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Lambisia AW, Murunga N, Mutunga M, Cheruiyot R, Maina G, Makori TO, Nokes DJ, Agoti CN. Temporal changes in the positivity rate of common enteric viruses among paediatric admissions in coastal Kenya, during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2019-2022. Gut Pathog 2024; 16:2. [PMID: 38178245 PMCID: PMC10765698 DOI: 10.1186/s13099-023-00595-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) implemented to curb the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) early in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, substantially disrupted the activity of other respiratory viruses. However, there is limited data from low-and-middle income countries (LMICs) to determine whether these NPIs also impacted the transmission of common enteric viruses. Here, we investigated the changes in the positivity rate of five enteric viruses among hospitalised children who presented with diarrhoea to a referral hospital in coastal Kenya, during COVID-19 pandemic period. METHODS A total of 870 stool samples from children under 13 years of age admitted to Kilifi County Hospital between January 2019, and December 2022 were screened for rotavirus group A (RVA), norovirus genogroup II (GII), astrovirus, sapovirus, and adenovirus type F40/41 using real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. The proportions positive across the four years were compared using the chi-squared test statistic. RESULTS One or more of the five virus targets were detected in 282 (32.4%) cases. A reduction in the positivity rate of RVA cases was observed from 2019 (12.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 8.7-16.2%) to 2020 (1.7%, 95% CI 0.2-6.0%; p < 0.001). However, in the 2022, RVA positivity rate rebounded to 23.5% (95% CI 18.2%-29.4%). For norovirus GII, the positivity rate fluctuated over the four years with its highest positivity rate observed in 2020 (16.2%; 95% C.I, 10.0-24.1%). No astrovirus cases were detected in 2020 and 2021, but the positivity rate in 2022 was similar to that in 2019 (3.1% (95% CI 1.5%-5.7%) vs. 3.3% (95% CI 1.4-6.5%)). A higher case fatality rate was observed in 2021 (9.0%) compared to the 2019 (3.2%), 2020 (6.8%) and 2022 (2.1%) (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Our study finds that in 2020 the transmission of common enteric viruses, especially RVA and astrovirus, in Kilifi Kenya may have been disrupted due to the COVID-19 NPIs. After 2020, local enteric virus transmission patterns appeared to return to pre-pandemic levels coinciding with the removal of most of the government COVID-19 NPIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnold W Lambisia
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya.
| | - Nickson Murunga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
| | - Martin Mutunga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
| | - Robinson Cheruiyot
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
| | - Grace Maina
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
| | - Timothy O Makori
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
| | - D James Nokes
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
- School of Life Sciences and Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research (SBIDER), University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Charles N Agoti
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) - Wellcome Trust Research Programme (KWTRP), P.O. Box 230, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
- Department of Public Health, Pwani University, P.O. Box 195, Kilifi, 80108, Kenya
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Ouyang L, Wang N, Irudayaraj J, Majima T. Virus on surfaces: Chemical mechanism, influence factors, disinfection strategies, and implications for virus repelling surface design. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 320:103006. [PMID: 37778249 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2023.103006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
While SARS-CoV-2 is generally under control, the question of variants and infections still persists. Fundamental information on how the virus interacts with inanimate surfaces commonly found in our daily life and when in contact with the skin will be helpful in developing strategies to inhibit the spread of the virus. Here in, a critically important review of current understanding of the interaction between virus and surface is summarized from chemistry point-of-view. The Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek and extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theories to model virus attachments on surfaces are introduced, along with the interaction type and strength, and quantification of each component. The virus survival and transfer are affected by a combination of biological, physical, and chemical parameters, as well as environmental parameters. The surface properties for virus and virus survival on typical surfaces such as metals, plastics, and glass are summarized. Attention is also paid to the transfer of virus to/from surfaces and skin. Typical virus disinfection strategies utilizing heat, light, chemicals, and ozone are discussed together with their disinfection mechanism. In the last section, design principles for virus repelling surface chemistry such as surperhydrophobic or surperhydrophilic surfaces are also introduced, to demonstrate how the integration of surface property control and advanced material fabrication can lead to the development of functional surfaces for mitigating the effect of viral infection upon contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Ouyang
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
| | - Nan Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Joseph Irudayaraj
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Tetsuro Majima
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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Khumela R, Kabue JP, de Moraes MTB, Traore AN, Potgieter N. Prevalence of Human Norovirus GII.4 Sydney 2012 [P31] between 2019 and 2021 among Young Children from Rural Communities in South Africa. Viruses 2023; 15:1682. [PMID: 37632024 PMCID: PMC10458076 DOI: 10.3390/v15081682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) accounts for considerable morbidity and mortality in the paediatric population worldwide, especially in low-income countries. Human norovirus (HNoV), particularly GII.4 strains, are important agents of AGE. This study aimed to detect and characterise HNoV in children with and without AGE. Between 2019 and 2021, 300 stool samples (200 AGE and 100 without AGE) were collected from children below 5 years of age referred to the healthcare facilities of the rural communities of Vhembe District, South Africa. After detection using real-time RT-PCR, HNoV positive samples were subjected to RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. Partial nucleotide sequences (capsid/RdRp) were aligned using the Muscle tool, and phylogenetic analysis was performed using MEGA 11. The nucleotides' percent identity among HNoV strains was compared using ClustalW software. A significant difference in HNoV prevalence between AGE children (37%; 74/200) and non-AGE (14%; 14/100) was confirmed (p < 0.0001). Genogroup II (GII) HNoV was predominant in AGE children (80%; 59/74), whereas most non-AGE children were infected by the GI norovirus genogroup (64%; 9/14). GII.4 Sydney 2012 [P31] strains were dominant (59%; 19/32) during the study period. A phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relationship between the HNoV strains identified in this study and those circulating worldwide; however, ClustalW showed less than 50% nucleotide similarity between strains from this study and those from previously reported norovirus studies in the same region. Our findings indicate significant changes over time in the circulation of HNoV strains, as well as the association between high HNoV prevalence and AGE symptoms within the study area. The monitoring of HuNoV epidemiology, along with stringent preventive measures to mitigate the viral spread and the burden of AGE, are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronewa Khumela
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; (J.-P.K.); (A.N.T.); (N.P.)
| | - Jean-Pierre Kabue
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; (J.-P.K.); (A.N.T.); (N.P.)
| | - Marcia Terezinha Baroni de Moraes
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Avenida Brazil, 4365-Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil;
| | - Afsatou Ndama Traore
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; (J.-P.K.); (A.N.T.); (N.P.)
| | - Natasha Potgieter
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa; (J.-P.K.); (A.N.T.); (N.P.)
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Wang F, Nisar HJ, Li Y, Araud E, Nguyen TH, Kesavadas T. Low-Cost UVBot Using SLAM to Mitigate the Spread of Noroviruses in Occupational Spaces. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22228926. [PMID: 36433523 PMCID: PMC9696947 DOI: 10.3390/s22228926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) cause over 90% of non-bacterial gastroenteritis outbreaks in adults and children in developed countries. Therefore, there is a need for approaches to mitigate the transmission of noroviruses in workplaces to reduce their substantial health burden. We developed and validated a low-cost, autonomous robot called the UVBot to disinfect occupational spaces using ultraviolet (UV) lamps. The total cost of the UVBOT is less than USD 1000, which is much lower than existing commercial robots that cost as much as USD 35,000. The user-friendly desktop application allows users to control the robot remotely, check the disinfection map, and add virtual walls to the map. A 2D LiDAR and a simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithm was used to generate a map of the space being disinfected. Tulane virus (TV), a human norovirus surrogate, was used to validate the UVBot's effectiveness. TV was deposited on a painted drywall and exposed to UV radiation at different doses. A 3-log (99.9%) reduction of TV infectivity was achieved at a UV dose of 45 mJ/cm2. We further calculated the sanitizing speed as 3.5 cm/s and the efficient sanitizing distance reached up to 40 cm from the UV bulb. The design, software, and environment test data are available to the public so that any organization with minimal engineering capabilities can reproduce the UVBot system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanxin Wang
- Health Care Engineering Systems Center, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
| | - Harris Junaid Nisar
- Health Care Engineering Systems Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
| | - Yao Li
- Department of Mathematics, Harbin Institute of Technology, Haerbin 150001, China
| | - Elbashir Araud
- Holonyak Micro & Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
| | - Thanh H. Nguyen
- Institute of Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA
| | - Thenkurussi Kesavadas
- Research and Economic Development, University at Albany—State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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Luz IS, Miagostovich MP. Evaluation of heat treatment for inactivation of norovirus genogroup II in foods. Braz J Microbiol 2022; 53:1159-1165. [PMID: 35312990 PMCID: PMC9433490 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-022-00731-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The effective food processing technology is a key step in eliminating human noroviruses in foods mainly due to their stability in diverse environmental conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of rising temperatures for inactivation of norovirus genogroup (G) II and murine norovirus 1 in samples of tomato sauce (72-74 °C for 1 min) and ground meat (100 °C for 30 min). Spiking experiments were carried out in triplicate using TRIzol® reagent method associated with quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) TaqMan™ system combined with previous free RNA digestion. Success rate and efficiency recoveries of both viruses as well limit of detection of a method for each matrix were also conducted. The heat treatment applied here proved to be efficient to reduce the burden of norovirus GII in a range of 1-4 log10 genomic copies per gram (percentage ranging from 0.45 to 104.54%) in both matrices. The experiments in this study showed that the results of norovirus GII and murine norovirus 1 in tomato sauce and ground meat tested during thermal treatments cannot be generalized to other food matrices, since there may be food-specific protective effects, as the presence of different components, that can interfere in virus inactivation. Studies using different food matrices reinforce the importance to investigate viruses' inactivation thermal processes in foods due to the resistance of these viruses to adverse conditions, contributing to food security in food virology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle S Luz
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-360, Brazil.
| | - Marize P Miagostovich
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation/FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-360, Brazil
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6
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Adcock AF, Wang P, Ferguson IS, Obu SC, Sun YP, Yang L. Inactivation of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus with Light-Activated Carbon Dots and Mechanistic Implications. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2022; 5:3158-3166. [PMID: 35797334 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.2c00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The prevention of viral transmission is an important step to address the spread of viral infections. Using the enveloped vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) as a model, this study explored the antiviral functions of the specifically designed and prepared carbon dots (CDots). The CDots were prepared using small carbon nanoparticles with surface functionalization-passivation by oligomeric polyethylenimine (PEI). The results indicated that the PEI-CDots were readily activated by visible light to effectively and efficiently inactivate VSVs under various combinations of experimental conditions (viral titer, dot concentration, and treatment time). The photodynamically induced viral structural protein degradation and genomic RNA degradation were observed, suggesting the mechanistic origins, leading to the inactivation of virus. The results suggested CDots as a class of promising broad-spectrum antiviral agents for disinfection of viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey F Adcock
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina 27707, United States
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Isaiah S Ferguson
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina 27707, United States
| | - Somtochukwu C Obu
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina 27707, United States
| | - Ya-Ping Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Liju Yang
- Biomanufacturing Research Institute and Technology Enterprise (BRITE) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Carolina Central University, Durham, North Carolina 27707, United States
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7
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Impact of Theaflavins-Enriched Tea Leaf Extract TY-1 against Surrogate Viruses of Human Norovirus: In Vitro Virucidal Study. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11050533. [PMID: 35631054 PMCID: PMC9147082 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Using an effective natural virucidal substance may be a feasible approach for preventing food-borne viral contamination. Here, the virucidal efficacy of theaflavins (TFs)-enriched tea leaf extract (TY-1) against feline calicivirus (FCV) and murine norovirus (MNV), surrogates of human norovirus (HuNoV), was evaluated. The virus solutions were mixed with various dosages of TY-1 and incubated at 25 °C for different contact times. TY-1 reduced the viral titer of both surrogate viruses in a time- and dosage-dependent manner. A statistically significant reduction in the viral titer of FCV by 5.0 mg/mL TY-1 and MNV by 25.0 mg/mL TY-1 was observed in 10 s and 1 min, respectively. Furthermore, TY-1 reduced the viral titer of FCV and MNV on the dry surface in 10 min. The multiple compounds in TY-1, including TFs and catechins, contributed to its overall virucidal activity. Furthermore, the effect of TY-1 on viral proteins and genome was analyzed using Western blotting, RT-PCR, and transmission electron microscopy. TY-1 was found to promote the profound disruption of virion structures, including the capsid proteins and genome. Our finding demonstrates the potential of using TY-1 as a nature-derived disinfectant in food processing facilities and healthcare settings to reduce viral load and HuNoV transmission.
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Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hosie MJ, Hartmann K, Egberink H, Truyen U, Tasker S, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Frymus T, Lloret A, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Addie DD, Lutz H, Thiry E, Radford AD, Möstl K. Calicivirus Infection in Cats. Viruses 2022; 14:937. [PMID: 35632680 PMCID: PMC9145992 DOI: 10.3390/v14050937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- MRC—University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Uwe Truyen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
- Linnaeus Veterinary Limited, Shirley, Solihull B90 4BN, UK
| | - Sándor Belák
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health (BVF), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7036, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | | | - Tadeusz Frymus
- Department of Small Animal Diseases with Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Albert Lloret
- Fundació Hospital Clínic Veterinari, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Fulvio Marsilio
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Grazia Pennisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, 98168 Messina, Italy;
| | - Diane D. Addie
- Veterinary Diagnostic Services, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B-4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Alan D. Radford
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK;
| | - Karin Möstl
- Institute of Virology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
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Ezzatpanah H, Gómez-López VM, Koutchma T, Lavafpour F, Moerman F, Mohammadi M, Raheem D. Risks and new challenges in the food chain: Viral contamination and decontamination from a global perspective, guidelines, and cleaning. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:868-903. [PMID: 35142438 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Even during the continuing world pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2), consumers remain exposed to the risk of getting infected by existing, emerging, or re-emerging foodborne and waterborne viruses. SARS-CoV-2 is different in that it is transmitted directly via the airborne route (droplets and aerosols) or indirect contact (surfaces contaminated with SARS-CoV-2). International food and health organizations and national regulatory bodies have provided guidance to protect individuals active in food premises from potential occupational exposure to SARS-CoV-2, and have recommended chemicals effective in controlling the virus. Additionally, to exclude transmission of foodborne and waterborne viruses, hygiene practices to remove viral contaminants from surfaces are applied in different stages of the food chain (e.g., food plants, food distribution, storage, retail sector, etc.), while new and enhanced measures effective in the control of all types of viruses are under development. This comprehensive review aims to analyze and compare efficacies of existing cleaning practices currently used in the food industry to remove pathogenic viruses from air, nonfood, and food contact surfaces, as well as from food surfaces. In addition, the classification, modes of transmission, and survival of food and waterborne viruses, as well as SARS-CoV-2 will be presented. The international guidelines and national regulations are summarized in terms of virucidal chemical agents and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Ezzatpanah
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Tatiana Koutchma
- Guelph Research and Development Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Frank Moerman
- Department of Chemistry, Catholic University of Leuven - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Dele Raheem
- Arctic Centre (NIEM), University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland
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10
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Nastasi N, Renninger N, Bope A, Cochran SJ, Greaves J, Haines SR, Balasubrahmaniam N, Stuart K, Panescu J, Bibby K, Hull NM, Dannemiller KC. Persistence of viable MS2 and Phi6 bacteriophages on carpet and dust. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e12969. [PMID: 34882845 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Resuspension of dust from flooring is a major source of human exposure to microbial contaminants, but the persistence of viruses on dust and carpet and the contribution to human exposure are often unknown. The goal of this work is to determine viability of MS2 and Phi6 bacteriophages on cut carpet, looped carpet, and house dust both over time and after cleaning. Bacteriophages were nebulized onto carpet or dust in artificial saliva. Viability was measured at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 24, and 48 h and after cleaning by vacuum, steam, hot water extraction, and disinfection. MS2 bacteriophages showed slower viability decay rates in dust (-0.11 hr-1 ), cut carpet (-0.20 hr-1 ), and looped carpet (-0.09 hr-1 ) compared to Phi6 (-3.36 hr-1 , -1.57 hr-1 , and -0.20 hr-1 , respectively). Viable viral concentrations were reduced to below the detection limit for steam and disinfection for both MS2 and Phi6 (p < 0.05), while vacuuming and hot water extraction showed no significant changes in concentration from uncleaned carpet (p > 0.05). These results demonstrate that MS2 and Phi6 bacteriophages can remain viable in carpet and dust for several hours to days, and cleaning with heat and disinfectants may be more effective than standard vacuuming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Nastasi
- Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Nicole Renninger
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Ashleigh Bope
- Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Samuel J Cochran
- Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Justin Greaves
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering & Earth Sciences, College of Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
| | - Sarah R Haines
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Neeraja Balasubrahmaniam
- Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Katelyn Stuart
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Jenny Panescu
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Kyle Bibby
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering & Earth Sciences, College of Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
| | - Natalie M Hull
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Sustainability Institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Karen C Dannemiller
- Department of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Sustainability Institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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11
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Song M, Hossain MI, Jung S, Yeo D, Wang Z, Min A, Zhao Z, Park S, Choi C. Comparison of virucidal efficacy of sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, peracetic acid, and ethanol against hepatitis A virus by carrier and suspension tests. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 363:109506. [PMID: 34990885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A carrier (stainless steel disc as a default carrier) testing method is very needed for use in the actual food-processing fields by following the standard guideline. Here, we aimed to compare the virucidal efficacy of four commercial liquid disinfectants, including sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and peracetic acid (PAA) against hepatitis A virus (HAV) following the OECD guideline protocol based on the quantitative carrier testing method and compared carrier testing results with the suspension testing results. The OECD method specifies a test for establishing whether a chemical disinfectant or a microbicide has a virucidal activity on hard non-porous surfaces. The antiviral efficacy was evaluated by plaque assays, and disinfectants were considered effective if the virus reduction was greater than or equal to 3 log10 (99.9% decrease) for carrier or 4 log10 (99.99% decrease) for suspension tests. Results indicated that ClO2 above 500 ppm and 50% ethanol were effective in the carrier test method. In contrast, more than 200 ppm NaOCl and 50 ppm ClO2 for all exposure times and 70% ethanol with contact for more than 5 min were effective in suspension tests. Treatment with PAA (80-2500 ppm) were not effective in carrier or suspension tests. Therefore, we recommend the use of more than 500 ppm ClO2 or 50% ethanol with exposure for 10 min to disinfect surfaces that may be contaminated with HAV. Thus, these results could be effective in establishing official antiviral efficacy testing methods and basic data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxiao Song
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Iqbal Hossain
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Soontag Jung
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Daseul Yeo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhaoqi Wang
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ae Min
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ziwei Zhao
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunho Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsun Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea.
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12
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Augsburger N, Rachmadi AT, Zaouri N, Lee Y, Hong PY. Recent Update on UV Disinfection to Fulfill the Disinfection Credit Value for Enteric Viruses in Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:16283-16298. [PMID: 34881878 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation alone or in combination with other oxidation processes is increasingly being considered for water disinfection because of stringent regulatory requirements for pathogen inactivation. To fulfill this requirement, an appropriate UV dose or fluence (mJ/cm2) is applied to combat enteric viruses in surface or treated water. There is a need for a cumulative review on the effectiveness of current and emerging UV technologies against various types of human enteric viruses. We extracted the kinetics data from 52 selected experimental studies on enteric virus inactivation using low pressure (LP-UV), medium pressure (MP-UV), UV-LED, and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and applied a simple linear regression analysis to calculate the range of UV fluence (mJ/cm2) needed for 4-log10 inactivation. The inactivation of adenoviruses with LP-UV, MP-UV, and UV/H2O2 (10 mg/L) required the highest fluence, which ranged from 159 to 337, 45, and 115 mJ/cm2, respectively. By contrast, when using LP-UV, the inactivation of other enteric viruses, such as the Caliciviridae and Picornaviridae family and rotavirus, required fluence that ranged from 19 to 69, 18 to 43, and 38 mJ/cm2, respectively. ssRNA viruses exhibit higher sensitivity to UV radiation than dsRNA and DNA viruses. In general, as an upgrade to LP-UV, MP-UV is a more promising strategy for eliminating enteric viruses compared to AOP involving LP-UV with added H2O2 or TiO2. The UV-LED technology showed potential because a lower UV fluence (at 260 and/or 280 nm wavelength) was required for 4-log10 inactivation compared to that of LP-UV for most strains examined in this critical review. However, more studies evaluating the inactivation of enteric viruses by means of UV-LEDs and UV-AOP are needed to ascertain these observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Augsburger
- Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Andri Taruna Rachmadi
- Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Noor Zaouri
- Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yunho Lee
- School of Earth Science and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Pei-Ying Hong
- Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
- Biological and Environmental Science Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
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13
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Sobolik JS, Newman KL, Jaykus LA, Bihn EA, Leon JS. Norovirus transmission mitigation strategies during simulated produce harvest and packing. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 357:109365. [PMID: 34488004 PMCID: PMC8510003 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the agricultural setting, core global food safety elements, such as hand hygiene and worker furlough, should reduce the risk of norovirus contamination on fresh produce. However, the effect of these practices has not been characterized. Using a quantitative microbial risk model, we evaluated the individual and combined effect of farm-based hand hygiene and worker furlough practices on the maximum risk of norovirus infection from three produce commodities (open leaf lettuce, vine tomatoes, and raspberries). Specifically, we tested two scenarios where a harvester's and packer's norovirus infection status was: 1) assumed positive; or 2) assigned based on community norovirus prevalence estimates. In the first scenario with a norovirus-positive harvester and packer, none of the individual interventions modeled reduced produce contamination to below the norovirus infectious dose. However, combined interventions, particularly high handwashing compliance (100%) and efficacy (6 log10 virus removal achieved using soap and water for 30 s), reduced produce contamination to <1-82 residual virus. Translating produce contamination to maximum consumer infection risk, 100% handwashing with a 5 log10 virus removal was necessary to achieve an infection risk below the threshold of 0.032 infections per consumption event. When community-based norovirus prevalence estimates were applied to the harvester and packer, the single interventions of 100% handwashing with 3 log10 virus removal (average 0.02 infection risk per consumption event) or furlough of the packer (average 0.03 infection risk per consumption event) reduced maximum infection risk to below the 0.032 threshold for all commodities. Bundled interventions (worker furlough, 100% glove compliance, and 100% handwashing with 1-log10 virus reduction) resulted in a maximum risk of 0.02 per consumption event across all commodities. These results advance the evidence-base for global produce safety standards as effective norovirus contamination and risk mitigation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia S Sobolik
- Emory University, Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Kira L Newman
- Emory University, Hubert Department of Global Health, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Lee-Ann Jaykus
- North Carolina State University, Food, Bioprocessing, & Nutrition Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Bihn
- Cornell University, Department of Food Science, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Juan S Leon
- Emory University, Hubert Department of Global Health, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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14
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Sabrin MS, Selenge E, Takeda Y, Batkhuu J, Ogawa H, Jamsransuren D, Suganuma K, Murata T. Isolation and evaluation of virucidal activities of flavanone glycosides and rosmarinic acid derivatives from Dracocephalum spp. against feline calicivirus. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2021; 191:112896. [PMID: 34371301 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.112896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Feline calicivirus is one of the surrogate viruses of human norovirus. This study aimed to identify virucidal compounds, chemical constituents of plants from the genus Dracocephalum, which are rich in flavonoids and phenylpropanoid oligomers. Four undescribed compounds, including a flavanone glucoside, two stilbenoid glycosides, and a phenylpropanoid amide glycoside, as well as 17 known compounds, were isolated from the Mongolian plants Dracocephalum fruticulosum Stephan ex Willd., and D. nutans L. belonging to the family Lamiaceae. The structures of the compounds were determined based on NMR, MS, and electronic CD spectroscopic data. In addition to these 21 compounds, 15 previously reported compounds from D. foetidum Bunge in C.F. von Ledebour were included, and a total of 36 compounds were evaluated for their virucidal activities against feline calicivirus. Some of the flavanone glycosides and phenylpropanoid oligomers showed virucidal activities, and their structural features are discussed. The findings suggest that isosakuranetin glycosides and phenylpropanoid oligomers may have the potential for norovirus inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirza Synthia Sabrin
- Graduate School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences and Agriculture, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan; Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh
| | | | - Yohei Takeda
- Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Javzan Batkhuu
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, National University of Mongolia, POB-617/46A, Ulaanbaatar 14201, Mongolia
| | - Haruko Ogawa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Dulamjav Jamsransuren
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Keisuke Suganuma
- Research Center for Global Agromedicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, 2-11 Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan; National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Murata
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 4-1 Komatsushima 4-chome Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8558, Japan.
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15
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Chen L, Deng Y, Dong S, Wang H, Li P, Zhang H, Chu W. The occurrence and control of waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 281:130728. [PMID: 34010719 PMCID: PMC8084847 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
As the coronavirus disease 2019 continues to spread globally, its culprit, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has been brought under scrutiny. In addition to inhalation transmission, the possible fecal-oral viral transmission via water/wastewater has also been brought under the spotlight, necessitating a timely global review on the current knowledge about waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment system - the very barrier that intercepts waterborne pathogens to terminal water users. In this article we reviewed the occurrence, concentration methods, and control strategies, also, treatment performance on waterborne viruses during drinking water treatment were summarized. Additionally, we emphasized the potential of applying the quantitative microbial risk assessment to guide drinking water treatment to mitigate the viral exposure risks, especially when the unregulated novel viral pathogens are of concern. This review paves road for better control of viruses at drinking water treatment plants to protect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Deng
- Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Key LLaboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong, China
| | - Hong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Pan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Huaiyu Zhang
- Central and Southern China Institute of Municipal Engineering Design and Research, Hubei, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China.
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16
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Fraenkel CJ, Böttiger B, Söderlund-Strand A, Inghammar M. Risk of environmental transmission of norovirus infection from prior room occupants. J Hosp Infect 2021; 117:74-80. [PMID: 34547321 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2021.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental contamination of norovirus (NoV) is believed to be a significant source for further transmission in hospitals. AIM To investigate the risk of acquiring NoV in a cleaned room previously occupied by a patient with NoV infection. The risk of having a roommate with recent NoV infection was also assessed. METHODS In a retrospective cohort, comprising 33,788 room stays at five infectious Disease wards in southern Sweden from 2013 to 2018, the risk of acquiring NoV infection after admission to an exposed or non-exposed room was analysed with uni- and multivariable statistical analysis, controlling for age, colonization pressure and any roommate. RNA sequencing of the NoV strains involved in suspected room transmission was also performed. RESULTS Five of the 1106 patients exposed to a room with a prior occupant with NoV infection and 49 in the non-exposed group acquired NoV infection. An association between NoV acquisition was found in the univariable analysis (odds ratio (OR) 3.3, P=0.01), but not when adjusting for potential confounders (OR 1.9, P=0.2). Sequencing of the NoV samples showed that only two of the five exposed patients with acquired NoV infection were infected by identical strains to the prior room occupant, inferring a room transmission risk of 0.2% (95% confidence interval 0.05-0.78%). None of the 52 patients who shared room with a roommate with NoV symptoms resolved for ≥48 h acquired NoV infection. CONCLUSIONS In absolute terms, the risk of room transmission of NoV is low. Discontinuation of isolation ≥48 h after resolution of symptoms seems adequate.
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Affiliation(s)
- C-J Fraenkel
- Department of Infection Control, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden; Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Sweden.
| | - B Böttiger
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University and Regional Laboratories, Lund, Sweden
| | - A Söderlund-Strand
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University and Regional Laboratories, Lund, Sweden
| | - M Inghammar
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Sweden
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17
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Zhang T, Xu Q, Shi YL, Chen Z, Lu Y, Yang HW, Xie YF, Hou L. Study on the influence of operational and management processes of a water reclamation plant since COVID-19 situation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 285:117257. [PMID: 33957510 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Reusing treated wastewater can effectively alleviate water shortages and water contamination problems but depends on ensuring the safety of the reclaimed water that is produced. The operating and management conditions for water reclamation plants in China have been changed since the outbreak of the COVID-19 epidemic in China at the end of 2019 to prevent emerging viruses being spread through wastewater treatment processes and the reclaimed water that is produced. Removal of pathogens and trace organic compounds (e.g., pharmaceuticals and personal care products and endocrine disrupting chemicals) in a real water reclamation plant after the start of COVID-19 epidemic was studied. Disinfection byproduct formation caused by chlorine being added to meet disinfection requirements was also assessed. The pathogenic microorganism concentrations in effluent were <2 (most probable number)/L, and the removal rates for most trace organic compounds were >80% when advanced treatments were performed using ozone, ultraviolet light, and chlorine doses of 2 mg/L, 20.5 mJ/cm2, and 2-3 mg/L, respectively. The main disinfection byproduct produced at a chlorine dose of 2 mg/L and a residence time of 1 h was chloroform (at concentrations <15 μg/L). The results indicated that the water reclamation processes with modified conditions gave high pathogen and trace organic compound removal rates and reasonably well-controlled disinfection byproduct concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China; State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Qi Xu
- Research Center, Beijing Drainage Group Company Limited, Beijing, 100022, China
| | - Yu-Long Shi
- Research Center, Beijing Drainage Group Company Limited, Beijing, 100022, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Yun Lu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hong-Wei Yang
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua University, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
| | - Li'an Hou
- Xi'an High-Tech Institute, Shaanxi, Xi'an, 710025, China
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18
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Abstract
Livestock products supply about 13 percent of energy and 28 percent of protein in diets consumed worldwide. Diarrhea is a leading cause of sickness and death of beef and dairy calves in their first month of life and also affecting adult cattle, resulting in large economic losses and a negative impact on animal welfare. Despite the usual multifactorial origin, viruses are generally involved, being among the most important causes of diarrhea. There are several viruses that have been confirmed as etiological agents (i.e., rotavirus and coronavirus), and some viruses that are not yet confirmed as etiological agents. This review summarizes the viruses that have been detected in the enteric tract of cattle and tries to deepen and gather knowledge about them.
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19
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Torén K, Schiöler L, Nenonen NP, Hannoun C, Roth A, Andersson LM, Westin J, Bergström T. Risk factors for norovirus infection in healthcare workers during nosocomial outbreaks: a cross-sectional study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2021; 10:107. [PMID: 34294149 PMCID: PMC8299649 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-021-00979-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Norovirus outbreaks cause severe medico-socio-economic problems affecting healthcare workers and patients. The aim of the study was to investigate prevalence of norovirus infection and risk factors for infection in healthcare workers during nosocomial outbreaks. Methods A cross-sectional study of norovirus infections in healthcare workers was performed in seven outbreak wards in a large university hospital. Packs (swab for rectal sampling, and questionnaire) were posted to healthcare workers on notification of a ward outbreak. Rectal samples were examined with norovirus-specific real-time PCR. Replies from questionnaires were analysed using logistic regression models with norovirus genogroup (G)II positive findings as dependent variable. The results are expressed as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses (1040 nucleotides) were used to characterize norovirus strains from healthcare workers. Cluster analyses included norovirus GII.4 strains detected in ward patients during the ongoing outbreaks. Results Of 308 packs issued to healthcare workers, 129 (42%) were returned. norovirus GII was detected in 26 healthcare workers (20.2%). Work in cohort care (OR 4.8, 95% CI 1.4–16.3), work in wards for patients with dementia (OR 13.2, 95% CI 1.01–170.7), and having diarrhoea, loose stools or other gastrointestinal symptoms the last week (OR 7.7, 95% CI 2.5–27.2) were associated with increased norovirus prevalence in healthcare workers. Sequencing revealed norovirus GII.4 in healthcare workers samples, and strains detected in healthcare workers and ward patients during a given ward outbreak showed ≥ 99% similarity. Conclusion Norovirus positive findings in healthcare workers were strongly associated with symptomatic infection, close contact with sick patients, and dementia nursing. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13756-021-00979-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjell Torén
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Box 414, 405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden. .,Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Linus Schiöler
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Box 414, 405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Nancy P Nenonen
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Charles Hannoun
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anette Roth
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars-Magnus Andersson
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Johan Westin
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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20
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Steele MK, Wikswo ME, Hall AJ, Koelle K, Handel A, Levy K, Waller LA, Lopman BA. Characterizing Norovirus Transmission from Outbreak Data, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:1818-1825. [PMID: 32687043 PMCID: PMC7392428 DOI: 10.3201/eid2608.191537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in the United States. We estimated the basic (R0) and effective (Re) reproduction numbers for 7,094 norovirus outbreaks reported to the National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS) during 2009–2017 and used regression models to assess whether transmission varied by outbreak setting. The median R0 was 2.75 (interquartile range [IQR] 2.38–3.65), and median Re was 1.29 (IQR 1.12–1.74). Long-term care and assisted living facilities had an R0 of 3.35 (95% CI 3.26–3.45), but R0 did not differ substantially for outbreaks in other settings, except for outbreaks in schools, colleges, and universities, which had an R0 of 2.92 (95% CI 2.82–3.03). Seasonally, R0 was lowest (3.11 [95% CI 2.97–3.25]) in summer and peaked in fall and winter. Overall, we saw little variability in transmission across different outbreaks settings in the United States.
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21
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Park JBK, Weaver L, Davies-Colley R, Stott R, Williamson W, Mackenzie M, McGill E, Lin S, Webber J, Craggs RJ. Comparison of faecal indicator and viral pathogen light and dark disinfection mechanisms in wastewater treatment pond mesocosms. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 286:112197. [PMID: 33636629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study compared light and dark disinfection of faecal bacteria/viral indicator organisms (E. coli and MS2 (fRNA) bacteriophage) and human viruses (Echovirus and Norovirus) in Wastewater Treatment Pond (WTP) mesocosms. Stirred pond mesocosms were operated in either outdoor sunlight-exposed or laboratory dark conditions in two experiments during the austral summer. To investigate wavelength-dependence of sunlight disinfection, three optical filters were used: (1) polyethylene film (light control: transmitting all solar UV and visible wavelengths), (2) acrylic (removing most UVB <315 nm), and (3) polycarbonate (removing both UVB and UVA <400 nm). To assess different dark disinfection processes WTP effluent was treated before spiking with target microbes, by (a) 0.22 μm filtration to remove all but colloidal particles, (b) 0.22 μm filtration followed by heat treatment to destroy enzymes, and (c) addition of Cytochalasin B to supress protozoan grazing. Microbiological stocks containing E. coli, MS2 phage, Echovirus, and Norovirus were spiked into each mesocosm 10 min before the experiments commenced. The light control exposed to all sunlight wavelengths achieved >5-log E. coli and MS2 phage removal (from ~1.0 × 106 to <1 PFU/mL) within 3 h compared with up to 6 h in UV-filtered mesocosms. This result confirms that UVB contributes to inactivation of E. coli and viruses by direct sunlight inactivation. However, the very high attenuation with depth of UVB in WTP water (99% removal in the top 8 cm) suggests that UVB disinfection may be less important than other removal processes averaged over time and full-scale pond depth. Dark removal was appreciably slower than sunlight-mediated inactivation. The dark control typically achieved higher removal of E. coli and viruses than the 0.22 μm filtered (dark) mesocosms. This result suggests that adsorption of E. coli and viruses to WTP particles (e.g., algae and bacteria bio-flocs) is an important mechanism of dark disinfection, while bacteria and virus characteristics (e.g. surface charge) and environmental conditions can influence dark disinfection processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason B K Park
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA), P. O. Box 11-115, Hamilton, New Zealand.
| | - Louise Weaver
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Rob Davies-Colley
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA), P. O. Box 11-115, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Rebecca Stott
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA), P. O. Box 11-115, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Wendy Williamson
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Margaret Mackenzie
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Erin McGill
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Susan Lin
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Judith Webber
- Environmental Science Research (ESR), Christchurch Science Centre, 27 CreykC Road, Ilam, PO Box 29181, Christchurch, 8540, New Zealand
| | - Rupert J Craggs
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA), P. O. Box 11-115, Hamilton, New Zealand
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22
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Abney SE, Bright KR, McKinney J, Ijaz MK, Gerba CP. Toilet hygiene-review and research needs. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:2705-2714. [PMID: 33899991 PMCID: PMC9292268 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The goal of good toilet hygiene is minimizing the potential for pathogen transmission. Control of odours is also socially important and believed to be a societal measure of cleanliness. Understanding the need for good cleaning and disinfecting is even more important today considering the potential spread of emerging pathogens such as SARS‐CoV‐2 virus. While the flush toilet was a major advancement in achieving these objectives, exposure to pathogens can occur from failure to clean and disinfect areas within a restroom, as well as poor hand hygiene. The build‐up of biofilm within a toilet bowl/urinal including sink can result in the persistence of pathogens and odours. During flushing, pathogens can be ejected from the toilet bowl/urinal/sink and be transmitted by inhalation and contaminated fomites. Use of automatic toilet bowl cleaners can reduce the number of microorganisms ejected during a flush. Salmonella bacteria can colonize the underside of the rim of toilets and persist up to 50 days. Pathogenic enteric bacteria appear in greater numbers in the biofilm found in toilets than in the water. Source tracking of bacteria in homes has demonstrated that during cleaning enteric bacteria are transferred from the toilet to the bathroom sinks and that these same bacteria colonize cleaning tools used in the restroom. Quantitative microbial risk assessment has shown that significant risks exist from both aerosols and fomites in restrooms. Cleaning with soaps and detergents without the use of disinfectants in public restrooms may spread bacteria and viruses throughout the restroom. Odours in restrooms are largely controlled by ventilation and flushing volume in toilet/urinals. However, this results in increased energy and water usage. Contamination of both the air and surfaces in restrooms is well documented. Better quantification of the risks of infection are needed as this will help determine what interventions will minimize these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Abney
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - K R Bright
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - J McKinney
- Global Research and Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ, USA
| | - M Khalid Ijaz
- Global Research and Development for Lysol and Dettol, Reckitt Benckiser LLC, Montvale, NJ, USA.,Department of Biology, Medgar Evers College of the City University of New York (CUNY), Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - C P Gerba
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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23
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Aoyama T, Kudo T. Comparison of the disinfecting effect of sodium hypochlorite aqueous solution and surfactant on hospital kitchen hygiene using adenosine triphosphate swab testing. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249796. [PMID: 33848316 PMCID: PMC8043410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Japanese Ministry of Health requires large-scale cooking facilities to use sodium hypochlorite aqueous solution (HYP) on food preparation tools, equipment, and facilities to prevent secondary contamination. This study aimed to compare the disinfecting effect of HYP and surfactant using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) swab testing on large-scale equipment and facilities that could not be disassembled and disinfected in hospital kitchen. From May 2018 to July 2018, ATP swab tests were performed on the following six locations in the Shizuoka Cancer Centre Dietary Department Kitchen: cooking counter, mobile cooking counter, refrigerator handle, conveyor belt, tap handle, and sink. Six relative light unit (RLU) measurements were taken from each location. The log10 values of the RLU measurements were evaluated by dividing the samples into two groups: the control group (surfactant followed by HYP swabbing) and the HYP group (HYP swabbing only). The results showed that the RLUs (log10 values) in both the groups improved after disinfection (p<0.05), except for the RLUs (log10 values) of the mobile cooking counter, tap handle, and sink in the control group after the HYP swab. The changes in the RLU (log10 value) did not differ between the two groups for all locations of the kitchen. Hence, HYP swabbing of large-scale equipment and facilities provides the same level of disinfection as surfactants and can be as beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Aoyama
- Dietary Department, Shizuoka Cancer Centre, Shizuoka, Japan
- Division of Infection Control Nurse, Shizuoka Cancer Center, Shizuoka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Tomoko Kudo
- Dietary Department, Shizuoka Cancer Centre, Shizuoka, Japan
- Division of Infection Control Nurse, Shizuoka Cancer Center, Shizuoka, Japan
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24
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Chassaing M, Bastin G, Robin M, Majou D, Belliot G, de Rougemont A, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. Free Chlorine and Peroxynitrite Alter the Capsid Structure of Human Norovirus GII.4 and Its Capacity to Bind Histo-Blood Group Antigens. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:662764. [PMID: 33927710 PMCID: PMC8076513 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.662764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are one of the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. HuNoVs are frequently detected in water and foodstuffs. Free chlorine and peroxynitrite (ONOO−) are two oxidants commonly encountered by HuNoVs in humans or in the environment during their natural life cycle. In this study, we defined the effects of these two oxidants on GII.4 HuNoVs and GII.4 virus-like particles (VLPs). The impact on the capsid structure, the major capsid protein VP1 and the ability of the viral capsid to bind to histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) following oxidative treatments were analyzed. HBGAs are attachment factors that promote HuNoV infection in human hosts. Overall, our results indicate that free chlorine acts on regions involved in the stabilization of VP1 dimers in VLPs and affects their ability to bind to HBGAs. These effects were confirmed in purified HuNoVs. Some VP1 cross-links also take place after free chlorine treatment, albeit to a lesser extent. Not only ONOO− mainly produced VP1 cross-links but can also dissociate VLPs depending on the concentration applied. Nevertheless, ONOO− has less effect on HuNoV particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Chassaing
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint-Lô, France.,Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, Nancy, France
| | | | - Maëlle Robin
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint-Lô, France
| | | | - Gaël Belliot
- National Reference Centre for Gastroenteritis Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France.,UMR PAM A 02.102 Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté/AgroSup Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Alexis de Rougemont
- National Reference Centre for Gastroenteritis Viruses, Laboratory of Virology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France.,UMR PAM A 02.102 Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté/AgroSup Dijon, Dijon, France
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25
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Qiao Y, Yang M, Marabella IA, McGee DAJ, Aboubakr H, Goyal S, Hogan Jr CJ, Olson BA, Torremorell M. Greater than 3-Log Reduction in Viable Coronavirus Aerosol Concentration in Ducted Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) Systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:4174-4182. [PMID: 33263988 PMCID: PMC7724980 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Control technologies to inactivate airborne viruses effectively are needed during the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and to guard against airborne transmitted diseases. We demonstrate that sealed UV-C flow reactors operating with fluences near 253 ± 1 nm of 13.9-49.6 mJ cm-2 efficiently inactivate coronaviruses in an aerosol. For measurements, porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) was nebulized in a custom-built, 3.86 m wind tunnel housed in a biosafety level class II facility. The single pass log10 reduction of active coronavirus was in excess of 2.2 at a flow rate of 2439 L min-1 (13.9 mJ cm-2) and in excess of 3.7 (99.98% removal efficiency) at 684 L min-1 (49.6 mJ cm-2). Because virus titers resulting from sampling downstream of the UV-C reactor were below the limit of detection, the true log reduction is likely even higher than measured. Comparison of virus titration results to reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR and measurement of fluorescein concentrations (doped into the nebulized aerosol) reveals that the reduction in viable PRCV is primarily due to UV-C based inactivation, as opposed to physical collection of virus. The results confirm that UV-C flow reactors can efficiently inactivate coronaviruses through incorporation into HVAC ducts or recirculating air purifiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuechen Qiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - My Yang
- Department of Veterinary Population
Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108,
United States
| | - Ian A. Marabella
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Devin A. J. McGee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Hamada Aboubakr
- Department of Veterinary Population
Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108,
United States
| | - Sagar Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population
Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108,
United States
| | - Christopher J. Hogan Jr
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Bernard A. Olson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Montserrat Torremorell
- Department of Veterinary Population
Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108,
United States
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26
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Kumar M, Mazumder P, Mohapatra S, Kumar Thakur A, Dhangar K, Taki K, Mukherjee S, Kumar Patel A, Bhattacharya P, Mohapatra P, Rinklebe J, Kitajima M, Hai FI, Khursheed A, Furumai H, Sonne C, Kuroda K. A chronicle of SARS-CoV-2: Seasonality, environmental fate, transport, inactivation, and antiviral drug resistance. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 405:124043. [PMID: 33268203 PMCID: PMC7536132 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we present the environmental perspectives of the viruses and antiviral drugs related to SARS-CoV-2. The present review paper discusses occurrence, fate, transport, susceptibility, and inactivation mechanisms of viruses in the environment as well as environmental occurrence and fate of antiviral drugs, and prospects (prevalence and occurrence) of antiviral drug resistance (both antiviral drug resistant viruses and antiviral resistance in the human). During winter, the number of viral disease cases and environmental occurrence of antiviral drug surge due to various biotic and abiotic factors such as transmission pathways, human behaviour, susceptibility, and immunity as well as cold climatic conditions. Adsorption and persistence critically determine the fate and transport of viruses in the environment. Inactivation and disinfection of virus include UV, alcohol, and other chemical-base methods but the susceptibility of virus against these methods varies. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are major reserviors of antiviral drugs and their metabolites and transformation products. Ecotoxicity of antiviral drug residues against aquatic organisms have been reported, however more threatening is the development of antiviral resistance, both in humans and in wild animal reservoirs. In particular, emergence of antiviral drug-resistant viruses via exposure of wild animals to high loads of antiviral residues during the current pandemic needs further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Kumar
- Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India.
| | - Payal Mazumder
- Centre for the Environment, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Sanjeeb Mohapatra
- Environmnetal Science and Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Alok Kumar Thakur
- Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Kiran Dhangar
- Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Kaling Taki
- Discipline of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Santanu Mukherjee
- Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Arbind Kumar Patel
- Discipline of Earth Science, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Prosun Bhattacharya
- Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 10B, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pranab Mohapatra
- Discipline of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382 355, India
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal 42285, Germany; Department of Environment, Energy and Geoinformatics, University of Sejong, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Faisal I Hai
- Wollongong, Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Anwar Khursheed
- Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hiroaki Furumai
- Research Centre for Water Environment Technology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Keisuke Kuroda
- Department of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, Toyama 9390398, Japan
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27
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Kim K, Jothikumar N, Sen A, Murphy JL, Chellam S. Removal and Inactivation of an Enveloped Virus Surrogate by Iron Conventional Coagulation and Electrocoagulation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:2674-2683. [PMID: 33533250 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is imperative to understand the behavior of enveloped viruses during water treatment to better protect public health, especially in the light of evidence of detection of coronaviruses in wastewater. We report bench-scale experiments evaluating the extent and mechanisms of removal and/or inactivation of a coronavirus surrogate (ϕ6 bacteriophage) in water by conventional FeCl3 coagulation and Fe(0) electrocoagulation. Both coagulation methods achieved ∼5-log removal/inactivation of ϕ6 in 20 min. Enhanced removal was attributed to the high hydrophobicity of ϕ6 imparted by its characteristic phospholipid envelope. ϕ6 adhesion to freshly precipitated iron (hydr)oxide also led to envelope damage causing inactivation in both coagulation techniques. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed oxidative damages to ϕ6 lipids only for electrocoagulation consistent with electro-Fenton reactions. Monitoring ϕ6 dsRNA by a novel reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) method quantified significantly lower viral removal/inactivation in water compared with the plaque assay demonstrating that relying solely on RT-qPCR assays may overstate human health risks arising from viruses. Transmission electron microscopy and computationally generated electron density maps of ϕ6 showed severe morphological damages to virus' envelope and loss of capsid volume accompanying coagulation. Both conventional and electro- coagulation appear to be highly effective in controlling enveloped viruses during surface water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyungho Kim
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-3136, United States
| | - Narayanan Jothikumar
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Anindito Sen
- Microscopy and Imaging Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2257, United States
| | - Jennifer L Murphy
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Shankararaman Chellam
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-3136, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-3122, United States
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28
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Lee JW, Kang LH, Kim MK, Kim JS, Kim ML, Lee SG, Choi IH, Park CJ, Paik SY. Determining the efficacy of 27 commercially available disinfectants against human noroviruses. J Infect Public Health 2021; 14:244-248. [PMID: 33493921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2020.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, monoclonal-antibody-conjugated immunomagnetic separation (IMS) procedure combined with quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) has been used for quantifying non-cultivated human noroviruses (HuNoVs). METHODS We examined the efficacy of 27 commercially available disinfectants and a prototype against GII.4 strain HuNoV through the IMS/qRT-PCR assay. RESULTS The average log reduction in viral titer in vitro varied among the disinfectants. The prototype was the most effective with an average log reduction of 6.86 log. CONCLUSIONS The IMS/RT-qPCR assay is an effective method to evaluate the activities of disinfectants against GII.4 HuNoV in vitro. Further work is needed to enhance the virucidal activity of the prototype disinfectant against more resistant HuNoV strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Woong Lee
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Lae-Hyung Kang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Kyeong Kim
- Samsung Welstory Inc, Food Culture Division, Food R&D Center, YongIn, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Soon Kim
- Samsung Welstory Inc, Food Culture Division, Food R&D Center, YongIn, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung L Kim
- Kim Laboratories Inc., Rantoul, IL 61866, USA
| | - Sung-Geun Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Hye Choi
- Department of Dermatology, Bucheon St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul-Jong Park
- Department of Dermatology, Bucheon St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Soon-Young Paik
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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29
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Rajiuddin SM, Vigre H, Musavian HS, Kohle S, Krebs N, Hansen TB, Gantzer C, Schultz AC. Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and murine norovirus on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries using steam-ultrasound treatment. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:295-309. [PMID: 32885354 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09441-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The leading causes of foodborne viral disease outbreaks are human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Their environmental persistence enables contamination of kitchen surfaces and crops often consumed raw, such as berries. Many decontamination procedures are inefficient and unsuitable for surfaces of industrial kitchen environments and soft fruits. In this study, we investigated the efficiency of a novel surface decontamination technology, combining steam and ultrasound (steam-ultrasound). Plastic, steel or raspberry surfaces were spiked with the norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus (MNV), and HAV, and steam-ultrasound treated at 85, 90 and 95 °C for 0-5 s. Post treatment viruses were titrated for survival by plaque assay and for genome stability by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) of nucleic acid extracts. Survival of viruses were estimated in a log-linear model and the treatment time requirements for each decimal reduction (D value) in viral survival were calculated. The estimated D values of MNV or HAV were 0.4-0.2 or 1.1-0.8 s on plastic, 0.9-0.7 or 1.4-0.8 s on steel and 1.6-1.7 or 3.2-4.7 s on raspberries. No clear trend of genome reduction was observed with tested treatment parameters. Raspberries treated up to 4 s retained its natural texture and visual appeal similar to untreated controls whilst monitored for 7 days. In conclusion, steam-ultrasound treatment can within seconds reduce the titre of foodborne viruses on surfaces of plastic, steel and raspberries. This may particularly benefit industrial scale production of soft fruits for raw consumption and for swift non-hazardous decontamination of industrial kitchen surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheikh Md Rajiuddin
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Håkan Vigre
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Simon Kohle
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Niels Krebs
- Force Technology, SonoSteam, Park allé 345, 2605, Brøndby, Denmark
| | - Tina Beck Hansen
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- Division of Microbiology and Production, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 204, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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30
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Gobeil A, Maherani B, Lacroix M. Norovirus elimination on the surface of fresh foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 62:1822-1837. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1848784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Gobeil
- Research Laboratories in Sciences, Applied to Food, Canadian Irradiation Centre, Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Behnoush Maherani
- Research Laboratories in Sciences, Applied to Food, Canadian Irradiation Centre, Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Monique Lacroix
- Research Laboratories in Sciences, Applied to Food, Canadian Irradiation Centre, Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Laval, Québec, Canada
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31
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Molina-Chavarria A, Félix-Valenzuela L, Silva-Campa E, Mata-Haro V. Evaluation of gamma irradiation for human norovirus inactivation and its effect on strawberry cells. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 330:108695. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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32
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Alcohol abrogates human norovirus infectivity in a pH-dependent manner. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15878. [PMID: 32985508 PMCID: PMC7522253 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72609-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcohol-based disinfectants are widely used for the sanitization of microorganisms, especially those that cause infectious diseases, including viruses. However, since the germicidal mechanism of alcohol is lipolysis, alcohol-based disinfectants appear to have a minimal effect on non-enveloped viruses, such as noroviruses. Because there is no cultivation method for human norovirus (HuNoV) in vitro, murine norovirus and feline calicivirus have been used as surrogates for HuNoV to analyze the efficacy of disinfectant regents. Therefore, whether these disinfectants and their conditions are effective against HuNoVs remain unknown. In this study, we report that ethanol or isopropanol alone can sufficiently suppress GII.4 genotype HuNoV replication in human iPSC-derived intestinal epithelial cells. Additionally, pH adjustments and salting-out may contribute toward the virucidal effect of alcohol against other HuNoV genotypes and cancel the impediment of organic substance contamination, respectively. Therefore, similar to sodium hypochlorite, alcohol-based disinfectants containing electrolytes can be used for HuNoV inactivation.
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Guarines KM, Mendes RPG, Cordeiro MT, Miagostovich MP, Gil LHVG, Green KY, Pena LJ. Absence of norovirus contamination in shellfish harvested and commercialized in the Northeast coast of Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 53:e9529. [PMID: 32965324 PMCID: PMC7510241 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20209529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is the main cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. Although NoV spreads mainly from person to person, it is estimated that a large proportion of NoV outbreaks are caused by foodborne transmission. Bivalve mollusks are one of the most important foods involved in NoV transmission to humans. Little is known about NoV prevalence in shellfish harvested and commercialized in Brazil. The aim of this study was to map, for the first time, the distribution of NoV contamination in oysters and mussels harvested and commercialized in the coast of Pernambuco state, northeast Brazil. A total of 380 mollusks (260 oysters and 120 mussels) were collected between February and August 2017 either directly from harvesting areas or obtained from beach vendors at 17 sites in Pernambuco. Samples were processed and tested for NoV contamination using a SYBR Green real-time PCR assay. All samples were negative for NoV GI or GII contamination, suggesting a low risk of NoV contamination from this food source during the study period. Additional surveys in different areas of the Brazilian coast are warranted to monitor the risk of NoV infection upon seafood consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Guarines
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil
| | - R P G Mendes
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil
| | - M T Cordeiro
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil
| | - M P Miagostovich
- Laboratório de Virologia Comparativa e Ambiental, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - L H V G Gil
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil
| | - K Y Green
- Caliciviruses Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - L J Pena
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil
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Shimakura H, Gen-Nagata F, Haritani M, Furusaki K, Kato Y, Yamashita-Kawanishi N, Le DT, Tsuzuki M, Tohya Y, Kyuwa S, Saito H, Horimoto T, Onodera T, Haga T. Inactivation of human norovirus and its surrogate by the disinfectant consisting of calcium hydrogen carbonate mesoscopic crystals. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2020; 366:5638871. [PMID: 31758686 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnz235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus is one of the major causes of foodborne gastroenteritis, and it can be easily transmitted from infected person, virus-contaminated foods and environmental surfaces. Effective disinfection method is needed to stop the transmission of human norovirus. CAC-717 is a new disinfectant consisting of calcium hydrogen carbonate mesoscopic crystals. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of CAC-717 against human norovirus. This study used human norovirus derived from fecal specimens and cultured murine norovirus, which is one of the surrogate viruses for human norovirus. The disinfection effect against murine norovirus was estimated by infectivity assay and transmission electron microscopy. The inactivation effect against human norovirus was assessed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Disinfection effect of CAC-717 against the infectivity of murine norovirus was shown within 100 s after the CAC-717 treatment, presenting the destruction of viral capsids. The treatment of CAC-717 significantly reduced human norovirus genomic RNA (3.25-log reduction) by the presence of the mesoscopic structure of calcium hydrogen carbonate. CAC-717 stably inactivated human norovirus in stool suspensions. The inactivation effect of CAC-717 against human norovirus was less susceptible to organic substances than sodium hypochlorite. CAC-717 would be a useful alternative for disinfecting human norovirus in contaminated environmental surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidekatsu Shimakura
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Gen-Nagata
- Division of Biomedical Food Research, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Makoto Haritani
- Research Center for Food Safety, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Koichi Furusaki
- Mineral Activation Technical Research Center, 434 Ohkura, Tamana-shi, Kumamoto 865-0023, Japan
| | - Yusei Kato
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Nanako Yamashita-Kawanishi
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Dung T Le
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Masano Tsuzuki
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yukinobu Tohya
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kyuwa
- Laboratory of Biomedical Science, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Saito
- Department of Microbiology, Akita Prefectural Research Center for Public Health and Environment, 6-6 Senshu-Kubotamachi, Akita 010-0874, Japan
| | - Taisuke Horimoto
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Takashi Onodera
- Research Center for Food Safety, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Takeshi Haga
- Division of Infection Control and Disease Prevention, Department of Veterinary Medical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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35
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Pitino MA, O'Connor DL, McGeer AJ, Unger S. The impact of thermal pasteurization on viral load and detectable live viruses in human milk and other matrices: a rapid review. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 46:10-26. [PMID: 32650645 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Holder pasteurization (62.5 °C, 30 min) of human milk is thought to reduce the risk of transmitting viruses to an infant. Some viruses may be secreted into milk - others may be contaminants. The effect of thermal pasteurization on viruses in human milk has yet to be rigorously reviewed. The objective of this study is to characterize the effect of common pasteurization techniques on viruses in human milk and non-human milk matrices. Databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science) were searched from inception to April 20th, 2020, for primary research articles assessing the impact of pasteurization on viral load or detection of live virus. Reviews were excluded, as were studies lacking quantitative measurements or those assessing pasteurization as a component of a larger process. Overall, of 65 131 reports identified, 109 studies were included. Pasteurization of human milk at a minimum temperature of 56-60 °C is effective at reducing detectable live virus. In cell culture media or plasma, coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV) are highly susceptible to heating at ≥56 °C. Although pasteurization parameters and matrices reported vary, all viruses studied, except parvoviruses, were susceptible to thermal killing. Future research important for the study of novel viruses should standardize pasteurization protocols and should test inactivation in human milk. Novelty In all matrices, including human milk, pasteurization at 62.5 °C was generally sufficient to reduce surviving viral load by several logs or to below the limit of detection. Holder pasteurization (62.5 °C, 30 min) of human milk should be sufficient to inactivate nonheat resistant viruses, including coronaviruses, if present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Pitino
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Translational Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Deborah L O'Connor
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Translational Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Allison J McGeer
- Department of Microbiology, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada.,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 3M7, Canada
| | - Sharon Unger
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.,Division of Neonatology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
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Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan-Based Films Enriched with Green Tea Extracts on Murine Norovirus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria innocua. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 2020; 2020:3941924. [PMID: 32714970 PMCID: PMC7355381 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3941924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Edible films can be designed to serve as carriers of antimicrobial agents and be used to control pathogenic foodborne viruses and bacteria. This research tested this concept by dissolving green tea extract (GTE) in chitosan film-forming solutions (FFS) and using it to prepare dried chitosan edible films. As a control, the GTE was also dissolved in deionized water (DW). The FFS and the dried chitosan films with the GTE and the DW without chitosan were all evaluated against murine norovirus (MNV-1), Escherichia coli K12, and Listeria innocua. Both the FFS and the DW with GTE were incubated with ~107 PFU/ml of the virus suspensions for 3 h. The chitosan films with GTE were incubated for 4 and 24 h at 23 ± 1°C. The results showed that the DW containing 1, 1.5, and 2.5% aqueous GTE, significantly (p < 0.05) reduced MNV-1 plaques by 1.7, 2.5, and 3.3 logs after 3 h exposure, respectively. Similarly, FFS containing 2.5 and 5.0% GTE reduced MNV-1 counts by 2.5 and 4.0 logs, respectively, after 3 h exposure. The dried chitosan films with 5, 10, and 15% GTE were also effective against MNV-1 infectivity. After 24 h incubation, the 5 and 10% chitosan GTE films produced significant (p < 0.05) titer reductions of 1.6 and 4.5 logs, respectively. Chitosan films containing 15% GTE reduced MNV-1 plaques to undetectable levels in 24 h. All chitosan GTE films reduced E. coli K12 and L. innocua populations to undetectable levels in tryptic soy broth after 24 h exposure. The results of this study showed that edible films enriched with GTE have potential to reduce both foodborne viruses and bacteria.
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37
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Sauerbrei A. Bactericidal and virucidal activity of ethanol and povidone-iodine. Microbiologyopen 2020; 9:e1097. [PMID: 32567807 PMCID: PMC7520996 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.1097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ethanol and povidone‐iodine (PVP‐I) are important microbicides that inactivate bacteria and viruses. The present study provides a review of literature data on the concentration‐dependent bactericidal and virucidal activity of ethanol and PVP‐I in vitro. A systematic search was performed using the meta‐database for biomedicine PubMed. Eventually, 74 studies with original data on the reduction of bacterial and viral infectivity using in vitro tests were analyzed. A safe bactericidal effect of ethanol can be expected at concentrations between 60% and 85%, and the exposure times vary between ≤0.5 and ≥5 min. Within an exposure of up to 5 min, 80%–90% ethanol also exerts virucidal/low‐level activity, which includes its action against enveloped viruses plus adeno‐, noro‐, and rotaviruses. For PVP‐I, the best bactericidal and virucidal/high‐level effect is present at a concentration range of approx. 0.08%–0.9% depending on the free iodine concentration. The maximum exposure times are 5 min for bacteria and 60 min for viruses. The available data may help optimize the significant inactivation of bacteria and viruses in various areas. However, as the conditions in application practice can vary, concrete recommendations for the application can only be derived to a limited extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Sauerbrei
- Section Experimental Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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38
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Wolff A, Günther T, Albert T, Schilling-Loeffler K, Gadicherla AK, Johne R. Stability of hepatitis E virus at different pH values. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 325:108625. [PMID: 32361052 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Infection with the hepatitis E virus (HEV) can cause acute and chronic hepatitis in humans. The zoonotic HEV genotype 3 is mainly transmitted by consumption of raw and fermented meat products prepared from infected pigs or wild boars. Lowering of pH during fermentation is one of the microbiological hurdles considered to inhibit growth of certain pathogens. However, no data are currently available on pH stability of HEV. As a reliable and reproducible measurement of HEV infectivity in meat products is not established so far, the stability of the cell culture-adapted HEV genotype 3 strain 47832c was analyzed here in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at different pH values. Only a minimal decrease of infectivity (up to 0.6 log10 focus forming units) was found after treatment at pH 2 to 9 for 3 h at room temperature. At pH 10, a decrease of about 3 log10 was evident, whereas no remaining virus (>3.5 log10 decrease) was detected at pH 1. The conditions usually achieved during curing of raw sausages were simulated using D/L-lactic acid added to PBS resulting in pH 4.5 to 6.5. After incubation at 4 °C for 7 days at these conditions, no significant differences as compared to a standard PBS solution at pH 7.7 were evident. At room temperature, a 0.8 log10 decrease was found at pH 4.7 after 7 days incubation compared to pH 7.7, but less at the other pH values. In conclusion, only minimal inactivating effects were found at pH conditions commonly occurring during food processing. Therefore, remaining infectious virus might be present in fermented meat products if HEV-contaminated starting material was used. Additional effects of other factors like high salt concentrations and low aw values should be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Wolff
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Biological Safety, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - T Günther
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Biological Safety, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - T Albert
- University of Leipzig, Institute for Food Hygiene, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - K Schilling-Loeffler
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Biological Safety, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - A K Gadicherla
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Biological Safety, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - R Johne
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Biological Safety, Diedersdorfer Weg 1, 12277 Berlin, Germany.
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Boehm AB, Silverman AI, Schriewer A, Goodwin K. Systematic review and meta-analysis of decay rates of waterborne mammalian viruses and coliphages in surface waters. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 164:114898. [PMID: 31404902 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.114898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Surface waters are essential natural resources. They are also receiving waters for a variety of anthropogenic waste streams that carry a myriad of pollutants including pathogens. Watershed and fate and transport models can help inform the spatial and temporal extent of microbial pollution from point and non-point sources and thus provide useful information for managing surface waters. Viruses are particularly important water-related pathogens because they often have a low infectious dose, which means that ingestion of even a small volume of water containing a low concentration of virions has the potential to cause disease. We conducted a systematic review of the literature, following best practices, to gather decay rate constants (k) of mammalian waterborne viruses (enteroviruses, adenoviruses, noroviruses, astroviruses, rotaviruses, and hepatitis A viruses) and coliphages in raw surface waters to aid in the parameterization of virus fate and transport models. We identified 562 k values from the literature, with the largest number identified for enteroviruses and coliphages and the smallest for astrovirus, hepatitis A virus, and norovirus. Average k values for each virus varied from 0.07 to 0.9 per day, in order from smallest to largest: Norwalk virus (i.e., noroviruses) < Human astrovirus < Mastadenovirus (i.e., adenoviruses) < Hepatovirus A (i.e., hepatitis A viruses) < Rotavirus A < coliphages < Enterovirus. A meta-analysis investigated how k varied among viruses for experiments conducted with different virus serotypes or species at different temperatures, salinities, and sunlight exposures, and for experiments that enumerated viruses using different methodologies. Virus species or serotype did not affect k among decay experiments. k values were generally larger for experiments conducted at higher temperatures, in sunlight, and in estuarine waters, and enumerated using culture methods. k values were statistically different between virus types with Norwalk virus, Hepatovirus A, and Mastadenovirus having smaller k values than other viruses, controlling for experimental condition and enumeration method. While F+ coliphage k values were similar to those of Enterovirus, Human astrovirus, and Rotavirus A, they were different from those of the other mammalian viruses. This compilation of coliphage and mammalian virus k values provides essential information for researchers and risk assessors who model virus fate and transport in surface waters and identifies avenues for future research to fill knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria B Boehm
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Andrea I Silverman
- Department of Civil and Urban Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, 11201, USA; College of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, NY, 10012, USA
| | - Alexander Schriewer
- Weston Solutions, Inc., 5817 Dryden Place Suite 101, Carlsbad, CA, 92008, USA
| | - Kelly Goodwin
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (stationed at NOAA/NMFS/SWFSC, La Jolla, CA), Miami, FL, USA
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40
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Spiri AM, Meli ML, Riond B, Herbert I, Hosie MJ, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Environmental Contamination and Hygienic Measures After Feline Calicivirus Field Strain Infections of Cats in a Research Facility. Viruses 2019; 11:v11100958. [PMID: 31627345 PMCID: PMC6832521 DOI: 10.3390/v11100958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) can cause painful oral ulcerations, salivation, gingivitis/stomatitis, fever and depression in infected cats; highly virulent virus variants can lead to fatal epizootic outbreaks. Viral transmission occurs directly or indirectly via fomites. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and viability of FCV in the environment after sequential oronasal infections of specified pathogen-free cats with two FCV field strains in a research facility. Replicating virus was detected in saliva swabs from all ten cats after the first and in four out of ten cats after the second FCV exposure using virus isolation to identify FCV shedders. In the environment, where cleaning, but no disinfection took place, FCV viral RNA was detectable using RT-qPCR on all tested items and surfaces, including cat hair. However, only very limited evidence was found of replicating virus using virus isolation. Viral RNA remained demonstrable for at least 28 days after shedding had ceased in all cats. Disinfection with 5% sodium bicarbonate (and IncidinTM Plus) and barrier measures were effective in that no viral RNA was detectable outside the cat rooms. Our findings are important for any multicat environment to optimize hygienic measures against FCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Monika Spiri
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Marina Luisa Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Riond
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Imogen Herbert
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
| | - Margaret J Hosie
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Adams SC, Myles MH, Tracey LN, Livingston RS, Schultz CL, Reuter JD, Leblanc M. Effects of Pelleting, Irradiation, and Autoclaving of Rodent Feed on MPV and MNV Infectivity. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2019; 58:542-550. [PMID: 31391143 PMCID: PMC6774454 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-18-000142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Murine norovirus (MNV) and mouse parvovirus (MPV) are among the most common adventitial viruses seen in laboratory mice, and infections arise in barrier facilities despite rigorous biosecurity programs. Some authors have implicated nonsterilized feed as a source of MPV in rodent facilities, but none have conclusively documented viral particles in the feed. In this study, we hypothesized that both viruses can resist the pelleting process but not subsequent irradiation or autoclaving, thus revealing a potential source of outbreaks in rodent facilities. To test this hypothesis, we contaminated powdered feed with 10-fold concentrations of MNV and MPV and fed it to both Swiss Webster (SW) and C57BL/6NTac (B6) mice to determine a 'powdered ID50' according to seroconversion over a 28-d period. We repeated the experiment by using powdered feed that we contaminated with increasing viral doses (as no. of powdered ID50) and subsequently pelleted; from these results, we determined a 'pelleted ID50.' Finally we assessed the effect of irradiation and autoclaving on contaminated pellets by using the same experimental design. The powdered ID50 was relatively low and identical in both mouse strains (2.51 × 10² pfu) for MNV but higher in B6 (copy number, 3.20 × 106) than SW (3.98 × 10⁴ copies) for MPV. As hypothesized, mice were infected by contaminated rodent feed despite the pelleting process. Indeed, pelleting resulted in a 1- to 2-log increase in ID50 in both strains for MNV and MPV. Irradiation and autoclaving of infected pellets effectively prevented seroconversion of mice exposed to all doses of MNV, whereas a single mouse seroconverted at the highest dose of MPV (1.35 × 107 copies). These data suggest that both MNV and MPV remain infectious after conditions reproducing the rodent chow pelleting process and that nonsterilized rodent chow might be a source of viral outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean C Adams
- Animal Resources Department, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California
| | | | - Laura N Tracey
- PMI Nutrition International, LabDiet, St Louis, Missouri
| | | | | | - Jon D Reuter
- Office of Animal Resources, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
| | - Mathias Leblanc
- Animal Resources Department, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California;,
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Zhu Y, Ma Y, Lu M, Zhang Y, Li A, Liang X, Li J. Efficient Production of Human Norovirus-Specific IgY in Egg Yolks by Vaccination of Hens with a Recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Expressing VP1 Protein. Viruses 2019; 11:v11050444. [PMID: 31100802 PMCID: PMC6563233 DOI: 10.3390/v11050444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) is responsible for more than 95% of outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. Despite major efforts, there are no vaccines or effective therapeutic interventions against this virus. Chicken immunoglobulin Y (IgY)-based passive immunization has been shown to be an effective strategy to prevent and treat many enteric viral diseases. Here, we developed a highly efficient bioreactor to generate high titers of HuNoV-specific IgY in chicken yolks using a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus expressing HuNoV capsid protein (rVSV-VP1) as an antigen. We first demonstrated that HuNoV VP1 protein was highly expressed in chicken cells infected by rVSV-VP1. Subsequently, we found that White Leghorn hens immunized intramuscularly with rVSV-VP1 triggered a high level of HuNoV-specific yolk IgY antibodies. The purified yolk IgY was efficiently recognized by HuNoV virus-like particles (VLPs). Importantly, HuNoV-specific IgY efficiently blocked the binding of HuNoV VLPs to all three types (A, B, and O) of histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), the attachment factors for HuNoV. In addition, the receptor blocking activity of IgY remained stable at temperature below 70 °C and at pH ranging from 4 to 9. Thus, immunization of hens with VSV-VP1 could be a cost-effective and practical strategy for large-scale production of anti-HuNoV IgY antibodies for potential use as prophylactic and therapeutic treatment against HuNoV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhu
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
- Program in Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Yuanmei Ma
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Mijia Lu
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Anzhong Li
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Xueya Liang
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Jianrong Li
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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43
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Yang W, Steele M, Lopman B, Leon JS, Hall AJ. The Population-Level Impacts of Excluding Norovirus-Infected Food Workers From the Workplace: A Mathematical Modeling Study. Am J Epidemiol 2019; 188:177-187. [PMID: 30202923 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwy198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Norovirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis and foodborne disease in the United States. The Food and Drug Administration recommends that food workers infected with norovirus be excluded from the workplace while symptomatic and for 48 hours after their symptoms subside. Compliance with this recommendation is not ideal, and the population-level impacts of changes in food-worker compliance have yet to be quantified. We aimed to assess the population impacts of varying degrees of compliance with the current recommendation through the use of a compartmental model. We modeled the number and proportion of symptomatic norovirus cases averted annually in the US population (using data from 1983-2014) in specific age groups (children aged <5 years, children aged 5-17 years, adults aged 18-64 years, and adults aged ≥65 years) under various scenarios of food-worker exclusion (i.e., proportion compliant and days of postsymptomatic exclusion) in comparison with a referent scenario which assumed that 66.6¯% of norovirus-symptomatic food workers and 0% of postsymptomatic food workers were excluded from work. Overall, we estimated that 6.0 million cases of norovirus have already been avoided annually under the referent scenario and that 6.7 million (28%) more cases might be avoided through 100% compliance with the current recommendations. Substantial population-level benefits were predicted from improved compliance in exclusion of norovirus-infected food workers from the workplace-benefits that may be realized through policies or programs incentivizing self-exclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yang
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Molly Steele
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ben Lopman
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Juan S Leon
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Aron J Hall
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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44
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Nguyen D, Barrs VR, Kelman M, Ward MP. Feline upper respiratory tract infection and disease in Australia. J Feline Med Surg 2018; 21:973-978. [PMID: 30465616 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x18813248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive assessment of feline infectious upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and disease (URTD) in Australian cats. METHODS Laboratory data demonstrating URTI from feline URTD multiplex PCR panel (feline herpesvirus 1 [FHV-1], feline calicivirus [FCV], Bordetella bronchiseptica, Chlamydophila felis, Mycoplasma felis and H1N1 influenza) submissions in Australia (2013-2015) were obtained. For comparison, reports of feline URTD during the same time period were sourced from a voluntary companion animal disease surveillance system. RESULTS A total of 3126 samples were submitted for testing; 1533 (49%) were positive. Of these, the most commonly detected agents were M felis (21.5%) and FCV (16.0%) alone, followed by FCV and M felis (13.4%) together as a respiratory infection complex, then FHV-1 (7.0%) alone. During the study period, there were 262 reports of 320 clinical feline URTD cases. Most cases (69%) were reported from New South Wales, <1 year of age (41%) and equally distributed between the sexes. Infection was more common in entire cats (69%) and most cases (55%) involved domestic shorthair cats. Of the 90 reports that had a known vaccination status, 63 had a vaccination history, 40 of which were recently vaccinated. Most (72%) feline URTD cases recovered from clinical disease. Both feline URTI and URTD were more common during winter months. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Feline URTI and URTD cause substantial impact in Australia, being most commonly associated with M felis and FCV infection. This information can be used by veterinarians to educate clients about prevention and management of this important infectious disease of cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalton Nguyen
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, Australia
| | - Vanessa R Barrs
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, Australia
| | - Mark Kelman
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, Australia
| | - Michael P Ward
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, Australia
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45
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Ercumen A, Mertens A, Arnold BF, Benjamin-Chung J, Hubbard AE, Ahmed MA, Kabir MH, Rahman Khalil MM, Kumar A, Rahman MS, Parvez SM, Unicomb L, Rahman M, Ram PK, Clasen T, Luby SP, Colford JM. Effects of Single and Combined Water, Sanitation and Handwashing Interventions on Fecal Contamination in the Domestic Environment: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial in Rural Bangladesh. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:12078-12088. [PMID: 30256102 PMCID: PMC6222549 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have varying effectiveness in reducing fecal contamination in the domestic environment; delivering them in combination could yield synergies. We conducted environmental assessments within a randomized controlled trial in Bangladesh that implemented single and combined water treatment, sanitation, handwashing (WSH) and nutrition interventions (WASH Benefits, NCT01590095). After one and two years of intervention, we quantified fecal indicator bacteria in samples of drinking water (from source or storage), child hands, children's food and sentinel objects. In households receiving single water treatment interventions, Escherichia coli prevalence in stored drinking water was reduced by 50% and concentration by 1-log. E. coli prevalence in food was reduced by 30% and concentration by 0.5-log in households receiving single water treatment and handwashing interventions. Combined WSH did not reduce fecal contamination more effectively than its components. Interventions did not reduce E. coli in groundwater, on child hands and on objects. These findings suggest that WSH improvements reduced contamination along the direct transmission pathways of stored water and food but not along indirect upstream pathways. Our findings support implementing water treatment and handwashing to reduce fecal exposure through water and food but provide no evidence that combining interventions further reduces exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ercumen
- Department
of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- E-mail:
| | - Andrew Mertens
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Benjamin F. Arnold
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jade Benjamin-Chung
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Alan E. Hubbard
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Mir Alvee Ahmed
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mir Himayet Kabir
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Masudur Rahman Khalil
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Ashish Kumar
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Sajjadur Rahman
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Sarker Masud Parvez
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Leanne Unicomb
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mahbubur Rahman
- Infectious
Disease Division, International Centre for
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Pavani K. Ram
- University
at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14214, United
States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Rollins
School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Infectious
Diseases & Geographic Medicine, Stanford
University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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46
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Nitazoxanide Inhibits Human Norovirus Replication and Synergizes with Ribavirin by Activation of Cellular Antiviral Response. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:AAC.00707-18. [PMID: 30104275 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00707-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus is the main cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. Although norovirus gastroenteritis is self-limiting in immunocompetent individuals, chronic infections with debilitating and life-threatening complications occur in immunocompromised patients. Nitazoxanide (NTZ) has been used empirically in the clinic and has demonstrated effectiveness against norovirus gastroenteritis. In this study, we aimed at uncovering the antiviral potential and mechanisms of action of NTZ and its active metabolite, tizoxanide (TIZ), using a human norovirus (HuNV) replicon. NTZ and TIZ, collectively referred to as thiazolides (TZD), potently inhibited replication of HuNV and a norovirus surrogate, feline calicivirus. Mechanistic studies revealed that TZD activated cellular antiviral response and stimulated the expression of a subset of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), particularly interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1), not only in a Huh7 cell-based HuNV replicon, but also in naive Huh7 and Caco-2 cells and novel human intestinal organoids. Overexpression of exogenous IRF-1 inhibited HuNV replication, whereas knockdown of IRF-1 largely attenuated the antiviral activity of TZD, suggesting that IRF-1 mediated TZD inhibition of HuNV. By using a Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, CP-690550, and a STAT1 knockout approach, we found that TZD induced antiviral response independently of the classical JAK-signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway. Furthermore, TZD and ribavirin synergized to inhibit HuNV replication and completely depleted the replicons from host cells after long-term treatment. In summary, our results demonstrated that TZD combated HuNV replication through activation of cellular antiviral response, in particular by inducing a prominent antiviral effector, IRF-1. NTZ monotherapy or combination with ribavirin represent promising options for treating norovirus gastroenteritis, especially in immunocompromised patients.
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47
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Farkas K, Cooper DM, McDonald JE, Malham SK, de Rougemont A, Jones DL. Seasonal and spatial dynamics of enteric viruses in wastewater and in riverine and estuarine receiving waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 634:1174-1183. [PMID: 29710623 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Enteric viruses represent a global public health threat and are implicated in numerous foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks. Nonetheless, relatively little is known of their fate and stability in the environment. In this study we used carefully validated methods to monitor enteric viruses, namely adenovirus (AdV), JC polyomavirus (JCV), noroviruses (NoVs), sapovirus (SaV) and hepatitis A and E viruses (HAV and HEV) from wastewater source to beaches and shellfish beds. Wastewater influent and effluent, surface water, sediment and shellfish samples were collected in the Conwy catchment (North Wales, UK) once a month for one year. High concentrations of AdV and JCV were found in the majority of samples, and no seasonal patterns were observed. No HAV and HEV were detected and no related illnesses were reported in the area during the period of sampling. Noroviruses and SaV were also detected at high concentrations in wastewater and surface water, and their presence correlated with local gastroenteritis outbreaks during the spring and autumn seasons. Noroviruses were also found in estuarine sediment and in shellfish harvested for human consumption. As PCR-based methods were used for quantification, viral infectivity and degradation was estimated using a NoV capsid integrity assay. The assay revealed low-levels of viral decay in wastewater effluent compared to influent, and more significant decay in environmental waters and sediment. Results suggest that AdV and JCV may be suitable markers for the assessment of the spatial distribution of wastewater contamination in the environment; and pathogenic viruses can be directly monitored during and after reported outbreaks to prevent further environment-derived illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kata Farkas
- School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - David M Cooper
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Environment Centre Wales, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - James E McDonald
- School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Shelagh K Malham
- School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB, UK
| | - Alexis de Rougemont
- Centre National de Référence Virus des gastro-entérites, Laboratoire de Virologie-Sérologie, CHU de Dijon, 2 rue Angélique Ducoudray, BP37013, 21070 Dijon cedex, France; UMR PAM A 02.102 Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté/AgroSup Dijon, 1 Esplanade Erasme, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Davey L Jones
- School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
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Bányai K, Estes MK, Martella V, Parashar UD. Viral gastroenteritis. Lancet 2018; 392:175-186. [PMID: 30025810 PMCID: PMC8883799 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31128-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Enteric viruses, particularly rotaviruses and noroviruses, are a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Rotaviruses primarily affect young children, accounting for almost 40% of hospital admissions for diarrhoea and 200 000 deaths worldwide, with the majority of deaths occurring in developing countries. Two vaccines against rotavirus were licensed in 2006 and have been implemented in 95 countries as of April, 2018. Data from eight high-income and middle-income countries showed a 49-89% decline in rotavirus-associated hospital admissions and a 17-55% decline in all-cause gastroenteritis-associated hospital admissions among children younger than 5 years, within 2 years of vaccine introduction. Noroviruses affect people of all ages, and are a leading cause of foodborne disease and outbreaks of gastroenteritis worldwide. Prevention of norovirus infection relies on frequent hand hygiene, limiting contact with people who are infected with the virus, and disinfection of contaminated environmental surfaces. Norovirus vaccine candidates are in clinical trials; whether vaccines will provide durable protection against the range of genetically and antigenically diverse norovirus strains remains unknown. Treatment of viral gastroenteritis is based primarily on replacement of fluid and electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztián Bányai
- Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Mary K Estes
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Vito Martella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University Aldo Moro of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Umesh D Parashar
- Viral Gastroenteritis Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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49
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Dunkin N, Weng S, Coulter CG, Jacangelo JG, Schwab KJ. Impacts of virus processing on human norovirus GI and GII persistence during disinfection of municipal secondary wastewater effluent. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 134:1-12. [PMID: 29407643 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.01.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses cause significant global health burdens and waterborne transmission is a known exposure pathway. Chlorination is the most common method of disinfection for water and wastewater worldwide. The purpose of this study was to investigate the underlying causes for discrepancies in human norovirus (hNoV) resistance to free chlorine that have been previously published, and to assess hNoV GI and GII persistence during disinfection of municipal secondary wastewater (WW) effluent. Our results reveal that choice of hNoV purification methodology prior to seeding the viruses in an experimental water matrix influences disinfection outcomes in treatment studies. Common hNoV purification processes such as solvent extraction and 0.45-μm filtration were ineffective in removing high levels of organics introduced into water or wastewater samples when seeding norovirus positive stool. These methods resulted in experimental water matrices receiving an additional 190 mg/L as Cl2 of 15-s chlorine demand and approximately 440 mg/L as Cl2 of 30-min chlorine demand due to seeding norovirus positive stool at 1% w/v. These high organic loads impact experimental water chemistry and bias estimations of hNoV persistence. Advanced purification of norovirus positive stool using sucrose cushion ultracentrifugation and ultrafiltration reduced 15-s chlorine demands by 99% and TOC by 93% for loose (i.e. unformed diarrhea) stools. Using these methods, hNoV GI and GII persistence was investigated during free chlorination of municipal WW. A suite five of kinetic inactivation models was fit to viral reverse transcription-qPCR reduction data, and model predicted CT values for 1, 2, and 3 log10 reduction of hNoV GI in municipal WW by free chlorine were 0.3, 2.1, and 7.8 mg-min/L, respectively. Model predicted CT values for reduction of hNoV GII in WW were 0.4, 2.0, and 7.0 mg-min/L, respectively. These results indicate that current WW treatment plant disinfection practices employing free chlorine are likely protective for public health with regards to noroviruses, and will achieve at least 3-log reduction of hNoV GI and GII RNA despite previous reports of high hNoV resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Dunkin
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - ShihChi Weng
- JHU/MWH Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Caroline G Coulter
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joseph G Jacangelo
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; JHU/MWH Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; MWH-Stantec, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; JHU/MWH Alliance, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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50
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Van Pelt AE, Quiñones B, Lofgren HL, Bartz FE, Newman KL, Leon JS. Low Prevalence of Human Pathogens on Fresh Produce on Farms and in Packing Facilities: A Systematic Review. Front Public Health 2018; 6:40. [PMID: 29527522 PMCID: PMC5829028 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Foodborne illness burdens individuals around the world and may be caused by consuming fresh produce contaminated with bacterial, parasite, and viral pathogens. Pathogen contamination on produce may originate at the farm and packing facility. This research aimed to determine the prevalence of human pathogens (bacteria, parasites, and viruses) on fresh produce (fruits, herbs, and vegetables) on farms and in packing facilities worldwide through a systematic review of 38 peer-reviewed articles. The median and range of the prevalence was calculated, and Kruskal-Wallis tests and logistic regression were performed to compare prevalence among pooled samples of produce groups, pathogen types, and sampling locations. Results indicated a low median percentage of fresh produce contaminated with pathogens (0%). Both viruses (p-value = 0.017) and parasites (p-value = 0.033), on fresh produce, exhibited higher prevalence than bacteria. No significant differences between fresh produce types or between farm and packing facility were observed. These results may help to better quantify produce contamination in the production environment and inform strategies to prevent future foodborne illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia E. Van Pelt
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Beatriz Quiñones
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Unit, USDA/ARS/Western Regional Research Center, Albany, CA, United States
| | - Hannah L. Lofgren
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Faith E. Bartz
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Kira L. Newman
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Juan S. Leon
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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