Mannheimia haemolytica and its leukotoxin cause macrophage extracellular trap formation by bovine macrophages

The dynamic roles of macrophages extracellular traps (METs) in immune regulation

Macrophages are crucial to innate immunity, eliminating pathogens and damaged tissues through phagocytosis and modulating immune responses. Recently, macrophage extracellular traps (METs) have been identified as chromatin-based structures composed of DNA and various immune-related proteins. While METs play a defensive role in trapping and neutralizing pathogens, they are also implicated in disease pathology, contributing to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and immune dysregulation. The precise mechanisms regulating MET formation are still under investigation, but emerging evidence indicates the involvement of various regulatory factors. Dysregulated MET activity has been associated with various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and neurological conditions. A deeper understanding of MET mechanisms and their pathological impact may offer novel therapeutic strategies. Given the limited number of reviews and articles on METs, this review provides valuable insights into MET formation, regulatory pathways, and their role in disease progression.

Mastitis-related Staphylococcus aureus-derived extracellular vesicles induce a pro-inflammatory response in bovine monocyte-derived macrophages

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most common causative agents of mammary gland infection and mastitis, but the specific role of S. aureus-derived extracellular vesicles (SaEVs) in mastitis has been poorly studied to date. Here, we aimed to investigate the response of bovine monocyte-derived macrophages (boMdM) to SaEVs of the genotype B (GTB) mastitis-related strain M5512B. Specifically, we evaluated the effects on the actin cytoskeleton, gene expression, and the SaEV proteomic cargo. Furthermore, we assessed to what extent the cellular and molecular response of boMdM to SaEVs differed from peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PBMCs) used for in vitro derivation of the former. We observed that SaEVs induced morphological changes in boMdM, leading to a pro-inflammatory and pyroptosis-related increased gene expression. Additionally, our study revealed that boMdM and PBMCs exhibited stimulus-specific differing responses. The proteomic analysis of SaEVs identified clusters of proteins related to virulence and antibiotic resistance, supporting the theory that S. aureus might use EVs to evade host defences and colonize the mammary gland. Our results bring new insights into how SaEVs might impact the host during an S. aureus infection, which can be useful for future S. aureus vaccine development.

Macrophage extracellular traps are induced by Mycoplasma bovis in bovine macrophages through NADPH oxidase/ROS-dependent manner and their antibacterial efficacy

Mycoplasma bovis has emerged as a significant pathogen in cattle, leading to considerable economic losses in the cattle industry. It is associated with various clinical syndromes, including pneumoniae, mastitis, and arthritis. The innate immune response, particularly macrophages, plays a crucial role in combating infections caused by such pathogens. The release of macrophage extracellular traps (METs) represents a novel defense mechanism employed by macrophages; however, the impact of M. bovis on the formation of METs in bovine macrophages remains unknown. Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to investigate the mechanism by which M. bovis affects the formation of bovine METs and to evaluate their bactericidal efficacy. Our findings revealed that the bovine macrophage cell lines released DNA fibrils that colocalized with histones and cellular proteins in response to M. bovis infection, as visualized by confocal and scanning electron microscopy. Moreover, the formation of METs was found to depend on NADPH oxidase, which is crucial for reactive oxygen species generation. Importantly, the formation of METs led to cell lysis in response to M. bovis infection, as indicated by the release of lactate dehydrogenase, and this process was found to be independent of apoptosis and pyroptosis. Moreover, the release of METs in response to M. bovis infection was effective in both killing and restricting its growth. Overall, our study first described how METs were produced in bovine macrophages that responded to M. bovis and demonstrated their significant function in bacterial killing, which is helpful to improve our understanding of the host's immune defense against this pathogen.

Targeting Macrophage Polarization in Infectious Diseases: M1/M2 Functional Profiles, Immune Signaling and Microbial Virulence Factors

INTRODUCTION

An event of increasing interest during host-pathogen interactions is the polarization of patrolling/naive monocytes (MOs) into macrophage subsets (MФs). Therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating this event are under investigation.

METHODS

This review focuses on the mechanisms of induction/development and profile of MФs polarized toward classically proinflammatory (M1) or alternatively anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes in response to bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It highlights nuclear, cytoplasmic, and cell surface receptors (pattern recognition receptors/PPRs), microenvironmental mediators, and immune signaling. MФs polarize into phenotypes: M1 MФs, activated by IFN-γ, pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs, e.g. lipopolysaccharide) and membrane-bound PPRs ligands (TLRs/CLRs ligands); or M2 MФs, induced by interleukins (ILs-4, -10 and -13), antigen-antibody complexes, and helminth PAMPs. Polarization toward M1 and M2 profiles evolve in a pathogen-specific manner, with or without canonicity, and can vary widely. Ultimately, this can result in varying degrees of host protection or more severe disease outcome. On the one hand, the host is driving effective MФs polarization (M1 or M2); but on the other hand, microorganisms may skew the polarization through virulence factors to increase pathogenicity. Cellular/genomic reprogramming also ensures plasticity of M1/M2 phenotypes. Because modulation of polarization can occur at multiple points, new insights and emerging perspectives may have clinical implications during the inflammation-to-resolution transition; translated into practical applications as for therapeutic/vaccine design target to boost microbicidal response (M1, e.g. triggering oxidative burst) with specifics PAMPs/IFN-γ or promote tissue repair (M2, increasing arginase activity) via immunotherapy.

The role of extracellular traps released by neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages in asthma

Extracellular traps (ETs) are a specialized form of innate immune defense in which leukocytes release ETs composed of chromatin and active proteins to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. In addition to the anti-infection effect of ETs, researchers have also discovered their involvement in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease, tumors, autoimmune disease, and allergic disease. Asthma is a chronic airway inflammatory disease involving multiple immune cells. The increased level of ETs in asthma patients suggests that ETs play an important role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Here we review the research work on the formation mechanism, roles, and therapeutic strategies of ETs released by neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages in asthma.

Monocyte/macrophage-mediated venous thrombus resolution

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) poses a notable risk of morbidity and mortality. The natural resolution of the venous thrombus might be a potential alternative treatment strategy for VTE. Monocytes/macrophages merge as pivotal cell types in the gradual resolution of the thrombus. In this review, the vital role of macrophages in inducing inflammatory response, augmenting neovascularization, and facilitating the degradation of fibrin and collagen during thrombus resolution was described. The two phenotypes of macrophages involved in thrombus resolution and their dual functions were discussed. Macrophages expressing various factors, including cytokines and their receptors, adhesion molecules, chemokine receptors, vascular endothelial growth factor receptors, profibrinolytic- or antifibrinolytic-related enzymes, and other elements, are explored for their potential to promote or attenuate thrombus resolution. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive summary of new and promising therapeutic candidate drugs associated with monocytes/macrophages that have been demonstrated to promote or impair thrombus resolution. However, further clinical trials are essential to validate their efficacy in VTE therapy.

Emerging insights into macrophage extracellular traps in bacterial infections

Macrophages possess a diverse range of well-defined capabilities and roles as phagocytes, encompassing the regulation of inflammation, facilitation of wound healing, maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and serving as a crucial element in the innate immune response against microbial pathogens. The emergence of extracellular traps is a novel strategy of defense that has been observed in several types of innate immune cells. In response to infection, macrophages are stimulated and produce macrophage extracellular traps (METs), which take the form of net-like structures, filled with strands of DNA and adorned with histones and other cellular proteins. METs not only capture and eliminate microorganisms but also play a role in the development of certain diseases such as inflammation and autoimmune disorders. The primary objective of this study is to examine the latest advancements in METs for tackling bacterial infections. We also delve into the current knowledge and tactics utilized by bacteria to elude or endure the effects of METs. Through this investigation, we hope to shed light on the intricate interactions between bacteria and the host's immune system, particularly in the context of microbicidal effector mechanisms of METs. The continued exploration of METs and their impact on host defense against various pathogens opens up new avenues for understanding and potentially manipulating the immune system's response to infections.

Circulating Nucleosomes as a Novel Biomarker for Sepsis: A Scoping Review

Circulating nucleosome levels are commonly elevated in physiological and pathological conditions. Their potential as biomarkers for diagnosing and prognosticating sepsis remains uncertain due, in part, to technical limitations in existing detection methods. This scoping review explores the possible role of nucleosome concentrations in the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic management of sepsis. A comprehensive literature search of the Cochrane and Medline libraries from 1996 to 1 February 2024 identified 110 potentially eligible studies, of which 19 met the inclusion criteria, encompassing a total of 39 SIRS patients, 893 sepsis patients, 280 septic shock patients, 117 other ICU control patients, and 345 healthy volunteers. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [ELISA] was the primary method of nucleosome measurement. Studies consistently reported significant correlations between nucleosome levels and other NET biomarkers. Nucleosome levels were higher in patients with sepsis than in healthy volunteers and associated with disease severity, as indicated by SOFA and APACHE II scores. Non-survivors had higher nucleosome levels than survivors. Circulating nucleosome levels, therefore, show promise as early markers of NETosis in sepsis, with moderate diagnostic accuracy and strong correlations with disease severity and prognosis. However, the available evidence is drawn mainly from single-center, observational studies with small sample sizes and varied detection methods, warranting further investigation.

Gliotoxin elicits immunotoxicity in the early innate immune system of ducks

Gliotoxin (GT) belongs to the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) family, which is considered a crucial virulence determinant among the secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus fumigatus. The metabolites are commonly found in food and feed, contributing to the invasion and immune escape of Aspergillus fumigatus, thereby posing a significant threat to the health of livestock, poultry, and humans. Heterophil extracellular traps (HETs), a novel form of innate immune defense, have been documented in the chicken's innate immune systems for capturing and eliminating invading microbes. However, the effects and mechanisms of GT on the production of duck HETs in vitro remain unknown. In this study, we first confirmed the presence of HETs in duck innate immune systems and further investigated the molecular mechanism underlying GT-induced HETs release. Our results demonstrate that GT can trigger typical release of HETs in duck. The structures of GT-induced HETs structures were characterized by DNA decoration, citrullinated histones 3, and elastase. Furthermore, NADPH oxidase, glycolysis, ERK1/2 and p38 signaling pathway were found to regulate GT-induced HETs. In summary, our findings reveal that gliotoxin activates HETs release in the early innate immune system of duck while providing new insights into the immunotoxicity of GT towards ducks.

Macrophage extracellular traps require peptidylarginine deiminase 2 and 4 and are a source of citrullinated antigens bound by rheumatoid arthritis autoantibodies

Introduction

Anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs) are a hallmark of rheumatoid arthritis, but the sources of citrullinated antigens as well as which peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are required for their production remain incompletely defined. Here, we investigated if macrophage extracellular traps (METs) could be a source of citrullinated proteins bound by APCAs, and if their formation requires PAD2 or PAD4.

Methods

Thioglycolate-induced peritoneal macrophages from wild-type, PAD2-/-, and PAD4-/- mice or human peripheral blood-derived M1 macrophages were activated with a variety of stimulants, then fixed and stained with DAPI and either anti-citrullinated histone H4 (citH4) antibody or sera from ACPA+ or ACPA- rheumatoid arthritis subjects. METs were visualized by immunofluorescence, confirmed to be extracellular using DNase, and quantified.

Results

We found that ionomycin and monosodium urate crystals reliably induced murine citH4+ METs, which were reduced in the absence of PAD2 and lost in the absence of PAD4. Also, IgG from ACPA+, but not ACPA-, rheumatoid arthritis sera bound to murine METs, and in the absence of PAD2 or PAD4, ACPA-bound METs were lost. Finally, ionomycin induced human METs that are citH4+ and ACPA-bound.

Discussion

Thus, METs may contribute to the pool of citrullinated antigens bound by ACPAs in a PAD2- and PAD4-dependent manner, providing new insights into the targets of immune tolerance loss in rheumatoid arthritis.

Immune Cells in the Spleen of Mice Mediate the Inflammatory Response Induced by Mannheimia haemolytica A2 Serotype

(1) Background: Mannheimia haemolytica (M. haemolytica) is an opportunistic pathogen and is mainly associated with respiratory diseases in cattle, sheep, and goats. (2) Methods: In this study, a mouse infection model was established using a M. haemolytica strain isolated from goats. Histopathological observations were conducted on various organs of the mice, and bacterial load determination and RNA-seq analysis were specifically performed on the spleens of the mice. (3) Results: The findings of this study suggest that chemokines, potentially present in the spleen of mice following a M. haemolytica challenge, may induce the migration of leukocytes to the spleen and suppress the release of pro-inflammatory factors through a negative feedback regulation mechanism. Additionally, an interesting observation was made regarding the potential of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells congregating in the spleen to differentiate into immune cells, which could potentially collaborate with leukocytes in their efforts to counteract M. haemolytica invasion. (4) Conclusions: This study revealed the immune regulation mechanism induced by M. haemolytica in the mouse spleen, providing valuable insights into host-pathogen interactions and offering a theoretical basis for the prevention, control, and treatment of mannheimiosis.

Impact of endogenous and exogenous nitrogen species on macrophage extracellular trap (MET) formation by bone marrow-derived macrophages

Macrophage extracellular traps (METs) represent a novel defense mechanism in the antimicrobial arsenal of macrophages. However, mechanisms of MET formation are still poorly understood and this is at least partially due to the lack of reliable and reproducible models. Thus, we aimed at establishing a protocol of MET induction by bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) obtained from cryopreserved and then thawed bone marrow (BM) mouse cells. We report that BMDMs obtained in this way were morphologically (F4/80+) and functionally (expression of inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase and NO production) differentiated and responded to various stimuli of bacterial (lipopolysaccharide, LPS), fungal (zymosan) and chemical (PMA) origin. Importantly, BMDMs were successfully casting METs composed of extracellular DNA (extDNA) serving as their backbone to which proteins such as H2A.X histones and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) were attached. In rendered 3D structure of METs, extDNA and protein components were embedded in each other. Since studies had shown the involvement of oxygen species in MET release, we aimed at studying if reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as NO are also involved in MET formation. By application of NOS inhibitor - L-NAME or nitric oxide donor (SNAP), we studied the involvement of endogenous and exogenous RNS in traps release. We demonstrated that L-NAME halted MET formation upon stimulation with LPS while SNAP alone induced it. The latter phenomenon was further enhanced in the presence of LPS. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that BMDMs obtained from cryopreserved BM cells are capable of forming METs in an RNS-dependent manner.

Cannabidiol alleviates perfluorooctane sulfonate-induced macrophage extracellular trap mediate inflammation and fibrosis in mice liver

As a new type of persistent organic pollutant, perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) has received extensive attention worldwide. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive natural cannabinoid extract that has been proved to have antioxidation, regulation of inflammation and other functions. However, the effects of PFOS on liver injury and whether CBD can alleviate PFOS-induced liver injury are still unclear. Therefore, in this study, we used CBD (10 mg/kg) and/or PFOS (5 mg/kg) to intraperitoneally inject mice for 30 days. We found that PFOS exposure led to inflammatory infiltration in the liver of mice, increased the formation of macrophage extracellular trap (MET), and promoted fibrosis. In vitro, we established a coculture system of RAW264.7, AML12 and LX-2 cells, and treated them with CBD (10 μM) and/or PFOS (200 μM). The results showed that PFOS could also induce the expression of MET, inflammation and fibrosis marker genes in vitro. Coiled-coil domain containing protein 25 (CCD25), as a MET-DNA sensor, was used to investigate its ability to regulate inflammation and fibrosis, we knocked down CCDC25 and its downstream proteins (integrin-linked kinase, ILK) by siRNA technology, and used QNZ to inhibit NF-κB pathway. The results showed that the knockdown of CCDC25 and ILK and the inhibition of NF-κB pathway could inhibit MET-induced inflammation and fibrosis marker gene expression. In summary, we found that PFOS-induced MET can promote inflammation and fibrosis through the CCDC25-ILK-NF-κB signaling axis, while the treatment of CBD showed a protective effect, and it is proved by Macromolecular docking that this protective effect is achieved by combining CBD with peptidylarginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) to alleviate the release of MET. Therefore, regulating the formation of MET and the CCDC25-ILK-NF-κB signaling axis is an innovative treatment option that can effectively reduce hepatotoxicity. Our study reveals the mechanism of PFOS-induced hepatotoxicity and provides promising insights into the protective role of CBD in this process.

Sperm induce macrophage extracellular trap formation via phagocytosis-dependent mechanism

Infertility is a public health concern worldwide. Asthenozoospermia is a common cause of male infertility and is characterized by decreased motility. Sperm motility ensures that sperm migrate to complete fertilization. Macrophages are an essential component of innate immunity in the female reproductive tract. Macrophage extracellular traps are induced by various microorganisms to capture and mediate the clearance of microorganisms. The relationship between sperm and macrophage extracellular traps is unclear. The human monocyte leukemia (THP-1) cells differentiated by phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) are widely used as surrogate of human macrophages. This study investigated sperm-induced macrophage extracellular trap formation and clarified some of the mechanisms affecting macrophage extracellular trap production. Sperm-induced macrophage extracellular traps were visualized and components of macrophage extracellular traps were identified by immunofluorescence analyses and scanning electron microscopy. By inhibiting macrophage extracellular trap production and macrophage phagocytosis, the relationship between macrophage phagocytosis and macrophage extracellular trap production was analyzed. Sperm could trigger PMA-differentiated THP-1 macrophages to produce extracellular traps. Sperm-triggered macrophage extracellular traps are dependent on phagocytosis and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase. Sperm from asthenozoospermia donors are more likely to be phagocytosed by macrophages than sperm from healthy donors, which induce more macrophage extracellular trap release. These data confirm the phenomenon and partial mechanism of sperm-induced macrophage extracellular trap formation in vitro. These may partly provide evidence to explain the mechanisms of clearing abnormally morphological or hypomotile sperm in the female reproductive tract and the rationale for the decreased probability of successful fertilization in asthenozoospermia.

PAD2: A potential target for tumor therapy

Peptide arginine deiminase 2(PAD2) catalyzes the conversion of arginine residues on target proteins to citrulline residues in the presence of calcium ions. This particular posttranslational modification is called citrullination. PAD2 can regulate the transcriptional activity of genes through histone citrullination and nonhistone citrullination. In this review, we summarize the evidence from recent decades and systematically illustrate the role of PAD2-mediated citrullination in tumor pathology and the regulation of tumor-associated immune cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and T cells. Several PAD2-specific inhibitors are also presented to discuss the feasibility of anti-PAD2 therapy to treat tumors and the urgent problems to be solved. Finally, we review some recent developments in the development of PAD2 inhibitors.

An in vitro model for Extracellular DNA Traps (ETs)-rich Human Thrombus Analogs

BACKGROUND

Extracellular DNA traps (ETs) have important implications in both thrombosis and thrombolysis. Thus, developing benchtop thrombus analogs that recapitulate clinical ETs is potentially of great value for preclinical development and testing of thrombolytic agents and thrombectomy devices. In this study, we aimed to develop ETs-rich thrombus analogs for preclinical testing.

METHODS

Red blood cell (RBC)-rich, fibrin-rich, and platelet-rich thrombus analogs were created using human whole blood, platelet-poor plasma, and platelet-rich plasma obtained from the blood bank following institutional approval. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (9.9×106 cells/mL) isolated from human whole blood and lipopolysaccharide (1 µg/mL) were added to induce ETs. Histochemical, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were used to identify thrombus components and ETs. Scanning electronic microscopy was used to investigate the ultrastructure of the thrombus analogs. The thrombus compositions, morphologic features of ETs and citrullinated histone H3 (H3Cit) expression were compared with those of thrombi retrieved from patients by thrombectomy.

RESULTS

ETs-rich thrombus analogs were more compacted th-an the ETs-poor thrombus analogs. ETs were identified in both ETs-rich thrombus analogs and patient thrombi showing morphologic features including nuclear lobulation, nuclear swelling, diffused chromatin within cytoplasm, DNA/chromatin extending intracellularly and extracellularly, and extracellular chromatin patches and bundles. In the ETs-poor thrombus analogs, ETs were not observed and H3Cit expression was absent to minimal. The compositions and H3Cit expression in the ETs-rich thrombus analogs fell in the range of patient thrombi.

CONCLUSIONS

ETs-rich thrombus analogs can be consistently created in vitro and may benefit the preclinical development and testing of new thrombolytic agents and thrombectomy devices.

Validation of circulating histone detection by mass spectrometry for early diagnosis, prognosis, and management of critically ill septic patients

BACKGROUND

As leading contributors to worldwide morbidity and mortality, sepsis and septic shock are considered a major global health concern. Proactive biomarker identification in patients with sepsis suspicion at any time remains a daunting challenge for hospitals. Despite great progress in the understanding of clinical and molecular aspects of sepsis, its definition, diagnosis, and treatment remain challenging, highlighting a need for new biomarkers with potential to improve critically ill patient management. In this study we validate a quantitative mass spectrometry method to measure circulating histone levels in plasma samples for the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis and septic shock patients.

METHODS

We used the mass spectrometry technique of multiple reaction monitoring to quantify circulating histones H2B and H3 in plasma from a monocenter cohort of critically ill patients admitted to an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and evaluated its performance for the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis and septic shock (SS).

RESULTS

Our results highlight the potential of our test for early diagnosis of sepsis and SS. H2B levels above 121.40 ng/mL (IQR 446.70) were indicative of SS. The value of blood circulating histones to identify a subset of SS patients in a more severe stage with associated organ failure was also tested, revealing circulating levels of histones H2B above 435.61 ng/ml (IQR 2407.10) and H3 above 300.61 ng/ml (IQR 912.77) in septic shock patients with organ failure requiring invasive organ support therapies. Importantly, we found levels of H2B and H3 above 400.44 ng/mL (IQR 1335.54) and 258.25 (IQR 470.44), respectively in those patients who debut with disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Finally, a receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve) demonstrated the prognostic value of circulating histone H3 to predict fatal outcomes and found for histone H3 an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.720 (CI 0.546-0.895) p < 0.016 on a positive test cut-off point at 486.84 ng/mL, showing a sensitivity of 66.7% and specificity of 73.9%.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating histones analyzed by MS can be used to diagnose SS and identify patients at high risk of suffering DIC and fatal outcome.

Macrophages in immunoregulation and therapeutics

Macrophages exist in various tissues, several body cavities, and around mucosal surfaces and are a vital part of the innate immune system for host defense against many pathogens and cancers. Macrophages possess binary M1/M2 macrophage polarization settings, which perform a central role in an array of immune tasks via intrinsic signal cascades and, therefore, must be precisely regulated. Many crucial questions about macrophage signaling and immune modulation are yet to be uncovered. In addition, the clinical importance of tumor-associated macrophages is becoming more widely recognized as significant progress has been made in understanding their biology. Moreover, they are an integral part of the tumor microenvironment, playing a part in the regulation of a wide variety of processes including angiogenesis, extracellular matrix transformation, cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, immunosuppression, and resistance to chemotherapeutic and checkpoint blockade immunotherapies. Herein, we discuss immune regulation in macrophage polarization and signaling, mechanical stresses and modulation, metabolic signaling pathways, mitochondrial and transcriptional, and epigenetic regulation. Furthermore, we have broadly extended the understanding of macrophages in extracellular traps and the essential roles of autophagy and aging in regulating macrophage functions. Moreover, we discussed recent advances in macrophages-mediated immune regulation of autoimmune diseases and tumorigenesis. Lastly, we discussed targeted macrophage therapy to portray prospective targets for therapeutic strategies in health and diseases.

1,4-Naphthoquinone-Coated Black Carbon, a Kind of Atmospheric Fine Particulate Matter, Affects Macrophage Fate: New Insights into Crosstalk between Necroptosis and Macrophage Extracellular Traps

1,4-Naphthoquinone-coated BC (1,4 NQ-BC) is an important component of PM_2.5 and a representative secondary particle. However, there is no research on the crosstalk mechanism between necroptosis and macrophage extracellular traps (METs) after 1,4 NQ-BC exposure. In this study, we treated RAW264.7 cells with 50, 100, and 200 mg/L 1,4 NQ-BC for 24 h, with 10 μM necrostatin-1 for 24 h, and with 2.5 μM phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) for 3 h. Our experiment revealed that under normal physiological conditions, when macrophages receive external stimuli (such as pathogens; in this experiment, PMA), they will form METs and capture and kill pathogens, thus exerting innate immune function. However, exposure to 1,4 NQ-BC can cause necroptosis in macrophages, accompanied by increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytosolic calcium ions, as well as the expression disorder of inflammatory factors and chemokines, prevent the formation of METs, lead to loss of the function of capturing and killing pathogens, and weaken the innate immune function. Notably, inhibition of necroptosis restored the formation of METs, indicating that necroptosis inhibited the formation of METs. Our study was the first to explore the crosstalk mechanism between necroptosis and METs. This experiment will enrich the mechanism of macrophage injury caused by 1,4 NQ-BC exposure.

New insight into the composition of extracellular traps released by macrophages exposed to different types of inducers

Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) release plays a key role in many chronic disease settings, including atherosclerosis. They are critical to innate immune defence, but also contribute to disease by promoting thrombosis and inflammation. Macrophages are known to release extracellular traps or "METs", but their composition and role in pathological processes are less well defined. In this study, we examined MET release from human THP-1 macrophages exposed to model inflammatory and pathogenic stimuli, including tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα), hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and nigericin. In each case, there was release of DNA from the macrophages, as visualized by fluorescence microscopy with the cell impermeable DNA binding dye SYTOX green, consistent with MET formation. Proteomic analysis on METs released from macrophages exposed to TNFα and nigericin reveals that they are composed of linker and core histones, together with a range of cytosolic and mitochondrial proteins. These include proteins involved in DNA binding, stress responses, cytoskeletal organisation, metabolism, inflammation, anti-microbial activity, and calcium binding. Quinone oxidoreductase in particular, was highly abundant in all METs but has not been reported previously in NETs. Moreover, there was an absence of proteases in METs in contrast to NETs. Some of the MET histones, contained post-translational modifications, including acetylation and methylation of Lys but not citrullination of Arg. These data provide new insight into the potential implications of MET formation in vivo and their contributions to immune defence and pathology.

Extracellular traps formation following cervical spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injuries involve a primary injury that can lead to permanent loss of function and a secondary injury associated with pathologic and inflammatory processes. Extracellular traps are extracellular structures expressed by immune cells that are primarily composed of chromatin, granular enzymes and histones. Extracellular traps are known to induce tissue damage when overexpressed and could be associated in the occurrence of secondary damage. In the present study, we used flow cytometry to demonstrate that at 1 day following a C2 spinal cord lateral hemisection in male Swiss mice, resident microglia form vital microglia extracellular traps, and infiltrating neutrophils form vital neutrophil extracellular traps. We also used immunolabelling to show that microglia near the lesion area are most likely to form these microglia extracellular traps. As expected, infiltrating neutrophils are located at the site of injury, though only some of them engage in post-injury extracellular trap formation. We also observed the formation of microglia and neutrophil extracellular traps in our sham animal models of durotomy, but formation was less frequent than following the C2 hemisection. Our results demonstrate for the first time that microglia form extracellular traps in the spinal cord following injury and durotomy. It remains however to determine the exact mechanisms and kinetics of neutrophil and microglia extracellular traps formation following spinal cord injury. This information would allow to better mitigate this inflammatory process that may contribute to secondary injury and to effectively target extracellular traps to improve functional outcomes following spinal cord injury.

IFI204 protects host defense against Staphylococcus aureus-induced pneumonia by promoting extracellular traps formation

Interferon-inducible protein 204 (IFI204) is an intracellular DNA receptor that can recognize DNA viruses and intracellular bacteria. Extracellular traps (ETs) have been recognized as an indispensable antimicrobial barrier that play an indispensable role in bacterial, fungal, parasitic, and viral infections. However, how ETs form and the mechanisms by which IFI204 function in Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia are still unclear. Moreover, by in vitro experiments, we proved that IFI204 deficiency decreases the formation of ETs induced by Staphylococcus aureus in a NOX-independent manner. More importantly, Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) treatment significantly inhibited the formation of ETs. IFI204 contributed to ETs formation by promoting citrullination of histone H3 and the expression of PAD4 (peptidylarginine deiminase 4). Altogether, these findings highlight the potential importance of IFI204 for host defense against S. aureus USA300-TCH1516 infection.

No NETs no TIME: Crosstalk between neutrophil extracellular traps and the tumor immune microenvironment

The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) controls tumorigenesis. Neutrophils are important components of TIME and control tumor progression and therapy resistance. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) ejected by activated neutrophils are net-like structures composed of decondensed extracellular chromatin filaments decorated with a plethora of granules as well as cytoplasmic proteins. Many of these harbour post translational modifications. Cancer cells reportedly trigger NET formation, and conversely, NETs alter the TIME and promote tumor cell proliferation and migration. The specific interactions between NETs and TIME and the respective effects on tumor progression are still elusive. In certain tumors, a CD4+ T helper (Th) 2 cell-associated TIME induces NETs and exerts immunosuppressive functions via programmed death 1 (PD-1)/PD-L1, both associated with poorer prognosis. In other cases, NETs induce the proliferation of Th1 cells, associated with an improved prognosis in cancer. In addition, NETs can drive macrophage polarization and often rely on macrophages to promote cancer cell invasion and metastasis. In turn, macrophages can swiftly clear NETs in an immunologically silent manner. The aim of this review is to summarize the knowledge about the mutual interaction between NETs and TIME and its impact on tumor growth and therapy.

Interleukin-33 Induces Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) Formation and Macrophage Necroptosis via Enhancing Oxidative Stress and Secretion of Proatherogenic Factors in Advanced Atherosclerosis

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) acts as an 'alarmin', and its role has been demonstrated in driving immune regulation and inflammation in many human diseases. However, the precise mechanism of action of IL-33 in regulating neutrophil and macrophage functioning is not defined in advanced atherosclerosis (aAT) patients. Further, the role of IL-33 in neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation in aAT and its consequent effect on macrophage function is not known. In the present study, we recruited n = 52 aAT patients and n = 52 control subjects. The neutrophils were isolated from both groups via ficoll/percoll-based density gradient centrifugation. The effect of IL-33 on the NET formation ability of the neutrophils was determined in both groups. Monocytes, isolated via a positive selection method, were used to differentiate them into macrophages from each of the study subjects and were challenged by IL-33-primed NETs, followed by the measurement of oxidative stress by calorimetric assay and the expression of the proinflammatory molecules by quantitative PCR (qPCR). Transcript and protein expression was determined by qPCR and immunofluorescence/ELISA, respectively. The increased expression of IL-33R (ST-2) was observed in the neutrophils, along with an increased serum concentration of IL-33 in aAT compared to the controls. IL-33 exacerbates NET formation via specifically upregulating CD16 expression in aAT. IL-33-primed NETs/neutrophils increased the cellular oxidative stress levels in the macrophages, leading to enhanced macrophage necroptosis and the release of atherogenic factors and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in aAT compared to the controls. These findings suggested a pathogenic effect of the IL-33/ST-2 pathway in aAT patients by exacerbating NET formation and macrophage necroptosis, thereby facilitating the release of inflammatory factors and the release of MMPs that may be critical for the destabilization/rupture of atherosclerotic plaques in aAT. Targeting the IL-33/ST-2-NETs axis may be a promising therapeutic target for preventing plaque instability/rupture and its adverse complications in aAT.

Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic target of NETosis in diseases

Evidence shows that neutrophils can protect the host against pathogens in multiple ways, including the formation and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs are web-like structures composed of fibers, DNA, histones, and various neutrophil granule proteins. NETs can capture and kill pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. The process of NET formation is called NETosis. According to whether they depend on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), NETosis can be divided into two categories: "suicidal" NETosis and "vital" NETosis. However, NET components, including neutrophil elastase, myeloperoxidase, and cell-free DNA, cause a proinflammatory response and potentially severe diseases. Compelling evidence indicates a link between NETs and the pathogenesis of a number of diseases, including sepsis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, small-vessel vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease, cancer, COVID-19, and others. Therefore, targeting the process and products of NETosis is critical for treating diseases linked with NETosis. Researchers have discovered that several NET inhibitors, such as toll-like receptor inhibitors and reactive oxygen species scavengers, can prevent uncontrolled NET development. This review summarizes the mechanism of NETosis, the receptors associated with NETosis, the pathology of NETosis-induced diseases, and NETosis-targeted therapy.

Morphologic Analysis of M2 Macrophage in Glioblastoma: Involvement of Macrophage Extracellular Traps (METs)

Macrophages are classified into two phenotypes, M1 and M2, based on their roles. M2 macrophages suppress inflammation and increase in proportion to the malignancy of brain tumors. Recently, macrophage extracellular traps (METs), which change into a network, have been reported as a unique form of macrophage cell death. In this study, immunohistochemical analysis of macrophages in METs in human glioblastoma was performed. To distinguish between M1 and M2 macrophages, multiple immunostainings with Iba1 combined with CD163 or CD204 were performed. M2 macrophages were present in small amounts in normal and borderline areas but showed an increasing trend as they shifted to tumor areas, and most of them were the activated- or phagocytic-type. We also successfully detected METs coexisting with fibrin and lactoferrin near the border between the tumor and necrotic area. M2 macrophages not only suppressed inflammation but also were involved in the formation of METs. This study found that M2 macrophages play various roles in unstable situations.

Extracellular traps and the role in thrombosis

Thrombotic complications pose serious health risks worldwide. A significant change in our understanding of the pathophysiology of thrombosis has occurred since the discovery of extracellular traps (ETs) and their prothrombotic properties. As a result of immune cells decondensing chromatin into extracellular fibers, ETs promote thrombus formation by acting as a scaffold that activates platelets and coagulates them. The involvement of ETs in thrombosis has been reported in various thrombotic conditions including deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary emboli, acute myocardial infarction, aucte ischemic stroke, and abdominal aortic aneurysms. This review summarizes the existing evidence of ETs in human and animal model thrombi. The authors described studies showing the existence of ETs in venous or arterial thrombi. In addition, we studied potential novel therapeutic opportunities related to the resolution or prevention of thrombosis by targeting ETs.

Chromatin-Associated Molecular Patterns (CAMPs) in sepsis

Several molecular patterns have been identified that recognize pattern recognition receptors. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are commonly used terminologies to classify molecules originating from pathogen and endogenous molecules, respectively, to heighten the immune response in sepsis. Herein, we focus on a subgroup of endogenous molecules that may be detected as foreign and similarly trigger immune signaling pathways. These chromatin-associated molecules, i.e., chromatin containing nuclear DNA and histones, extracellular RNA, mitochondrial DNA, telomeric repeat-containing RNA, DNA- or RNA-binding proteins, and extracellular traps, may be newly classified as chromatin-associated molecular patterns (CAMPs). Herein, we review the release of CAMPs from cells, their mechanism of action and downstream immune signaling pathways, and targeted therapeutic approaches to mitigate inflammation and tissue injury in inflammation and sepsis.

Extracellular DNA Traps: Origin, Function and Implications for Anti-Cancer Therapies

Extracellular DNA may serve as marker in liquid biopsies to determine individual diagnosis and prognosis in cancer patients. Cell death or active release from various cell types, including immune cells can result in the release of DNA into the extracellular milieu. Neutrophils are important components of the innate immune system, controlling pathogens through phagocytosis and/or the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs also promote tumor progression and metastasis, by modulating angiogenesis, anti-tumor immunity, blood clotting and inflammation and providing a supportive niche for metastasizing cancer cells. Besides neutrophils, other immune cells such as eosinophils, dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, mast cells, basophils and lymphocytes can also form extracellular traps (ETs) during cancer progression, indicating possible multiple origins of extracellular DNA in cancer. In this review, we summarize the pathomechanisms of ET formation generated by different cell types, and analyze these processes in the context of cancer. We also critically discuss potential ET-inhibiting agents, which may open new therapeutic strategies for cancer prevention and treatment.

The Role of the Oral Immune System in Oropharyngeal Candidiasis-Facilitated Invasion and Dissemination of Staphylococcus aureus

Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus account for most invasive fungal and bacterial bloodstream infections (BSIs), respectively. However, the initial point of invasion responsible for S. aureus BSIs is often unclear. Recently, C. albicans has been proposed to mediate S. aureus invasion of immunocompromised hosts during co-colonization of oral mucosal surfaces. The status of the oral immune system crucially contributes to this process in two distinct ways: firstly, by allowing invasive C. albicans growth during dysfunction of extra-epithelial immunity, and secondly following invasion by some remaining function of intra-epithelial immunity. Immunocompromised individuals at risk of developing invasive oral C. albicans infections could, therefore, also be at risk of contracting concordant S. aureus BSIs. Considering the crucial contribution of both oral immune function and dysfunction, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of relevant aspects of intra and extra-epithelial oral immunity and discuss predominant immune deficiencies expected to facilitate C. albicans induced S. aureus BSIs.

The Expanding Role of Extracellular Traps in Inflammation and Autoimmunity: The New Players in Casting Dark Webs

The first description of a new form of neutrophil cell death distinct from that of apoptosis or necrosis was discovered in 2004 and coined neutrophil extracellular traps "(NETs)" or "NETosis". Different stimuli for NET formation, and pathways that drive neutrophils to commit to NETosis have been elucidated in the years that followed. Critical enzymes required for NET formation have been discovered and targeted therapeutically. NET formation is no longer restricted to neutrophils but has been discovered in other innate cells: macrophages/monocytes, mast Cells, basophils, dendritic cells, and eosinophils. Furthermore, extracellular DNA can also be extruded from both B and T cells. It has become clear that although this mechanism is thought to enhance host defense by ensnaring bacteria within large webs of DNA to increase bactericidal killing capacity, it is also injurious to innocent bystander tissue. Proteases and enzymes released from extracellular traps (ETs), injure epithelial and endothelial cells perpetuating inflammation. In the context of autoimmunity, ETs release over 70 well-known autoantigens. ETs are associated with pathology in multiple diseases: lung diseases, vasculitis, autoimmune kidney diseases, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and psoriasis. Defining these pathways that drive ET release will provide insight into mechanisms of pathological insult and provide potential therapeutic targets.

Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) Promotes Staphylococcus aureus-Induced Extracellular Traps Formation via the ROS-ERK Signaling Pathway

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a cytosolic DNA sensor or directly recognizes bacterial cyclic dinucleotides, which is required for the detection of microbial infection. Extracellular traps (ETs) are known to be part of the antimicrobial defense system. However, the implication of STING in ETs formation during microbial infection remains unknown. Here, we showed that STING contributed to Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)-induced ETs formation through the ROS-ERK signaling. STING deficiency exhibited decreased cell-free DNA (cfDNA) level, reduced expression of citrullinated histone H3 (CitH3), and diminished DNA colocalization with CitH3 and myeloperoxidase (MPO). Interestingly, NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) promoted ETs formation, accompanied by increased activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) in S. aureus-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Corresponding to less ROS production, decreased ERK1/2 activation was shown in STING^-/- BMDMs after S. aureus infection. Importantly, inhibiting the ROS-ERK signal reduced the ETs formation and the differences disappeared between WT and STING^-/- BMDMs after S. aureus infection. Moreover, STING^-/- BMDMs exhibited significantly increased levels of extracellular bacteria compared to WT BMDMs regardless of phagocytosis. In addition, such differences disappeared after DNase I treatment. DNase I treatment also facilitated pathogen colonization without affecting the inflammatory cells infiltration and pro-inflammatory factors secretion following pulmonary S. aureus infection. Furthermore, STING^-/- mice presented decreased levels of cfDNA and CitH3, along with increased bacterial colonization compared to WT mice. Altogether, these findings highlighted that STING promoted ETs formation via the ROS-ERK signal for host defense against S. aureus infection.

Role of macrophage extracellular traps in innate immunity and inflammatory disease

Macrophages play an integral role in initiating innate immune defences and regulating inflammation. They are also involved in maintaining homeostasis and the resolution of inflammation, by promoting tissue repair and wound healing. There is evidence that like neutrophils, macrophages can release extracellular traps following exposure to a range of pathogenic and pro-inflammatory stimuli. Extracellular traps are released by a specialised cell death pathway termed 'ETosis', and consist of a backbone of DNA and histones decorated with a range of other proteins. The composition of extracellular trap proteins can be influenced by both the cell type and the local environment in which the traps are released. In many cases, these proteins have an antimicrobial role and assist with pathogen killing. Therefore, the release of extracellular traps serves as a means to both immobilise and destroy invading pathogens. In addition to their protective role, extracellular traps are also implicated in disease pathology. The release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is causally linked to the development of wide range of human diseases. However, whether macrophage extracellular traps (METs) play a similar role in disease pathology is less well established. Moreover, macrophages are also involved in the clearance of extracellular traps, which could assist in the resolution of tissue damage associated with the presence of extracellular traps. In this review, we will provide an overview of the pathways responsible for macrophage extracellular trap release, and discuss the role of these structures in innate immunity and disease pathology and possible therapeutic strategies.

Role of Extracellular Trap Release During Bacterial and Viral Infection

Neutrophils are innate immune cells that play an essential role during the clearance of pathogens that can release chromatin structures coated by several cytoplasmatic and granular antibacterial proteins, called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). These supra-molecular structures are produced to kill or immobilize several types of microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses. The contribution of the NET release process (or NETosis) to acute inflammation or the prevention of pathogen spreading depends on the specific microorganism involved in triggering this response. Furthermore, studies highlight the role of innate cells different from neutrophils in triggering the release of extracellular traps during bacterial infection. This review summarizes the contribution of NETs during bacterial and viral infections, explaining the molecular mechanisms involved in their formation and the relationship with different components of such pathogens.

Ex Vivo and In Vitro Analysis Identify a Detrimental Impact of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps on Eye Structures in Equine Recurrent Uveitis

Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is a common ocular disease of horses and described as a model for human autoimmune uveitis. This immune-mediated, inflammatory condition progressively destroys the eye, ultimately leading to blindness. Genetic and autoimmune factors, next to infections with Leptospira, are discussed as key factors in the pathogenesis. Furthermore, a release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) by activated neutrophils is involved. NETs are composed of decondensed chromatin and proteins that can immobilize invading pathogens. However, if NETs accumulate, they can contribute to detrimental autoimmune processes. Thus, we aimed to investigate the impact of NETs in ERU patients. Therefore, we quantified several NET-markers (cell-free DNA, nucleosomes, citrullinated histone H3, histone-myeloperoxidase complexes, interleukin-17, equine cathelicidin 1 and DNase I activity) and NET-autoantibodies in sera and vitreous body fluids (VBF) of ERU-diseased horses and correlated the data with the disease status (signalment, ERU scores and Leptospira infection status). NET markers were detected to varying degrees in VBF of diseased horses, and partially correlated to disease severity and the presence of Leptospira spp. Cell-free DNA and nucleosomes as NET markers correlate with ERU severity in total and VBF scores, despite the presence of active DNases. Additionally, a significant correlation between fundus affection in the eye and NET autoantibodies was detectable. Therefore, we further investigated the influence of VBF samples from equine patients and isolated NETs on the blood-retina barrier in a cell culture model. VBF of diseased horses significantly induced cytotoxicity in retinal pigment epithelial cells. Moreover, partially digested NETs also resulted in cytotoxic effects. In the presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the main component of the leptospiral surface, both undigested and completely digested NETs were cytotoxic. Correlations between the ERU-scores and Leptospira were also calculated. Detection of leptospiral DNA, and antibody titers of the serovar Grippotyphosa correlated with disease severity. In addition, a correlation between Leptospira and several NET markers was observed in VBF. Altogether, our findings suggest a positive correlation between NET markers with disease severity and involvement of Leptospira in the VBF of ERU-diseased horses, as well as a cytotoxic effect of NETs in eyes.

Flow cytometric analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid immune dynamics in calves

Understanding the immune dynamics in the respiratory mucosa of calves is necessary for a good management of bovine respiratory disease. Immune dynamics in the respiratory mucosa in humans and experimental animals has been assessed by flow cytometric analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF); however, few reports have addressed this subject in calves. The aim of this study was to establish a universal method to analyze bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) by flow cytometry and to obtain basic knowledge of bovine respiratory mucosal immune dynamics. We investigated the immune cell populations in BALF and evaluated the surface antigen expression of alveolar macrophages in calves using flow cytometer. To further analyze the surface antigen variation observed in alveolar macrophages in detail, stimulation assays were performed in vitro. BALF cells were separated into three distinct populations based on their light scatter plot, which were considered to be macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils. In most individuals, most of the BALF immune cells were alveolar macrophages, but an increased proportion of lymphocytes and neutrophils was observed in some individuals. Analysis of each surface antigen expression in alveolar macrophages showed that CD21 and MHC class II expression changed in response to changes in the leukocyte population. Moreover, when alveolar macrophages were stimulated with interferon-γ in vitro, the expression of CD21 was drastically reduced and MHC class II was increased, suggesting that functional changes in alveolar macrophages themselves are involved in the immune dynamics.

Extracellular CIRP Induces Macrophage Extracellular Trap Formation Via Gasdermin D Activation

Extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (eCIRP) is a damage-associated molecular pattern promoting inflammation and tissue injury. During bacterial or viral infection, macrophages release DNA decorated with nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins known as macrophage extracellular traps (METs). Gasdermin D (GSDMD) is a pore-forming protein that has been involved in extracellular trap formation in neutrophils. We hypothesized that eCIRP induces MET formation by activating GSDMD. Human monocytic cell line THP-1 cells were differentiated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and treated with recombinant murine (rm) CIRP. The MET formation was detected by three methods: time-lapse fluorescence microscopy (video imaging), colorimetry, and ELISA. Cleaved forms of GSDMD, and caspase-1 were detected by Western blotting. Treatment of THP-1 cells with rmCIRP increased MET formation as revealed by SYTOX Orange Staining assay in a time- and dose-dependent manner. METs formed by rmCIRP stimulation were further confirmed by extracellular DNA, citrullinated histone H3, and myeloperoxidase. Treatment of THP-1 cells with rmCIRP significantly increased the cleaved forms of caspase-1 and GSDMD compared to PBS-treated cells. Treatment of macrophages with caspase-1, and GSDMD inhibitors z-VAD-fmk, and disulfiram, separately, significantly decreased rmCIRP-induced MET formation. We also confirmed rmCIRP-induced MET formation using primary cells murine peritoneal macrophages. These data clearly show that eCIRP serves as a novel inducer of MET formation through the activation of GSDMD and caspase-1.

Can Lactobacillus spp. Be a Factor Reducing the Risk of Miscarriage?

Pregnancy loss is a common obstetric problem. Significant causes of miscarriage include genetic and epigenetic disorders of the embryo, immunological and endocrine factors, uterine malformations, improper embryo selection, and lifestyle. Perhaps a hitherto underappreciated cause of miscarriage may be an abnormal microbiota composition of the female reproductive system. Lactobacillus spp. is the most common bacteria within the reproductive tract. However, the protective role of Lactobacilli in the vagina has been well described in the literature, while it is still unknown what function Lactobacilli may have in the uterus. Moreover, new research shows that Lactobacillus spp. can have a role in miscarriage. However, both molecular and immunological mechanisms of host-Lactobacillus spp. interactions are not fully understood. Understanding these relationships will help address the importance and extent of the protective role of Lactobacillus spp. in miscarriage.

Peptidylarginine Deiminase 2 in Host Immunity: Current Insights and Perspectives

Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze post-translational modifications of proteins by converting arginine residues into citrullines. Among the five members of the PAD family, PAD2 and PAD4 are the most frequently studied because of their abundant expression in immune cells. An increasing number of studies have identified PAD2 as an essential factor in the pathogenesis of many diseases. The successes of preclinical research targeting PAD2 highlights the therapeutic potential of PAD2 inhibition, particularly in sepsis and autoimmune diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms by which PAD2 mediates host immunity remain largely unknown. In this review, we will discuss the role of PAD2 in different types of cell death signaling pathways and the related immune disorders contrasted with functions of PAD4, providing novel therapeutic strategies for PAD2-associated pathology.

Glycolysis and Reactive Oxygen Species Production Participate in T-2 Toxin-Stimulated Chicken Heterophil Extracellular Traps

T-2 toxin (T-2) is a kind of trichothecene toxin produced from Fusarium fungi, which is an environmental pollutant that endangers poultry and human health. Heterophil extracellular traps (HETs) are not only a form of chicken immune defense against pathogen infection but also involved in pathophysiological mechanisms of several diseases. However, the immunotoxicity of T-2 on HET formation in vitro has not yet been reported. In this study, heterophils were exposed to T-2 at doses of 20, 40, and 80 ng/mL for 90 min. Observation of the structure of HETs by immunofluorescence staining and the mechanism of HET formation was analyzed by inhibitors and PicoGreen. These results showed that T-2-triggered HET formation consisted of DNA, elastase, and citH3. Furthermore, T-2 increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and the formation of T-2-triggered HETs was also decreased by the inhibitors of glycolysis, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)_1/2 signaling pathways, suggesting that T-2-induced HETs are associated with glycolysis, ROS production, ERK_1/2 and p38 signaling pathways, and NADPH oxidase. Taken together, this study elucidates the mechanism of T-2-triggered HET formation, and it may provide new insight into understanding the immunotoxicity of T-2 to early innate immunity in chickens.

Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis, Probiotics That Induce the Formation of Macrophage Extracellular Traps

Probiotics are considered living microorganisms that help preserve the health of the host who uses them. Bacillus are a genus of Gram-positive bacteria used as probiotics for animal and human consumption. They are currently distributed in various commercial forms. Two of the species used as probiotics are B. licheniformis and B. subtilis. Macrophages are central cells in the immune response, being fundamental in the elimination of microbial pathogens, for which they use various mechanisms, including the formation of extracellular traps (METs). There have been very few studies carried out on the participation of macrophages in response to the interaction of probiotics of the genus Bacillus with the host. In this work, we used macrophages from the J774A mouse cell line.1, and we found that they are susceptible to infection by the two Bacillus species. However, both species were eliminated as the infection progressed. Using confocal microscopy, we identified the formation of METs from the first hours of infection, which were characterized by the presence of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and citrullinated histone (Hit3Cit). Quantitative data on extracellular DNA release were also obtained; release was observed starting in the first hour of infection. The induction of METs by B. licheniformis caused a significant decrease in the colony-forming units (CFU) of Staphylococcus aureus. The induction of METS by bacteria of the Bacillus genus is a mechanism that participates in controlling the probiotic and potentially pathogenic bacteria such as S. aureus. The induction of METs to control pathogens may be a novel mechanism that could explain the beneficial effects of probiotics of the genus Bacillus.

Bacterial RTX toxins and host immunity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

RTX toxin action often defines the outcome of bacterial infections. Here, we discuss the progress in understanding the impacts of RTX toxin activities on host immunity.

RECENT FINDINGS

Bordetella pertussis CyaA activity paralyzes sentinel phagocytic cells by elevating cellular cAMP levels and blocks differentiation of infiltrating monocytes into bactericidal macrophages, promoting also de-differentiation of resident alveolar macrophages into monocyte-like cells. Vibrio cholerae multifunctional autoprocessing repeats-in-toxins (MARTX), through Rho inactivating and α/β-hydrolase (ABH) domain action blocks mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in epithelial cells and dampens the inflammatory responses of intestinal epithelia by blocking immune cell recruitment. The action of actin crosslinking effector domain and Ras/Rap1-specific endopeptidase (RRSP) domains of MARTX compromises the phagocytic ability of macrophages. Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans LtxA action triggers neutrophil elastase release into periodontal tissue, compromising the epithelial barrier and promoting bacterial spreads into deeper tissue.

SUMMARY

Action of RTX toxins enables bacterial pathogens to cope with the fierce host immune defenses. RTX toxins often block phagocytosis and bactericidal reactive oxygen species and NO production. Some RTX toxins can reprogram the macrophages to less bactericidal cell types. Autophagy is hijacked for example by the activity of the V. cholerae ABH effector domain of the MARTX protein. Subversion of immune functions by RTX toxins thus promotes bacterial survival and proliferation in the host.

A Review of the Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) from Cow, Sheep and Goat Models

This review provides insight into the importance of understanding NETosis in cows, sheep, and goats in light of the importance to their health, welfare and use as animal models. Neutrophils are essential to innate immunity, pathogen infection, and inflammatory diseases. The relevance of NETosis as a conserved innate immune response mechanism and the translational implications for public health are presented. Increased understanding of NETosis in ruminants will contribute to the prediction of pathologies and design of strategic interventions targeting NETs. This will help to control pathogens such as coronaviruses and inflammatory diseases such as mastitis that impact all mammals, including humans. Definition of unique attributes of NETosis in ruminants, in comparison to what has been observed in humans, has significant translational implications for one health and global food security, and thus warrants further study.

Neutrophil extracellular traps in cattle health and disease

Neutrophils largely contribute to the first line of defense against the invasion of pathogens. They kill pathogens basically by the following mechanisms: phagocytosis and proteolytic degradation, the release of enzymes with bactericidal activities, and the production of fibers to entrap pathogens, also known as neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs capture pathogens as a mechanism of immune protection and have been studied in-depth in various fields of human medicine. However, research about NETs in cattle is relatively scarce. The present article reviews the generation mechanisms, structural composition, signal pathways, advantages (and disadvantages) of NETs, and summarizes the latest findings of NETs in cattle health and disease.

Macrophage extracellular traps aggravate iron overload-related liver ischaemia/reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Macrophages regulate iron homeostasis in the liver and play important role in hepatic ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. This study investigates the role of macrophages in iron overload-related hepatocyte damage during liver I/R.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Liver biopsies from patients undergoing partial hepatectomy with or without hepatic portal occlusion were recruited and markers of hepatocyte cell death and macrophage extracellular traps (METs) were detected. A murine hepatic I/R model was also established in high-iron diet-fed mice. Ferrostatin-1 and deferoxamine were administered to investigate the role of ferroptosis in hepatic I/R injury. The macrophage inhibitor liposome-encapsulated clodronate was used to investigate the interaction between macrophages and ferroptosis. AML12 hepatocytes and RAW264.7 macrophages were co-cultured in vitro. An inhibitor of macrophage extracellular traps was used to evaluate the role and mechanism of these traps and ferroptosis in hepatic I/R injury.

KEY RESULTS

Hepatocyte macrophage extracellular trap formation and ferroptosis were greater in patients who underwent hepatectomy with hepatic portal occlusion and in mice subjected to hepatic I/R. Macrophage extracellular traps increased when macrophages were subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation and when they were co-cultured with hepatocytes. Ferroptosis increased and post-hypoxic hepatocyte survival decreased, which were reversed by inhibition of macrophage extracellular traps. Ferroptosis inhibition attenuated post-ischaemic liver damage. Moreover, iron overload induced hepatic ferroptosis and exacerbated post-ischaemic liver damage, which were reversed by the iron chelator.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Macrophage extracellular traps are in volved in regulating ferroptosis highlighting the therapeutic potential of macrophage extracellular traps and ferroptosis inhibition in reducing liver I/R injury.

Hydrogen sulfide of air induces macrophage extracellular traps to aggravate inflammatory injury via the regulation of miR-15b-5p on MAPK and insulin signals in trachea of chickens

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is an environmental contaminant to cause the airway damage. The release of macrophage extracellular traps (METs) is the mechanism of immune protection to harmful stimulation via microRNAs, but excessive METs cause the injury. However, few studies have attempted to interpret the mechanism of an organism injury due to H₂S via METs in chickens. Here, we investigated the transcriptome profiles, pathological morphologic changes and METs release from chicken trachea after H₂S exposure. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed that 10 differentially expressed genes were related to the METs release, the MAPK and insulin signaling pathways. Morphological and immunofluorescence analysis showed that H₂S caused airway injury and MET release. H₂S activated the targeting effect of miRNA-15b-5p on activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2). Western blotting and real time quantitative PCR results showed that H₂S down-regulated the levels of dual specificity protein phosophatase1 (DUSP1) but up-regulated p38 MAP Kinase (p38) in the MAPK signal pathway. And the expression of phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1), serine/threonine kinase (Akt), and protein kinase ζ subtypes (PKCζ) in the insulin signal pathway were increased after H₂S exposure. These promoted the release of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and degradation histone 4 (H4) to induce the release of METs. Taken together, miR-15b-5p targeted ATF2 to mediate METs release, which triggered trachea inflammatory injury via MAPK and insulin signals after H₂S exposure. These results will provide new insights into the toxicological mechanisms of H₂S and environmental ecotoxicology.

Microglia extracellular traps in Oreochromis niloticus infected with Weissella cibaria

The mechanism of extracellular traps (ETs) is important in the cellular response against bacteria. Thus, in the present study, we describe for the first time the capacity of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) microglia in the formation of ETs in Weissella cibaria in vitro infection. Thus, we evaluated the ultrastructure of the microglia culture and observed the formation of ETs 6 h after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and during the course of infection. Our results shed light on the mechanism of formation of ETs in the microglia of teleost fish and the ability of W. cibaria to infect these cells.

Significance of Mast Cell Formed Extracellular Traps in Microbial Defense

Mast cells (MCs) are critically involved in microbial defense by releasing antimicrobial peptides (such as cathelicidin LL-37 and defensins) and phagocytosis of microbes. In past years, it has become evident that in addition MCs may eliminate invading pathogens by ejection of web-like structures of DNA strands embedded with proteins known together as extracellular traps (ETs). Upon stimulation of resting MCs with various microorganisms, their products (including superantigens and toxins), or synthetic chemicals, MCs become activated and enter into a multistage process that includes disintegration of the nuclear membrane, release of chromatin into the cytoplasm, adhesion of cytoplasmic granules on the emerging DNA web, and ejection of the complex into the extracellular space. This so-called ETosis is often associated with cell death of the producing MC, and the type of stimulus potentially determines the ratio of surviving vs. killed MCs. Comparison of different microorganisms with specific elimination characteristics such as S pyogenes (eliminated by MCs only through extracellular mechanisms), S aureus (removed by phagocytosis), fungi, and parasites has revealed important aspects of MC extracellular trap (MCET) biology. Molecular studies identified that the formation of MCET depends on NADPH oxidase-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this review, we summarize the present state-of-the-art on the biological relevance of MCETosis, and its underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms. We also provide an overview over the techniques used to study the structure and function of MCETs, including electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy using specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to detect MCET-associated proteins such as tryptase and histones, and cell-impermeant DNA dyes for labeling of extracellular DNA. Comparing the type and biofunction of further MCET decorating proteins with ETs produced by other immune cells may help provide a better insight into MCET biology in the pathogenesis of autoimmune and inflammatory disorders as well as microbial defense.