a detection limit of mid-10(5) CFDA-stained cells/ml; the detection limit for flow cytometry was on the order of 1,000 cells/ml. The results of laboratory-scale bacterial transport experiments performed with intact sediment cores and nondividing DA001 cells revealed good agreement between the aqueous cell concentrations determined by the microplate assay and those determined by other enumeration methods. This research indicates that CFDA/SE is very efficient for labeling cells for bacterial transport experiments and that it may be useful for other microbial ecology research as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Fuller
- Envirogen, Inc., Princeton Research Center, Lawrenceville, New Jersey 08648, USA.
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27
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Gilleta F, Roisin C, Fliniaux MA, Jacquin-Dubreuil A, Barbotin JN, Nava-Saucedo JE. Immobilization of Nicotiana tabacum plant cell suspensions within calcium alginate gel beads for the production of enhanced amounts of scopolin. Enzyme Microb Technol 2000; 26:229-234. [PMID: 10689082 DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(99)00138-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Scopolin-producing cells of Nicotiana tabacum were immobilized within Ca-alginate gel beads. Free cell suspensions accumulated scopolin within cytoplasmic compartments and cell disruption was necessary to recover scopolin. On the contrary, immobilized plant cells excreted considerable amounts of scopolin. Scopolin diffused throughout the gel matrix and reached the culture media. A large fraction of produced scopolin could then be recovered from the culture medium without disrupting cells. Immobilized N. tabacum cells produced more scopolin than free cell suspensions did (3.8 mg/g fresh weight biomass [into the culture media] versus 0.2 mg/g fresh weight biomass [intracellular]). Variation of the immobilization conditions revealed a marked influence on the behavior of N. tabacum plant cells: production of scopolin and enhanced excretion, cell growth, and morphological aspect of plant cell colonies. This excretion phenomenon could be used advantageously at an industrial production level.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gilleta
- Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie et Phytotechnologie (EA 2085), Faculté de Pharmacie, 1, rue des Louvels, 80037, Amiens, France
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Gillet F, Mesnard F, Fliniaux O, Monti JP, Fliniaux MA. Chlorogenic acid in a Nicotiana plumbaginifolia cell suspension. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 1999; 37:869-874. [PMID: 10580287 DOI: 10.1016/s0981-9428(99)00111-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A phenylpropanoid compound has been characterized in a Nicotiana plumbaginifolia cell suspension. This compound has been isolated and purified by semi-preparative reverse phase-high performance liquid chromatography. Its structure has been identified by NMR spectroscopy as 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid, which is chlorogenic acid (CA). The influence of culture conditions on the accumulation of this metabolite by N. plumbaginifolia cell suspensions has been studied. Darkness strongly inhibits the CA accumulation. Moreover, it has been shown that feeding experiments with caffeic acid had a deleterious effect upon the CA content. This one was not influenced by a supplementation with quinic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gillet
- Laboratoire de phytotechnologie, Faculté de pharmacie, 1, rue des Louvels, 80037 Amiens cedex, France
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29
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Thrane C, Olsson S, Harder Nielsen T, Sørensen J. Vital fluorescent stains for detection of stress in Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani challenged with viscosinamide from Pseudomonas fluorescens DR54. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.1999.tb00631.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Guyard S, Mary P, Defives C, Hornez JP. Enumeration and characterization of bacteria in mineral water by improved direct viable count method. J Appl Microbiol 1999; 86:841-50. [PMID: 10347879 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00733.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fifteen strains from two emergent mineral waters were isolated and tentatively identified with API 20NE and BIOLOG GN systems. These strains were screened for their sensitivities to seven replication-inhibiting antibiotics of the (fluoro)quinolone group (nalidixic and pipemidic acid, flumequine, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, pefloxacin and ciprofloxacin). It was shown that the direct viable count (DVC) procedure could be improved by using certain antibiotic cocktails, which were active against the isolates. Geometric bacterial features were successfully determined with image analysis and adapted software (ICONIX, Perfect Image). Elongations were significant and allowed rapid discrimination of antibiotic inhibited and non-inhibited strains. Particular isolates in a mixed culture were characterized and enumerated after only 14 h exposure with the appropriate antibiotic cocktail. This method can also be applied to other communities, such as mixed cultures in bio-fermentors or in food with known microflora.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Guyard
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France.
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31
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Norton DM, Batt CA. Detection of viable Listeria monocytogenes with a 5' nuclease PCR assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:2122-7. [PMID: 10224010 PMCID: PMC91307 DOI: 10.1128/aem.65.5.2122-2127.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/1998] [Accepted: 02/17/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A 5' nuclease assay has been developed to detect viable Listeria monocytogenes. The assay targets the hemolysin A (hlyA) transcript, which is found only in L. monocytogenes. The single-tube, reverse transcriptase (RT), fluorogenic probe-based assay was formatted by using Tth DNA polymerase whose activity was modulated by using the manganese-chelating morpholinepropanesulfonic acid (MOPS) buffer. This assay was quantitative over a 3-log-unit range of template concentrations when tested with an in vitro-transcribed hlyA mRNA. The viability of L. monocytogenes was reduced by heating at various temperatures and times up to a maximum of a 9-D inactivation. The location of the primer had a pronounced effect on the utility of the assay, and primers located in the most distal regions of the hlyA transcript appeared to correlate with the number of CFU while primers located more internal on the amplicon overestimated the cell viability. The assay with primers that included the 3' end of the transcript was an accurate indicator of viability as measured by CFU determination or staining with 5-sulfofluorescein diacetate.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Norton
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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Kawasaki Y, Koike J, Ijiri K, Yamashita M, Sugiura K, Kobayashi K, Seki K, Ishikawa Y, Mizutani H, Poynter J, MacCallum T, Anderson G. Microorganisms and plant of Autonomous Biological Systems (ABS) samples. UCHU SEIBUTSU KAGAKU 1998; 12:373-6. [PMID: 11542490 DOI: 10.2187/bss.12.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Distribution of microorganisms and cellular structure of an Autonomous Biological Systems (ABS) were studied with a special attention to the effect of space environments. Viable cell densities measured by the direct fluorescence microscopic method were in the order of 10(5) cells/ml for fractions 1 (upper suspension) and 2 (lower suspension), and 10(6) cells/ml for fraction 3 (sediments). These values were 10 to 100 times larger than the values obtained by the classical colony forming unit method. No difference between flight and ground samples was observed in the vertical distribution of viable microorganisms when fractionation and analysis were carried out after recovery. Intracellular distribution of chloroplasts in higher green plants, Ceratophyllum demersum, of flight samples was disturbed after 10 days of flight (24hrs/day light on). After 4 months of flight (Mir/STS-79/81) with 24 hrs light on, Ceratophyllum demersum was completely disintegrated. On the other hand, in the second 4-months-flight experiment with 16 hrs/day light on, Ceratophyllum demersum was only slightly deteriorated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawasaki
- Mitubishi Kasei Institute of Life Sciences.
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Kawasaki Y. Realization of exploration for extraterrestrial life with special interest to detection method. UCHU SEIBUTSU KAGAKU 1998; 12:124-5. [PMID: 11541879 DOI: 10.2187/bss.12.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawasaki
- Mitsubishi Kasei Institute of Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan.
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Sugiura K. A materially-closed aquatic-ecosystem: a useful tool for determining changes of ecological processes in space. UCHU SEIBUTSU KAGAKU 1998; 12:115-8. [PMID: 11541877 DOI: 10.2187/bss.12.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A materially-closed aquatic ecosystem (microcosm) was developed. The microcosm contained two families of green algae and blue-green alga as primary producers, protozoa, two species of rotifers and oligochaetes as consumers, and bacteria as decomposers. The microcosm could be readily replicated. It was confirmed the population densities of each organism were almost constant for 365 days without artificial operation except temperature and light. The population dynamics and the spatial patterns of the organisms were simulated by mathematical models. This hermetically-sealed microcosm could be a useful subject to investigate ecology under space environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sugiura
- Sagami Women's University, Sagamihara-shi, Japan.
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Borneman J, Triplett EW. Molecular microbial diversity in soils from eastern Amazonia: evidence for unusual microorganisms and microbial population shifts associated with deforestation. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997; 63:2647-53. [PMID: 9212415 PMCID: PMC168563 DOI: 10.1128/aem.63.7.2647-2653.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 479] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the Amazon Basin is well known for its diversity of flora and fauna, this report represents the first description of the microbial diversity in Amazonian soils involving a culture-independent approach. Among the 100 sequences of genes coding for small-subunit rRNA obtained by PCR amplification with universal small-subunit rRNA primers, 98 were bacterial and 2 were archaeal. No duplicate sequences were found, and none of the sequences had been previously described. Eighteen percent of the bacterial sequences could not be classified in any known bacterial kingdom. Two sequences may represent a unique branch between the vast majority of bacteria and the deeply branching, predominantly thermophilic bacteria. Five sequences formed a clade that may represent a novel group within the class Proteobacteria. In addition, rRNA intergenic spacer analysis was used to show significant microbial population differences between a mature forest soil and an adjacent pasture soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Borneman
- Brock Institute for Environmental Microbiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison 53706, USA
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Kobayashi K, Sato T, Kajishima S, Kaneko T, Ishikawa Y, Saito T. Possible complex organic compounds on Mars. ADVANCES IN SPACE RESEARCH : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE COMMITTEE ON SPACE RESEARCH (COSPAR) 1997; 19:1067-1076. [PMID: 11541335 DOI: 10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00355-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
It is suggested that primitive Mars had somehow similar environments as primitive Earth. If life was born on the primitive earth using organic compounds which were produced from the early Earth environment, the same types of organic compounds were also formed on primitive Mars. Such organic compounds might have been preserved on Mars still now. We are studying possible organic formation on primitive and present Mars. A gaseous mixture of CO2, CO, N2 and H2O with various mixing ratios were irradiated with high energy protons (major components of cosmic rays). Hydrogen cyanide and formaldehyde were detected among volatile products, and yellow-brown-colored water-soluble non-volatile substances were produced, which gave amino acids after acid-hydrolysis. Major part of "amino acid precursors" were not simple molecules like aminonitriles, but complex compounds which eluted earlier than free amino acids in cation-exchange HPLC. These organic compounds should be major targets in the future Mars mission. Strategy for the detection of the complex organics on Mars will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kobayashi
- Faculty of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Hodogaya-ku, Japan
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Abstract
In this review, I would like to introduce how we can detect the possible life on Mars. Even though the quantitative estimation of the possibility of biogenesis on Mars is difficult, Dr. McKay and his colleagues work has thrown a tiny light for this possibility. Considering Mars environmental conditions, the possible life is microorganisms. The detection of microorganisms in natural environments is not easy even on Earth due to the premature detection technique. We have developed a method based on the fluorescence microscopic technique. This method proved to be successful for the detection of terrestrial microorganisms. Even some pre-biotic cells can be detected. We are developing a miniature detection apparatus which meet the required standard for installing on the Mars landers. We also propose the ground based experiments using Martian meteorites or pseudo-Martian rocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kawasaki
- Mitsubishi Kasei Institute of Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
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Yoshioka K, Oh KB, Saito M, Nemoto Y, Matsuoka H. Evaluation of 2-[N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino]-2-deoxy-D-glucose, a new fluorescent derivative of glucose, for viability assessment of yeast Candida albicans. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1996; 46:400-4. [PMID: 8987729 DOI: 10.1007/bf00166236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A new fluorescent derivative of D-glucose, 2-[N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino]-2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-NBDG), which had been previously developed for the analysis of glucose uptake activity by living cells, was investigated to evaluate its applicability for assaying the viability of yeast Candida albicans. Lineweaver-Burk plots showed to uptake of 2-NBDG to be competitively inhibited by D-glucose and not by L-glucose, which suggested the involvement of the glucose transporting system of C. albicans in the uptake of 2-NBDG. A good correlation was obtained between the yeast viability, determined by the plate-count method, and the 2-NBDG uptake activity of yeast cells (correlation constant: r = 0.97). This is expected to lead to the development of a new fluorescent probe for the determination of yeast cell viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yoshioka
- Department of Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
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