Characterization of Brucella abortus O-polysaccharide and core lipopolysaccharide mutants and demonstration that a complete core is required for rough vaccines to be efficient against Brucella abortus and Brucella ovis in the mouse model

Rev1Δwzm vaccine candidate is safe in young and adult sheep and protects against Brucella ovis infection in rams

Small ruminants affected by brucellosis, caused mainly by Brucella melitensis and B. ovis, suffer reproductive disorders, leading to significant economic losses worldwide. Vaccination is an essential tool to prevent the disease in ovine and caprine livestock, but the only vaccine recommended to date is B. melitensis Rev1, which in sheep is only safe for use in lambs aged 3-4 months. This restriction poses considerable practical challenges for the implementation of Rev1 in countries with endemic brucellosis and/or limited resources, where there is a need for mass vaccination with a safe vaccine to control the disease in both animals and humans. We recently developed a B. melitensis strain Rev1Δwzm showing superior vaccine properties in mice and safety in pregnant ewes. Here, we report that Rev1Δwzm (i) is safe in young and adult sheep, both male and female; (ii) induces a transient serological response in the Rose Bengal test in ≤50 % of sheep, confirmed to some extent by the complement fixation test, and a stronger, more persistent anti- rough-LPS response; and (iii) protects rams against a B. ovis challenge 25 weeks after vaccination. To resolve the problem of serological interference, the use of green fluorescent protein tagging strategy allowed us to identify vaccinated sheep with only a single inoculation. These results, together with the previously reported safety in pregnant ewes, position Rev1Δwzm as a firm vaccine candidate and a promising alternative to Rev1. Further experiments are warranted to assess its efficacy against B. melitensis in pregnant ewes.

"Phylogenomic insights into brucellaceae: The Pseudochrobactrum algeriensis case"

The genus Pseudochrobactrum encompasses free-living bacteria phylogenetically close to Ochrobactrum opportunistic pathogens and to Brucella, facultative intracellular parasites causing brucellosis, a worldwide-extended and grave zoonosis. Recently, Pseudochrobactrum strains were isolated from Brucella natural hosts on Brucella selective media, potentially causing diagnostic confusions. Strikingly, P. algeriensis was isolated from cattle lymph nodes, organs that are inimical to bacteria. Here, we analyse P. algeriensis potential virulence factors in comparison with Ochrobactrum and Brucella. Consistent with genomic analyses, Western-Blot analyses confirmed that P. algeriensis lacks the ability to synthesize the N-formylperosamine O-polysaccharide characteristic of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of smooth Brucella core species. However, unlike other Pseudochrobactrum but similar to some early diverging brucellae, P. algeriensis carries genes potentially synthetizing a rhamnose-based O-polysaccharide LPS. Lipid A analysis by MALDI-TOF demonstrated that P. algeriensis LPS bears a lipid A with a reduced pathogen-associated molecular pattern, a trait shared with Ochrobactrum and Brucella that is essential to generate a highly stable outer membrane and to delay immune activation. Also, although not able to multiply intracellularly in macrophages, the analysis of P. algeriensis cell lipid envelope revealed the presence of large amounts of cationic aminolipids, which may account for the extremely high resistance of P. algeriensis to bactericidal peptides and could favor colonization of mucosae and transient survival in Brucella hosts. However, two traits critical in Brucella pathogenicity are either significantly different (T4SS [VirB]) or absent (erythritol catabolic pathway) in P. algeriensis. This work shows that, while diverging in other characteristics, lipidic envelope features relevant in Brucella pathogenicity are conserved in Brucellaceae. The constant presence of these features strongly suggests that reinforcement of the envelope integrity as an adaptive advantage in soil was maintained in Brucella because of the similarity of some environmental challenges, such as the action of cationic peptide antibiotics and host defense peptides. This information adds knowledge about the evolution of Brucellaceae, and also underlines the taxonomical differences of the three genera compared.

Brucella MucR acts as an H-NS-like protein to silence virulence genes and structure the nucleoid

IMPORTANCE

Histone-like nucleoid structuring (H-NS) and H-NS-like proteins coordinate host-associated behaviors in many pathogenic bacteria, often through forming silencer/counter-silencer pairs with signal-responsive transcriptional activators to tightly control gene expression. Brucella and related bacteria do not encode H-NS or homologs of known H-NS-like proteins, and it is unclear if they have other proteins that perform analogous functions during pathogenesis. In this work, we provide compelling evidence for the role of MucR as a novel H-NS-like protein in Brucella. We show that MucR possesses many of the known functions attributed to H-NS and H-NS-like proteins, including the formation of silencer/counter-silencer pairs to control virulence gene expression and global structuring of the nucleoid. These results uncover a new role for MucR as a nucleoid structuring protein and support the importance of temporal control of gene expression in Brucella and related bacteria.

A review of three decades of use of the cattle brucellosis rough vaccine Brucella abortus RB51: myths and facts

Cattle brucellosis is a severe zoonosis of worldwide distribution caused by Brucella abortus and B. melitensis. In some countries with appropriate infrastructure, animal tagging and movement control, eradication was possible through efficient diagnosis and vaccination with B. abortus S19, usually combined with test-and-slaughter (T/S). Although S19 elicits anti-smooth lipopolysaccharide antibodies that may interfere in the differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA), this issue is minimized using appropriate S19 vaccination protocols and irrelevant when high-prevalence makes mass vaccination necessary or when eradication requisites are not met. However, S19 has been broadly replaced by vaccine RB51 (a rifampin-resistant rough mutant) as it is widely accepted that is DIVA, safe and as protective as S19. These RB51 properties are critically reviewed here using the evidence accumulated in the last 35 years. Controlled experiments and field evidence shows that RB51 interferes in immunosorbent assays (iELISA, cELISA and others) and in complement fixation, issues accentuated by revaccinating animals previously immunized with RB51 or S19. Moreover, contacts with virulent brucellae elicit anti-smooth lipopolysaccharide antibodies in RB51 vaccinated animals. Thus, accepting that RB51 is truly DIVA results in extended diagnostic confusions and, when combined with T/S, unnecessary over-culling. Studies supporting the safety of RB51 are flawed and, on the contrary, there is solid evidence that RB51 is excreted in milk and abortifacient in pregnant animals, thus being released in abortions and vaginal fluids. These problems are accentuated by the RB51 virulence in humans, lack diagnostic serological tests detecting these infections and RB51 rifampicin resistance. In controlled experiments, protection by RB51 compares unfavorably with S19 and lasts less than four years with no evidence that RB51-revaccination bolsters immunity, and field studies reporting its usefulness are flawed. There is no evidence that RB51 protects cattle against B. melitensis, infection common when raised together with small ruminants. Finally, data acumulated during cattle brucellosis eradication in Spain shows that S19-T/S is far more efficacious than RB51-T/S, which does not differ from T/S alone. We conclude that the assumption that RB51 is DIVA, safe, and efficaceous results from the uncritical repetition of imperfectly examined evidence, and advise against its use.

The Brucella Cell Envelope

The cell envelope is a multilayered structure that insulates the interior of bacterial cells from an often chaotic outside world. Common features define the envelope across the bacterial kingdom, but the molecular mechanisms by which cells build and regulate this critical barrier are diverse and reflect the evolutionary histories of bacterial lineages. Intracellular pathogens of the genus Brucella exhibit marked differences in cell envelope structure, regulation, and biogenesis when compared to more commonly studied gram-negative bacteria and therefore provide an excellent comparative model for study of the gram-negative envelope. We review distinct features of the Brucella envelope, highlighting a conserved regulatory system that links cell cycle progression to envelope biogenesis and cell division. We further discuss recently discovered structural features of the Brucella envelope that ensure envelope integrity and that facilitate cell survival in the face of host immune stressors.

Vaccine properties of Brucella melitensis 16MΔwzm and reactivation of placental infection in pregnant sheep

Brucellosis, a worldwide zoonotic disease, is endemic in many developing countries. Besides causing significant economic losses for the livestock industry, it has severe consequences for human health. In endemic regions, small ruminants infected by Brucella melitensis are the main source of human brucellosis. Rev1, the only vaccine currently recommended to control the disease in sheep and goats, has several drawbacks. Rough lipopolysaccharide (R-LPS) mutants have been tested as alternatives, but most lack efficacy. Those in the Wzm/Wzt system responsible for O-polysaccharide export to the periplasm have been proposed as promising vaccine candidates, although to date they have been scarcely investigated in the natural host. In the present work, we studied the biological properties of a 16MΔwzm in-frame deletion mutant, including its safety in pregnant mice and sheep. In mice, 16MΔwzm prevented placental and fetal infections before parturition and protected against B. melitensis and Brucella ovis infections. In sheep, 16MΔwzm was equally safe in lambs, rams, and non-pregnant ewes, inducing some transient Rose Bengal reactions (<7 weeks). The serological reactions occurred earlier and more strongly in pregnant than in non-pregnant ewes and were significantly reduced when conjunctival rather than subcutaneous vaccination was used. In ewes vaccinated at mid-pregnancy, 16MΔwzm was not shed in vaginal discharges during the pregnancy and did not induce abortions/stillbirths. However, some ewes showed a transitory reactivation of infection in placentas and/or milk at parturition, accompanied by a seroconversion in smooth LPS (S-LPS) and/or R-LPS tests. Overall, 16MΔwzm can be considered as a safe vaccine for lambs, rams, and non-pregnant ewes, but its use at mid-pregnancy should be avoided to prevent vaccine dissemination at parturition. If the efficacy results against B. melitensis and B. ovis observed in mice are confirmed by further studies in the natural host, 16MΔwzm could constitute a useful vaccine.

BruSIC: a novel selective medium for the primary isolation of Brucella in veterinary samples

Brucellosis, a re-emerging zoonotic infection, threatens animal welfare and public health with serious economic consequences. A definitive diagnosis requires Brucella isolation by culturing field specimens in specific media. This study aimed to (i) assess the effectivity of recommended Farrell's médium (FM) and CITA medium (CM) for the isolation of four Brucella melitensis strains (16M, Rev1, and the 16MΔwzm and Rev1Δwzm in-frame deletion mutants) with variable susceptibility to polymyxins; (ii) develop a Brucella selective medium (BSM) suitable for these strains; (iii) test BSM, FM, and CM with other Brucella species; and (iv) develop an improved selective culture medium (BruSIC) for all brucellae, including B. abortus bv1. The four B. melitensis strains were strongly inhibited in FM and (except Rev1) CM. Since Rev1Δwzm's CM inhibition was due to a synergistic effect of colistin and vancomycin, we formulated BSM with half the concentrations of both antibiotics, achieving a similar growth of B. melitensis to blood agar base (BAB) and an inhibition of contaminant microorganisms comparable to CM; CM performance was surpassed by BSM for the primary isolation of B. melitensis when tested in 1,789 real sheep samples. For other brucellae, BSM and CM were more inhibitory than FM for B. abortus bv1 when using plates immediately after preparation but not after ≥4 weeks of storage. To address this, we developed the improved solid medium BruSIC by replacing the calf serum in BSM with activated charcoal. BruSIC yielded faster colony growth than BSM and CM and similar CFU numbers than BAB (including for B. ovis in BAB-Serum) and inhibited accompanying microorganisms in sheep and cow samples as effectively as BSM. IMPORTANCE Farrell's medium (FM) and CITA medium (CM), recommended for Brucella isolation in animal samples, are inhibitory for certain strains. A reformulated Brucella selective medium (BSM), containing half the CM vancomycin and colistin concentrations, improved the isolation of B. melitensis, but not Brucella abortus bv1. A novel Brucella selective culture medium (BruSIC), in which calf serum is replaced by activated charcoal, retains the selectivity and improves the productivity of BSM and CM. BruSIC allows the growth of all brucellae faster than in CM or BSM, and at CFU number equivalent to BAB supplemented by calf serum, including B. abortus bv1 and the serum-dependent Brucella ovis. Due to its performance and reduced cost, BruSIC represents an added-value alternative to the existing selective culture media for these bacteria.

Brucella melitensis Wzm/Wzt System: Changes in the Bacterial Envelope Lead to Improved Rev1Δwzm Vaccine Properties

The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O-polysaccharide (O-PS) is the main virulence factor in Brucella. After synthesis in the cytoplasmic membrane, O-PS is exported to the periplasm by the Wzm/Wzt system, where it is assembled into a LPS. This translocation also engages a bactoprenol carrier required for further biosynthesis pathways, such as cell wall biogenesis. Targeting O-PS export by blockage holds great potential for vaccine development, but little is known about the biological implications of each Wzm/Wzt moiety. To improve this knowledge and to elucidate its potential application as a vaccine, we constructed and studied wzm/wzt single- and double-deletion mutants, using the attenuated strain Brucella melitensis Rev1 as the parental strain. This allowed us to describe the composition of Brucella peptidoglycan for the first time. We observed that these mutants lack external O-PS yet trigger changes in genetic transcription and in phenotypic properties associated with the outer membrane and cell wall. The three mutants are highly attenuated; unexpectedly, Rev1Δwzm also excels as an immunogenic and effective vaccine against B. melitensis and Brucella ovis in mice, revealing that low persistence is not at odds with efficacy. Rev1Δwzm is attenuated in BeWo trophoblasts, does not infect mouse placentas, and is safe in pregnant ewes. Overall, these attributes and the minimal serological interference induced in sheep make Rev1Δwzm a highly promising vaccine candidate.

A Brucella melitensis H38ΔwbkF rough mutant protects against Brucella ovis in rams

Brucella melitensis and Brucella ovis are gram-negative pathogens of sheep that cause severe economic losses and, although B. ovis is non-zoonotic, B. melitensis is the main cause of human brucellosis. B. melitensis carries a smooth (S) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with an N-formyl-perosamine O-polysaccharide (O-PS) that is absent in the rough LPS of B. ovis. Their control and eradication require vaccination, but B. melitensis Rev 1, the only vaccine available, triggers anti-O-PS antibodies that interfere in the S-brucellae serodiagnosis. Since eradication and serological surveillance of the zoonotic species are priorities, Rev 1 is banned once B. melitensis is eradicated or where it never existed, hampering B. ovis control and eradication. To develop a B. ovis specific vaccine, we investigated three Brucella live vaccine candidates lacking N-formyl-perosamine O-PS: Bov::CAΔwadB (CO2-independent B. ovis with truncated LPS core oligosaccharide); Rev1::wbdRΔwbkC (carrying N-acetylated O-PS); and H38ΔwbkF (B. melitensis rough mutant with intact LPS core). After confirming their attenuation and protection against B. ovis in mice, were tested in rams for efficacy. H38ΔwbkF yielded similar protection to Rev 1 against B. ovis but Bov::CAΔwadB and Rev1::wbdRΔwbkC conferred no or poor protection, respectively. All H38ΔwbkF vaccinated rams developed a protracted antibody response in ELISA and immunoprecipitation B. ovis diagnostic tests. In contrast, all remained negative in Rose Bengal and complement fixation tests used routinely for B. melitensis diagnosis, though some became positive in S-LPS ELISA owing to LPS core epitope reactivity. Thus, H38ΔwbkF is an interesting candidate for the immunoprophylaxis of B. ovis in B. melitensis-free areas.

Immunization with Brucella abortus S19Δper Conferred Protection in Water Buffaloes against Virulent Challenge with B. abortus Strain S544

Vaccination of cattle and buffaloes with Brucella abortus strain 19 has been the mainstay for control of bovine brucellosis. However, vaccination with S19 suffers major drawbacks in terms of its safety and interference with serodiagnosis of clinical infection. Brucella abortus S19∆per, a perosamine synthetase wbkB gene deletion mutant, overcomes the drawbacks of the S19 vaccine strain. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential of Brucella abortus S19Δper vaccine candidate in the natural host, buffaloes. Safety of S19∆per, for animals use, was assessed in guinea pigs. Protective efficacy of vaccine was assessed in buffaloes by immunizing with normal dose (4 × 10¹⁰ colony forming units (CFU)/animal) and reduced dose (2 × 10⁹ CFU/animal) of S19Δper and challenged with virulent strain of B. abortus S544 on 300 days post immunization. Bacterial persistency of S19∆per was assessed in buffalo calves after 42 days of inoculation. Different serological, biochemical and pathological studies were performed to evaluate the S19∆per vaccine. The S19Δper immunized animals showed significantly low levels of anti-lipopolysaccharides (LPS) antibodies. All the immunized animals were protected against challenge infection with B. abortus S544. Sera from the majority of S19Δper immunized buffalo calves showed moderate to weak agglutination to RBPT antigen and thereby, could apparently be differentiated from S19 vaccinated and clinically-infected animals. The S19Δper was more sensitive to buffalo serum complement mediated lysis than its parent strain, S19. Animals culled at 6-weeks-post vaccination showed no gross lesions in organs and there was comparatively lower burden of infection in the lymph nodes of S19Δper immunized animals. With attributes of higher safety, strong protective efficacy and potential of differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA), S19Δper would be a prospective alternate to conventional S19 vaccines for control of bovine brucellosis as proven in buffaloes.

Brucella abortus S19 GFP-tagged vaccine allows the serological identification of vaccinated cattle

Bovine brucellosis induces abortion in cows, produces important economic losses, and causes a widely distributed zoonosis. Its eradication was achieved in several countries after sustained vaccination with the live attenuated Brucella abortus S19 vaccine, in combination with the slaughtering of serologically positive animals. S19 induces antibodies against the smooth lipopolysaccharide (S-LPS), making difficult the differentiation of infected from vaccinated bovines. We developed an S19 strain constitutively expressing the green fluorescent protein (S19-GFP) coded in chromosome II. The S19-GFP displays similar biological characteristics and immunogenic and protective efficacies in mice to the parental S19 strain. S19-GFP can be distinguished from S19 and B. abortus field strains by fluorescence and multiplex PCR. Twenty-five heifers were vaccinated withS19-GFP (5×109 CFU) by the subcutaneous or conjunctival routes and some boosted with GFP seven weeks thereafter. Immunized animals were followed up for over three years and tested for anti-S-LPS antibodies by both the Rose Bengal test and a competitive ELISA. Anti-GFP antibodies were detected by an indirect ELISA and Western blotting. In most cases, anti-S-LPS antibodies preceded for several weeks those against GFP. The anti-GFP antibody response was higher in the GFP boosted than in the non-boosted animals. In all cases, the anti-GFP antibodies persisted longer, or at least as long, as those against S-LPS. The drawbacks and potential advantages of using the S19-GFP vaccine for identifying vaccinated animals in infected environments are discussed.

When the Going Gets Rough: The Significance of Brucella Lipopolysaccharide Phenotype in Host-Pathogen Interactions

Brucella is a facultatively intracellular bacterial pathogen and the cause of worldwide zoonotic infections, infamous for its ability to evade the immune system and persist chronically within host cells. Despite the frequent association with attenuation in other Gram-negative bacteria, a rough lipopolysaccharide phenotype is retained by Brucella canis and Brucella ovis, which remain fully virulent in their natural canine and ovine hosts, respectively. While these natural rough strains lack the O-polysaccharide they, like their smooth counterparts, are able to evade and manipulate the host immune system by exhibiting low endotoxic activity, resisting destruction by complement and antimicrobial peptides, entering and trafficking within host cells along a similar pathway, and interfering with MHC-II antigen presentation. B. canis and B. ovis appear to have compensated for their roughness by alterations to their outer membrane, especially in regards to outer membrane proteins. B. canis, in particular, also shows evidence of being less proinflammatory in vivo, suggesting that the rough phenotype may be associated with an enhanced level of stealth that could allow these pathogens to persist for longer periods of time undetected. Nevertheless, much additional work is required to understand the correlates of immune protection against the natural rough Brucella spp., a critical step toward development of much-needed vaccines. This review will highlight the significance of rough lipopolysaccharide in the context of both natural disease and host–pathogen interactions with an emphasis on natural rough Brucella spp. and the implications for vaccine development.

Uncovering the Hidden Credentials of Brucella Virulence

Bacteria in the genus Brucella are important human and veterinary pathogens. The abortion and infertility they cause in food animals produce economic hardships in areas where the disease has not been controlled, and human brucellosis is one of the world's most common zoonoses. Brucella strains have also been isolated from wildlife, but we know much less about the pathobiology and epidemiology of these infections than we do about brucellosis in domestic animals. The brucellae maintain predominantly an intracellular lifestyle in their mammalian hosts, and their ability to subvert the host immune response and survive and replicate in macrophages and placental trophoblasts underlies their success as pathogens. We are just beginning to understand how these bacteria evolved from a progenitor alphaproteobacterium with an environmental niche and diverged to become highly host-adapted and host-specific pathogens. Two important virulence determinants played critical roles in this evolution: (i) a type IV secretion system that secretes effector molecules into the host cell cytoplasm that direct the intracellular trafficking of the brucellae and modulate host immune responses and (ii) a lipopolysaccharide moiety which poorly stimulates host inflammatory responses. This review highlights what we presently know about how these and other virulence determinants contribute to Brucella pathogenesis. Gaining a better understanding of how the brucellae produce disease will provide us with information that can be used to design better strategies for preventing brucellosis in animals and for preventing and treating this disease in humans.

Genomic Analysis of Natural Rough Brucella melitensis Rev.1 Vaccine Strains: Identification and Characterization of Mutations in Key Genes Associated with Bacterial LPS Biosynthesis and Virulence

Brucella species are facultative intracellular bacteria that cause brucellosis, a zoonotic world-wide disease. The live attenuated B. melitensis Rev.1 vaccine strain is widely used for the control of brucellosis in the small ruminant population. However, Rev.1 induces antibodies against the O-polysaccharide (O-PS) of the smooth lipopolysaccharide thus, it is difficult to differentiate between infected and vaccinated animals. Hence, rough Brucella strains lacking the O-PS have been introduced. In the current study, we conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis of the genome sequence of two natural Rev.1 rough strains, isolated from sheep, against that of 24 Rev.1 smooth strains and the virulent reference strain B. melitensis 16M. We identified and characterized eight vital mutations within highly important genes associated with Brucella lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis and virulence, which may explain the mechanisms underlying the formation of the Rev.1 rough phenotype and may be used to determine the mechanism underlying virulence attenuation. Further complementation studies aimed to estimate the specific role of these mutations in affecting Brucella morphology and virulence will serve as a basis for the design of new attenuated vaccines for animal immunization against brucellosis.

The Three Flagellar Loci of Brucella ovis PA Are Dispensable for Virulence in Cellular Models and Mice

Brucella ovis is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes a non-zoonotic ovine brucellosis mainly characterized by male genital lesions and is responsible for important economic losses in sheep farming areas. Studies about the virulence mechanisms of Brucella have been mostly performed with smooth (bearing O-polysaccharide in lipopolysaccharide) zoonotic species, and those performed with B. ovis have revealed similarities but also relevant differences. Except for few strains recently isolated from unconventional hosts, Brucella species are non-motile but contain the genes required to assemble a flagellum, which are organized in three main loci of about 18.5, 6.4, and 7.8 kb. Although these loci contain different pseudogenes depending on the non-motile Brucella species, smooth B. melitensis 16M builds a sheathed flagellum under particular culture conditions and requires flagellar genes for virulence. However, nothing is known in this respect regarding other Brucella strains. In this work, we have constructed a panel of B. ovis PA mutants defective in one, two or the three flagellar loci in order to assess their role in virulence of this rough (lacking O-polysaccharide) Brucella species. No relevant differences in growth, outer membrane-related properties or intracellular behavior in cellular models were observed between flagellar mutants and the parental strain, which is in accordance with previous results with B. melitensis 16M single-gene mutants. However, contrary to these B. melitensis mutants, unable to establish a chronic infection in mice, removal of the three flagellar loci in B. ovis did not affect virulence in the mouse model. These results evidence new relevant differences between B. ovis and B. melitensis, two species highly homologous at the DNA level and that cause ovine brucellosis, but that exhibit differences in the zoonotic potential, pathogenicity and tissue tropism.

Development of attenuated live vaccine candidates against swine brucellosis in a non-zoonotic B. suis biovar 2 background

Brucella is a genus of gram-negative bacteria that cause brucellosis. B. abortus and B. melitensis infect domestic ruminants while B. suis (biovars 1-3) infect swine, and all these bacteria but B. suis biovar 2 are zoonotic. Live attenuated B. abortus S19 and B. melitensis Rev1 are effective vaccines in domestic ruminants, though both can infect humans. However, there is no swine brucellosis vaccine. Here, we investigated the potential use as vaccines of B. suis biovar 2 rough (R) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) mutants totally lacking O-chain (Bs2ΔwbkF) or only producing internal O-chain precursors (Bs2Δwzm) and mutants with a smooth (S) LPS defective in the core lateral branch (Bs2ΔwadB and Bs2ΔwadD). We also investigated mutants in the pyruvate phosphate dikinase (Bs2ΔppdK) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (Bs2ΔpckA) genes encoding enzymes bridging phosphoenolpyruvate and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When tested in the OIE mouse model at the recommended R or S vaccine doses (10⁸ and 10⁵ CFU, respectively), CFU/spleen of all LPS mutants were reduced with respect to the wild type and decreased faster for the R than for the S mutants. At those doses, protection against B. suis was similar for Bs2ΔwbkF, Bs2Δwzm, Bs2ΔwadB and the Rev1 control (10⁵ CFU). As described before for B. abortus, B. suis biovar 2 carried a disabled pckA so that a double mutant Bs2ΔppdKΔpckA had the same metabolic phenotype as Bs2ΔppdK and ppdK mutation was enough to generate attenuation. At 10⁵ CFU, Bs2ΔppdK also conferred the same protection as Rev1. As compared to other B. suis vaccine candidates described before, the mutants described here simultaneously carry irreversible deletions easy to identify as vaccine markers, lack antibiotic-resistance markers and were obtained in a non-zoonotic background. Since R vaccines should not elicit antibodies to the S-LPS and wzm mutants carry immunogenic O-chain precursors and did not improve Bs2ΔwbkF, the latter seems a better R vaccine candidate than Bs2Δwzm. However, taking into account that all R vaccines interfere in ELISA and other widely used assays, whether Bs2ΔwbkF is advantageous over Bs2ΔwadB or Bs2ΔppdK requires experiments in the natural host.

Brucella abortus S19 rfbD mutant is highly attenuated, DIVA enable and confers protection against virulent challenge in mice

Brucella abortus S19 is an important tool for controlling bovine brucellosis across the globe. However, vaccination with S19 suffers critical shortcomings such as, presence of residual virulence, induction of abortion and sero-diagnostic interference. In this study, rfbD gene deleted mutant S19 was developed. The mutant strain designated S19ΔR displayed rough LPS phenotype, which was confirmed by acriflavine dye-agglutination and LPS-SDS-PAGE analysis. The virulence was amply reduced as suggested by increased sensitivity to complement killing; reduction in splenic-bacterial load and the recovery time RT50 as validated in mice model. Anti-brucella humoral response was significantly lower as compared to S19 immunization. The minimal induction of Brucella specific IgG1, IgG2a & IgG2b, and IgG3 resulted in no apparent reactivity to RBPT antigen. S19ΔR showed protective index of 1.90 against virulent challenge. S19ΔR being highly attenuated and DIVA compatible may facilitate a platform for developing a safer bovine adulthood vaccine.

New Brucella abortus S19 Mutant to Improve Distinction Between Infected and Vaccinated Animals

Background

Using Brucella abortus Strain 19 (S19) to control bovine brucellosis is restricted due to induce antibodies to the O-side chain of the smooth lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which may be difficult to differentiate vaccinated and infected animals. Furthermore, it is virulent for humans and can induce abortion to cattle.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to employ gene knockout B. abortus S19 for the first time to eliminate diagnostic defects and obtain the attenuated mutant strain.

Material and Methods

The wbkA gene, which is one of the LPS O-chain coding genes, was knocked out in vaccinal Brucella abortus S19. The proliferative response and immunoglobulin M production were analyzed in wbkA deletion strain-infected BALB/c mice.

Results

The loss of wbkA gene function resulted in induction of the splenocyte proliferative response in mice infected by the mutant S19 strain compare to those induced by parental S19 and RB51 strains. Moreover, wbkA mutant did not induce any IgM antibody response using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Conclusions

As a result, the new mutant S19 strain had deficiency in its LPS O-chain structure, besides cannot induce IgM response then, reduce mistakes to discriminate between vaccinated and infected animal, and also can be considered as a new vaccine candidate.

Immune Response to Mucosal Brucella Infection

Brucellosis is one of the most prevalent bacterial zoonosis of worldwide distribution. The disease is caused by Brucella spp., facultative intracellular pathogens. Brucellosis in animals results in abortion of fetuses, while in humans, it frequently manifests flu-like symptoms and a typical undulant fever, being osteoarthritis a common complication of the chronic infection. The two most common ways to acquire the infection in humans are through the ingestion of contaminated dairy products or by inhalation of contaminated aerosols. Brucella spp. enter the body mainly through the gastrointestinal and respiratory mucosa; however, most studies of immune response to Brucella spp. are performed analyzing models of systemic immunity. It is necessary to better understand the mucosal immune response induced by Brucella infection since this is the main entry site for the bacterium. In this review, some virulence factors and the mechanisms needed for pathogen invasion and persistence are discussed. Furthermore, some aspects of local immune responses induced during Brucella infection will be reviewed. With this knowledge, better vaccines can be designed focused on inducing protective mucosal immune response.

Evaluation of human trophoblasts and ovine testis cell lines for the study of the intracellular pathogen Brucella ovis

Since pathogenic Brucella survive and replicate inside phagocytes, cellular models of infection constitute important tools in brucellosis research. We describe the behavior of B. ovis PA (which causes a type of ovine brucellosis mainly affecting the male reproductive tract) and representative attenuated mutants in two commercially available cell lines of non-professional phagocytes related to Brucella tissue preference: OA3.Ts ovine testis cells and JEG-3 human trophoblasts. In comparison with J774.A1 macrophages and HeLa cells, intracellular bacteria were enumerated at several post-infection time points and visualized by confocal microscopy. Replication of B. ovis in OA3.Ts and JEG-3 cells was equivalent to that observed in J774.A1 macrophages-despite the more efficient internalization in the latter-and better than in HeLa cells. Multiplication and/or survival in all phagocytes was dependent on virB2 and vjbR but independent of cgs, despite the attenuation in mice of the Δcgs mutant. However, Omp25c was required for B. ovis internalization only in HeLa cells, and removal of Omp31 increased bacterial internalization in human HeLa and JEG-3 cells. The results presented here demonstrate variability in the interaction of B. ovis with different host cells and provide advantageous models of non-professional phagocytes to study the intracellular behavior of B. ovis.

Genetic and Phenotypic Characterization of the Etiological Agent of Canine Orchiepididymitis Smooth Brucella sp. BCCN84.3

Members of the genus Brucella cluster in two phylogenetic groups: classical and non-classical species. The former group is composed of Brucella species that cause disease in mammals, including humans. A Brucella species, labeled as Brucella sp. BCCN84.3, was isolated from the testes of a Saint Bernard dog suffering orchiepididymitis, in Costa Rica. Following standard microbiological methods, the bacterium was first defined as “Brucella melitensis biovar 2.” Further molecular typing, identified the strain as an atypical “Brucella suis.” Distinctive Brucella sp. BCCN84.3 markers, absent in other Brucella species and strains, were revealed by fatty acid methyl ester analysis, high resolution melting PCR and omp25 and omp2a/omp2b gene diversity. Analysis of multiple loci variable number of tandem repeats and whole genome sequencing demonstrated that this isolate was different from the currently described Brucella species. The smooth Brucella sp. BCCN84.3 clusters together with the classical Brucella clade and displays all the genes required for virulence. Brucella sp. BCCN84.3 is a species nova taxonomical entity displaying pathogenicity; therefore, relevant for differential diagnoses in the context of brucellosis. Considering the debate on the Brucella species concept, there is a need to describe the extant taxonomical entities of these pathogens in order to understand the dispersion and evolution.

The advances in brucellosis vaccines

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonosis affecting animal and human health. Till now, there is no effective vaccine licensed for brucellosis in humans. Although M5, H38 and 45/20 vaccines were used to prevent animal brucellosis in the early stages, the currently used animal vaccines are S19, Rev.1, S2, RB51 and SR82. However, these vaccines still have several drawbacks such as residual virulence and interfering conventional serological tests. With the development of DNA recombination technologies and the completion of the sequence of Brucella genome, much research focuses on the search for potential safer and more effective vaccines. Preliminary studies have demonstrated that new vaccines, including genetically engineered attenuated vaccines, subunit vaccines and other potential vaccines, have higher levels of protection, but there are still some problems. In this paper, we briefly review the main vaccines that have been used in controlling the brucellosis for decades and the progress in the development of new brucellosis vaccines.

Overexpression of wbkF gene in Brucella abortus RB51WboA leads to increased O-polysaccharide expression and enhanced vaccine efficacy against B. abortus 2308, B. melitensis 16M, and B. suis 1330 in a murine brucellosis model

Brucella abortus RB51 is an attenuated, stable, spontaneous rough mutant derived in the laboratory from the virulent strain B. abortus 2308. Previous studies discovered that the wboA gene, which encodes a glycosyltransferase required for synthesis of the O-polysaccharide, is disrupted in strain RB51 by an IS711 element. However, complementation of strain RB51 with a functional wboA gene (strain RB51WboA) does not confer it a smooth phenotype but results in low levels of cytoplasmic O-polysaccharide synthesis. In this study, we asked if increasing the potential availability of bactoprenol priming precursors in strain RB51WboA would increase the levels of O-polysaccharide synthesis and enhance the protective efficacy against virulent Brucella challenge. To achieve this, we overexpressed the wbkF gene, which encodes a putative undecaprenyl-glycosyltransferase involved in bactoprenol priming for O-polysaccharide polymerization, in strain RB51WboA to generate strain RB51WboAKF. In comparison to strain RB51WboA, strain RB51WboAKF expressed higher levels of O-polysaccharide, but was still attenuated and remained phenotypically rough. Mice immunized with strain RB51WboAKF developed increased levels of smooth LPS-specific serum antibodies, primarily of IgG2a and IgG3 isotype. Splenocytes from mice vaccinated with strain RB51WboAKF secreted higher levels of antigen-specific IFN-γ and TNF-α and contained more numbers of antigen-specific IFN-γ secreting CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes when compared to those of the RB51 or RB51WboA vaccinated groups. Immunization with strain RB51WboAKF conferred enhanced protection against virulent B. abortus 2308, B. melitensis 16M and B. suis 1330 challenge when compared to the currently used vaccine strains. Our results suggest that strain RB51WboAKF has the potential to be a more efficacious vaccine than its parent strain in natural hosts.

Periplasmic protein EipA determines envelope stress resistance and virulence in Brucella abortus

Molecular components of the Brucella abortus cell envelope play a major role in its ability to infect, colonize and survive inside mammalian host cells. In this study, we have defined a role for a conserved gene of unknown function in B. abortus envelope stress resistance and infection. Expression of this gene, which we name eipA, is directly activated by the essential cell cycle regulator, CtrA. eipA encodes a soluble periplasmic protein that adopts an unusual eight-stranded β-barrel fold. Deletion of eipA attenuates replication and survival in macrophage and mouse infection models, and results in sensitivity to treatments that compromise the cell envelope integrity. Transposon disruption of genes required for LPS O-polysaccharide biosynthesis is synthetically lethal with eipA deletion. This genetic connection between O-polysaccharide and eipA is corroborated by our discovery that eipA is essential in Brucella ovis, a naturally rough species that harbors mutations in several genes required for O-polysaccharide production. Conditional depletion of eipA expression in B. ovis results in a cell chaining phenotype, providing evidence that eipA directly or indirectly influences cell division in Brucella. We conclude that EipA is a molecular determinant of Brucella virulence that functions to maintain cell envelope integrity and influences cell division.

WadD, a New Brucella Lipopolysaccharide Core Glycosyltransferase Identified by Genomic Search and Phenotypic Characterization

Brucellosis, an infectious disease caused by Brucella, is one of the most extended bacterial zoonosis in the world and an important cause of economic losses and human suffering. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Brucella plays a major role in virulence as it impairs normal recognition by the innate immune system and delays the immune response. The LPS core is a branched structure involved in resistance to complement and polycationic peptides, and mutants in glycosyltransferases required for the synthesis of the lateral branch not linked to the O-polysaccharide (O-PS) are attenuated and have been proposed as vaccine candidates. For this reason, the complete understanding of the genes involved in the synthesis of this LPS section is of particular interest. The chemical structure of the Brucella LPS core suggests that, in addition to the already identified WadB and WadC glycosyltransferases, others could be implicated in the synthesis of this lateral branch. To clarify this point, we identified and constructed mutants in 11 ORFs encoding putative glycosyltransferases in B. abortus. Four of these ORFs, regulated by the virulence regulator MucR (involved in LPS synthesis) or the BvrR/BvrS system (implicated in the synthesis of surface components), were not required for the synthesis of a complete LPS neither for virulence or interaction with polycationic peptides and/or complement. Among the other seven ORFs, six seemed not to be required for the synthesis of the core LPS since the corresponding mutants kept the O-PS and reacted as the wild type with polyclonal sera. Interestingly, mutant in ORF BAB1_0953 (renamed wadD) lost reactivity against antibodies that recognize the core section while kept the O-PS. This suggests that WadD is a new glycosyltransferase adding one or more sugars to the core lateral branch. WadD mutants were more sensitive than the parental strain to components of the innate immune system and played a role in chronic stages of infection. These results corroborate and extend previous work indicating that the Brucella LPS core is a branched structure that constitutes a steric impairment preventing the elements of the innate immune system to fight against Brucella.

Fis is a global regulator critical for modulation of virulence factor production and pathogenicity of Dickeya zeae

Dickeya zeae is the causal agent of rice foot rot disease, which has recently become a great threat to rice planting countries and regions. The pathogen produces a family of phytotoxins named zeamines that is critical for bacterial virulence, but little is known about the signaling pathways and regulatory mechanisms that govern zeamine production. In this study, we showed that a conserved transcriptional regulator Fis is involved in the regulation of zeamine production in D. zeae strain EC1. Deletion mutants were markedly attenuated in the virulence against rice seed germination. Transcriptome and phenotype analyses showed that Fis is a potent global transcriptional regulator modulating various virulence traits, including production of extracellular enzymes and exopolysaccharides, swimming and swarming motility, biofilm formation and cell aggregation. DNA gel retardation analysis showed that Fis directly regulates the transcription of key virulence genes and the genes encoding Vfm quorum sensing system through DNA/protein interaction. Our findings unveil a key regulator associated with the virulence of D. zeae EC1, and present useful clues for further elucidation of the regulatory complex and signaling pathways which govern the virulence of this important pathogen.

Immunization of guinea pigs with Salmonella delivered anti-Brucella formulation reduces organs bacterial load and mitigates histopathological consequences of Brucella abortus 544 challenge

With an objective to generate safe and effective anti-Brucella vaccine, an attenuated live Salmonella Typhimurium vector delivering heterologous Brucella immunogenic proteins SOD, Omp19, BLS, and PrpA formulated with purified Brucella abortus lipopolysaccharide was evaluated on a guinea pig model. This model represents high susceptibility to Brucella infections and showed similarities in reproducing human pathologies. On safety perspectives, the vaccine formulation induced no observable alterations on general health and histology of the vaccinated guinea pigs. Upon virulent strain 544 challenge, a protective index of 1.52 was observed based on differential splenic counts. Post-challenge histopathology revealed that Brucella induced microgranulomas and fatty degenerations were prominent in the organs of non-immunized animals as compared to immunized animals. With these findings, it is suggestive that this live Brucella-free vaccine formulation is safe and protective on a sensitive guinea pig model and may be suitable for further human-related vaccine trials.

Development and trial of vaccines against Brucella

The search for ideal brucellosis vaccines remains active today. Currently, no licensed human or canine anti-brucellosis vaccines are available. In bovines, the most successful vaccine (S19) is only used in calves, as adult vaccination results in orchitis in male, prolonged infection, and possible abortion complications in pregnant female cattle. Another widely deployed vaccine (RB51) has a low protective efficacy. An ideal vaccine should exhibit a safe profile as well as enhance protective efficacy. However, currently available vaccines exhibit one or more major drawbacks. Smooth live attenuated vaccines suffer shortcomings such as residual virulence and serodiagnostic interference. Inactivated vaccines, in general, confer relatively low levels of protection. Recent developments to improve brucellosis vaccines include generation of knockout mutants by targeting genes involved in metabolism, virulence, and the lipopolysaccharide synthesis pathway, as well as generation of DNA vaccines, mucosal vaccines, and live vectored vaccines, have all produced varying degrees of success. Herein, we briefly review the bacteriology, pathogenesis, immunological implications, candidate vaccines, vaccinations, and models related to Brucella.

Meta-Analysis and Advancement of Brucellosis Vaccinology

Background/Objectives

In spite of all the research effort for developing new vaccines against brucellosis, it remains unclear whether these new vaccine technologies will in fact become widely used. The goal of this study was to perform a meta-analysis to identify parameters that influence vaccine efficacy as well as a descriptive analysis on how the field of Brucella vaccinology is advancing concerning type of vaccine, improvement of protection on animal models over time, and factors that may affect protection in the mouse model.

Methods

A total of 117 publications that met the criteria were selected for inclusion in this study, with a total of 782 individual experiments analyzed.

Results

Attenuated (n = 221), inactivated (n = 66) and mutant (n = 102) vaccines provided median protection index above 2, whereas subunit (n = 287), DNA (n = 68), and vectored (n = 38) vaccines provided protection indexes lower than 2. When all categories of experimental vaccines are analyzed together, the trend line clearly demonstrates that there was no improvement of the protection indexes over the past 30 years, with a low negative and non significant linear coefficient. A meta-regression model was developed including all vaccine categories (attenuated, DNA, inactivated, mutant, subunit, and vectored) considering the protection index as a dependent variable and the other parameters (mouse strain, route of vaccination, number of vaccinations, use of adjuvant, challenge Brucella species) as independent variables. Some of these variables influenced the expected protection index of experimental vaccines against Brucella spp. in the mouse model.

Conclusion

In spite of the large number of publication over the past 30 years, our results indicate that there is not clear trend to improve the protective potential of these experimental vaccines.

The Brucella melitensis M5-90 phosphoglucomutase (PGM) mutant is attenuated and confers protection against wild-type challenge in BALB/c mice

Brucellae are Gram-negative intracellular bacterial pathogens that infect humans and animals, bringing great economic burdens to developing countries. Live attenuated Brucella vaccines (strain M5-90 or others) are the most efficient means for prevention and control of animal brucellosis. However, these vaccines have several drawbacks, including residual virulence in animals, and difficulties in differentiating natural infection from vaccine immunization, which limit their application. A vaccine that can differentiate infection from immunization will have extensive applications. A Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis) strain M5-90 pgm mutant (M5-90Δpgm) was constructed to overcome these drawbacks. M5-90Δpgm showed significantly reduced survival in embryonic trophoblast cells and in mice, and induced high protective immunity in BALB/c mice. Moreover, M5-90Δpgm elicited an anti-Brucella-specific immunoglobulin G response and induced the secretion of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and interleukin-2 (IL-2). In addition, M5-90Δpgm induced the secretion of IFN-γ in immunized sheep. Serum samples from sheep inoculated with M5-90Δpgm were negative by the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and Standard Tube Agglutination Test (STAT). Furthermore, the PGM antigen allowed serological differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals. These results suggest that M5-90Δpgm is an ideal live attenuated vaccine candidate against B. melitensis 16 M and deserves further evaluation for vaccine development.

Brucella ovis PA mutants for outer membrane proteins Omp10, Omp19, SP41, and BepC are not altered in their virulence and outer membrane properties

Mutants in several genes have been obtained on the genetic background of virulent rough (lacking O-polysaccharide) Brucella ovis PA. The target genes encode outer membrane proteins previously associated with the virulence of smooth (bearing O-polysaccharide chains in the lipopolysaccharide) Brucella strains. Multiple attempts to delete omp16, coding for a homologue to peptidoglycan-associated lipoproteins, were unsuccessful, which suggests that Omp16 is probably essential for in vitro survival of B. ovis PA. Single deletion of omp10 or omp19-that encode two other outer membrane lipoproteins--was achieved, but the simultaneous removal of both genes failed, suggesting an essential complementary function between both proteins. Two other deletion mutants, defective in the Tol-C-homologue BepC or in the SP41 adhesin, were also obtained. Surprisingly when compared to previous results obtained with smooth Brucella, none of the B. ovis mutants showed attenuation in the virulence, either in the mouse model or in cellular models of professional and non-professional phagocytes. Additionally, and in contrast to the observations reported with smooth Brucella strains, several properties related to the outer membrane remained almost unaltered. These results evidence new distinctive traits between naturally rough B. ovis and smooth brucellae.

Smooth to Rough Dissociation in Brucella: The Missing Link to Virulence

Dissociation encompasses changes in a series of phenotypes: colony and cell morphology, inmunological and biochemical reactions and virulence. The concept is generally associated to the in vitro transition between smooth (S) and rough (R) colonies, a phenotypic observation in Gram-negative bacteria commonly made since the beginning of microbiology as a science. It is also well known that the loss of the O-polysaccharide, the most external lipopolysaccharide (LPS) moiety, triggers the change in the colony phenotype. Although dissociation is related to one of the most basic features used to distinguish between species, i.e., colony morphology, and, in the case of pathogens, predict their virulence behavior, it has been considered a laboratory artifact and thus did not gain further attention. However, recent insights into genetics and pathogenesis of members of Brucella, causative agents of brucellosis, have brought a new outlook on this experimental fact, suggesting that it plays a role beyond the laboratory observations. In this perspective article, the current knowledge on Brucella LPS genetics and its connection with dissociation in the frame of evolution is discussed. Latest reports support the notion that, by means of a better understanding of genetic pathways linked to R phenotype and the biological impact of this intriguing "old" phenomenon, unexpected applications can be achieved.

Clinical and histological features of brucellin skin test responses in Brucella suis biovar 2 infected pigs

Current serological tests for swine brucellosis detect antibodies to the Brucella O-polysaccharide (O/PS). However, when infections by bacteria carrying cross-reacting O/PS occur, these tests suffer from false positive serological reactions (FPSR), and the skin test with Brucella soluble protein extracts is the best diagnostic alternative to differentiate true Brucella suis infections from FPSR in pigs. Since this test has been seldom used in B. suis infected swine, the clinical and histological features involved have not been described properly. Here, we describe the clinical and histological events in B. suis biovar 2 infected pigs skin tested with a cytosoluble O/PS free protein extract from rough Brucella abortus Tn5::per mutant. A similar extract from rough Ochrobactrum intermedium was also used for comparative purposes. No relevant differences were evidenced between the homologous and heterologous allergens, and the main clinical feature was an elevated area of the skin showing different induration degrees. Moreover, an important vascular reaction with hyperemia and haemorrhage was produced in most infected sows 24-48 h after inoculation, thus facilitating the clinical interpretation of positive reactions. Histologically, combined immediate (type III) and delayed (type IV) hypersensitivity reactions were identified as the most relevant feature of the inflammatory responses produced.

Thermostable cross-protective subunit vaccine against Brucella species

A subunit vaccine candidate was produced from Brucella suis 145 (biovar 4; expressing both the A antigen of Brucella abortus and the M antigen of Brucella melitensis). The preparation consisted mostly of polysaccharide (PS; >90% [wt/wt]; both cell-associated PS and exo-PS were combined) and a small amount of protein (1 to 3%) with no apparent nucleic acids. Vaccinated mice were protected (these had a statistically significant reduction in bacterial colonization compared to that of unvaccinated controls) when challenged with representative strains of three Brucella species most pathogenic for humans, i.e., B. abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis. As little as 1 ng of the vaccine, without added adjuvant, protected mice against B. suis 145 infection (5 × 10(5) CFU), and a single injection of 1 μg of this subunit vaccine protected mice from B. suis 145 challenge for at least 14 months. A single immunization induced a serum IgG response to Brucella antigens that remained elevated for up to 9 weeks. The use of heat (i.e., boiling-water bath, autoclaving) in the vaccine preparation showed that it was thermostable. This method also ensured safety and security. The vaccine produced was immunogenic and highly protective against multiple strains of Brucella and represents a promising candidate for further evaluation.

Mutants in the lipopolysaccharide of Brucella ovis are attenuated and protect against B. ovis infection in mice

Brucella spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that behave as facultative intracellular parasites of a variety of mammals. This genus includes smooth (S) and rough (R) species that carry S and R lipopolysaccharides (LPS), respectively. S-LPS is a virulence factor, and mutants affected in the S-LPS O-polysaccharide (R mutants), core oligosaccharide or both show attenuation. However, B. ovis is naturally R and is virulent in sheep. We studied the role of B. ovis LPS in virulence by mutating the orthologues of wadA, wadB and wadC, three genes known to encode LPS core glycosyltransferases in S brucellae. When mapped with antibodies to outer membrane proteins (Omps) and R-LPS, wadB and wadC mutants displayed defects in LPS structure and outer membrane topology but inactivation of wadA had little or no effect. Consistent with these observations, the wadB and wadC but not the wadA mutants were attenuated in mice. When tested as vaccines, the wadB and wadC mutants protected mice against B. ovis challenge. The results demonstrate that the LPS core is a structure essential for survival in vivo not only of S brucellae but also of a naturally R Brucella pathogenic species, and they confirm our previous hypothesis that the Brucella LPS core is a target for vaccine development. Since vaccine B. melitensis Rev 1 is S and thus interferes in serological testing for S brucellae, wadB mutant represents a candidate vaccine to be evaluated against B. ovis infection of sheep suitable for areas free of B. melitensis.

Brucella abortus depends on pyruvate phosphate dikinase and malic enzyme but not on Fbp and GlpX fructose-1,6-bisphosphatases for full virulence in laboratory models

The brucellae are the etiological agents of brucellosis, a worldwide-distributed zoonosis. These bacteria are facultative intracellular parasites and thus are able to adjust their metabolism to the extra- and intracellular environments encountered during an infectious cycle. However, this aspect of Brucella biology is imperfectly understood, and the nutrients available in the intracellular niche are unknown. Here, we investigated the central pathways of C metabolism used by Brucella abortus by deleting the putative fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (fbp and glpX), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (pckA), pyruvate phosphate dikinase (ppdK), and malic enzyme (mae) genes. In gluconeogenic but not in rich media, growth of ΔppdK and Δmae mutants was severely impaired and growth of the double Δfbp-ΔglpX mutant was reduced. In macrophages, only the ΔppdK and Δmae mutants showed reduced multiplication, and studies with the ΔppdK mutant confirmed that it reached the replicative niche. Similarly, only the ΔppdK and Δmae mutants were attenuated in mice, the former being cleared by week 10 and the latter persisting longer than 12 weeks. We also investigated the glyoxylate cycle. Although aceA (isocitrate lyase) promoter activity was enhanced in rich medium, aceA disruption had no effect in vitro or on multiplication in macrophages or mouse spleens. The results suggest that B. abortus grows intracellularly using a limited supply of 6-C (and 5-C) sugars that is compensated by glutamate and possibly other amino acids entering the Krebs cycle without a critical role of the glyoxylate shunt.

The identification of wadB, a new glycosyltransferase gene, confirms the branched structure and the role in virulence of the lipopolysaccharide core of Brucella abortus

Brucellosis is a worldwide extended zoonosis caused by Brucella spp. These gram-negative bacteria are not readily detected by innate immunity, a virulence-related property largely linked to their surface lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The role of the LPS lipid A and O-polysaccharide in virulence is well known. Moreover, mutation of the glycosyltransferase gene wadC of Brucella abortus, although not affecting O-polysaccharide assembly onto the lipid-A core section causes a core oligosaccharide defect that increases recognition by innate immunity. Here, we report on a second gene (wadB) encoding a LPS core glycosyltransferase not involved in the assembly of the O-polysaccharide-linked core section. As compared to wild-type B. abortus, a wadB mutant was sensitive to bactericidal peptides and non-immune serum, and was attenuated in mice and dendritic cells. These observations show that as WadC, WadB is also involved in the assembly of a branch of Brucella LPS core and support the concept that this LPS section is a virulence-related structure.

SiRNA screens using Drosophila cells to identify host factors required for infection

Drosophila melanogaster offers a powerful model system for interrogating interactions between host cells and human bacterial pathogens. Brucella, a gram-negative, facultative intracellular bacterium is the causative agent of brucellosis, a zoonotic disease of global consequence. Over the past several decades, pathogen factors that mediate Brucella infection have been identified. However, host factors that mediate infection have remained obscure. We have used the power of the Drosophila S2 cell system to identify and characterize host factors that support infection by Brucella melitensis. Host protein inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1α), a transmembrane kinase and master regulator of the eukaryotic unfolded protein response, was shown to play an important role in regulating Brucella infection, thereby providing the first glimpse of host mechanisms that are subverted by the pathogen to support its intracellular lifestyle. Furthermore, our study also established the Drosophila S2 cell as a powerful system for elucidating Brucella host factors. Here, we describe a protocol for using the Drosophila S2 cell system for studying the Brucella-host interaction.

Immunogenic response induced by wzm and wzt gene deletion mutants from Brucella abortus S19

Brucellosis is an infectious disease affecting humans and animals worldwide. Effective methods of control include inducing immunity in animals by vaccination and elimination. Brucella abortus S19 is one of the popular vaccines for control of cattle brucellosis, as it has low virulence. In this paper, allelic exchange plasmids of wzm and wzt genes were constructed and partially knocked out to evaluate the effects on the induction of immunity to Brucella abortus S19 mutants. Cytokine secretion in vitro, INF-γ induction in vivo and antibody dynamics were evaluated. These data suggested that the immunity-eliciting ability of the wzm and wzt gene deletion mutants was similar, although reduced compared with the S19 strain. The results demonstrated that the wzt gene may be more important in the regulation of the induction of immunity than the wzm gene.

Characterization of Biological Activities ofBrucella melitensisLipopolysaccharide

Biological activities of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Brucella melitensis 16M were characterized in comparison with LPS from Escherichia coli O55. LPS extracted from B. melitensis was smooth type by electrophoretic analysis with silver staining. The endotoxin-specific Limulus activity of B. melitensis LPS was lower than that of E. coli LPS. There was no significant production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and nitric oxide in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells stimulated with B. melitensis LPS, although E. coli LPS definitely induced their production. On the other hand, B. melitensis LPS exhibited a higher anti-complement activity than E. coli LPS. B. melitensis LPS as well as E. coli LPS exhibited a strong adjuvant action on antibody response to bovine serum. The characteristic biological activities of B. melitensis are discussed.

Meta-analysis of variables affecting mouse protection efficacy of whole organism Brucella vaccines and vaccine candidates

BACKGROUND

Vaccine protection investigation includes three processes: vaccination, pathogen challenge, and vaccine protection efficacy assessment. Many variables can affect the results of vaccine protection. Brucella, a genus of facultative intracellular bacteria, is the etiologic agent of brucellosis in humans and multiple animal species. Extensive research has been conducted in developing effective live attenuated Brucella vaccines. We hypothesized that some variables play a more important role than others in determining vaccine protective efficacy. Using Brucella vaccines and vaccine candidates as study models, this hypothesis was tested by meta-analysis of Brucella vaccine studies reported in the literature.

RESULTS

Nineteen variables related to vaccine-induced protection of mice against infection with virulent brucellae were selected based on modeling investigation of the vaccine protection processes. The variable "vaccine protection efficacy" was set as a dependent variable while the other eighteen were set as independent variables. Discrete or continuous values were collected from papers for each variable of each data set. In total, 401 experimental groups were manually annotated from 74 peer-reviewed publications containing mouse protection data for live attenuated Brucella vaccines or vaccine candidates. Our ANOVA analysis indicated that nine variables contributed significantly (P-value < 0.05) to Brucella vaccine protection efficacy: vaccine strain, vaccination host (mouse) strain, vaccination dose, vaccination route, challenge pathogen strain, challenge route, challenge-killing interval, colony forming units (CFUs) in mouse spleen, and CFU reduction compared to control group. The other 10 variables (e.g., mouse age, vaccination-challenge interval, and challenge dose) were not found to be statistically significant (P-value > 0.05). The protection level of RB51 was sacrificed when the values of several variables (e.g., vaccination route, vaccine viability, and challenge pathogen strain) change. It is suggestive that it is difficult to protect against aerosol challenge. Somewhat counter-intuitively, our results indicate that intraperitoneal and subcutaneous vaccinations are much more effective to protect against aerosol Brucella challenge than intranasal vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

Literature meta-analysis identified variables that significantly contribute to Brucella vaccine protection efficacy. The results obtained provide critical information for rational vaccine study design. Literature meta-analysis is generic and can be applied to analyze variables critical for vaccine protection against other infectious diseases.

In vivo differences in the virulence, pathogenicity, and induced protective immunity of wboA mutants from genetically different parent Brucella spp

To explore the effects of the genetic background on the characteristics of wboA gene deletion rough mutants generated from different parent Brucella sp. strains, we constructed the rough-mutant strains Brucella melitensis 16 M-MB6, B. abortus 2308-SB6, B. abortus S19-RB6, and B. melitensis NI-NB6 and evaluated their survival, pathogenicity, and induced protective immunity in mice and sheep. In mice, the survival times of the four mutants were very different in the virulence assay, from less than 6 weeks for B. abortus S19-RB6 to 11 weeks for B. abortus 2308-SB6 and B. melitensis NI-NB6. However, B. abortus S19-RB6 and B. melitensis 16 M-MB6, with a shorter survival time in mice, offered better protection against challenges with B. abortus 2308 in protection tests than B. abortus 2308-SB6 and B. melitensis NI-NB6. It seems that the induced protective immunity of each mutant might not be associated with its survival time in vivo. In the cross-protection assay, both B. melitensis 16 M-MB6 and B. abortus S19-RB6 induced greater protection against homologous challenges than heterologous challenges. When pregnant sheep were inoculated with B. abortus S19-RB6 and B. melitensis 16 M-MB6, B. abortus S19-RB6 did not induce abortion, whereas B. melitensis 16 M-MB6 did. These results demonstrated the differences in virulence, pathogenicity, and protective immunity in vivo in the wboA deletion mutants from genetically different parent Brucella spp. and also indicated that future rough vaccine strain development could be promising if suitable parent Brucella strains and/or genes were selected.

Lipopolysaccharide as a target for brucellosis vaccine design

The gram-negative bacteria of the genus Brucella are facultative intracellular parasites that cause brucellosis, a world wide-distributed zoonotic disease that represents a serious problem for animal and human health. There is no human-to-human contagion and, since there is no human vaccine, animal vaccination is essential to control brucellosis. However, current vaccines (all developed empirically) do not provide 100% protection and are infectious in humans. Attempts to generate new vaccines by obtaining mutants lacking the lipopolysaccharide O-polysaccharide, in purine metabolism or in Brucella type IV secretion system have not been successful. Here we propose a new approach to develop brucellosis vaccines based on the concept that Brucella surface molecules evade efficient detection by innate immunity, thus delaying protective Th1 responses and opening a time window to reach sheltered intracellular compartments. We showed recently that a branch of the core oligosaccharide section of Brucella lipopolysaccharide hampers recognition by TLR4-MD2. Mutation of glycosyltransferase WadC, involved in the synthesis of this branch, results in a lipopolysaccharide that, while keeping the O-polysaccharide essential for optimal protection, shows a truncated core, is more efficiently recognized by MD2 and triggers an increased cytokine response. In keeping with this, the wadC mutant is attenuated in dendritic cells and mice. In the mouse model of brucellosis vaccines, the Brucella abortus wadC mutant conferred protection similar to that provided by S19, the best cattle vaccine available. The properties of the wadC mutant provide the proof of concept for this new approach and open the way for more effective brucellosis vaccines.

A Brucella abortus cstA mutant is defective for association with endoplasmic reticulum exit sites and displays altered trafficking in HeLa cells

Members of the genus Brucella are facultative intracellular pathogenic bacteria able to control maturation of their vacuoles. In several cell types, Brucella is able to reach a proliferation compartment derived from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Since ER exit site (ERES) functions are required for Brucella proliferation, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen between human ERES-associated proteins and the predicted brucella proteome. This screening led to the identification of CstA, a conserved protein that specifically interacts with Sec24A, a component of the ERES. We found that a tagged CstA is secreted in Brucella abortus culture medium. This secretion is independent of the type IV secretion system VirB and the flagellum, suggesting that CstA is secreted through another system. We also discovered that a B. abortus cstA mutant is impaired for its association with the Sec23 ERES marker. The B. abortus cstA mutant displayed peculiar trafficking, with reduced association with LAMP1 and Calnexin 12 h post-infection in HeLa cells. However, its intracellular proliferation kinetics was not affected. The data reported here suggest that CstA could be directly or indirectly involved in the control of B. abortus intracellular trafficking in HeLa cells.

The lipopolysaccharide core of Brucella abortus acts as a shield against innate immunity recognition

Innate immunity recognizes bacterial molecules bearing pathogen-associated molecular patterns to launch inflammatory responses leading to the activation of adaptive immunity. However, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the gram-negative bacterium Brucella lacks a marked pathogen-associated molecular pattern, and it has been postulated that this delays the development of immunity, creating a gap that is critical for the bacterium to reach the intracellular replicative niche. We found that a B. abortus mutant in the wadC gene displayed a disrupted LPS core while keeping both the LPS O-polysaccharide and lipid A. In mice, the wadC mutant induced proinflammatory responses and was attenuated. In addition, it was sensitive to killing by non-immune serum and bactericidal peptides and did not multiply in dendritic cells being targeted to lysosomal compartments. In contrast to wild type B. abortus, the wadC mutant induced dendritic cell maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. All these properties were reproduced by the wadC mutant purified LPS in a TLR4-dependent manner. Moreover, the core-mutated LPS displayed an increased binding to MD-2, the TLR4 co-receptor leading to subsequent increase in intracellular signaling. Here we show that Brucella escapes recognition in early stages of infection by expressing a shield against recognition by innate immunity in its LPS core and identify a novel virulence mechanism in intracellular pathogenic gram-negative bacteria. These results also encourage for an improvement in the generation of novel bacterial vaccines.