The yydFGHIJ operon of Bacillus subtilis encodes a peptide that induces the LiaRS two-component system

The DnaJK chaperone of Bacillus subtilis post-transcriptionally regulates gene expression through the YlxR(RnpM)/RNase P complex

To survive in harsh natural environments, translation and mRNA metabolism must be tightly and coordinately controlled, as saving biological costs increases fitness. However, the roles of protein chaperones in this control system are unclear. This study proposes the novel aspect of the link between translation and mRNA metabolism, that is, the co-translational DnaJK chaperone activity is involved in changes in mRNA metabolism by RNase P. We found that the expression of proBA, which encodes proline biosynthetic enzymes, is regulated by ylxR(rnpM) through the proBA promoter. YlxR(RnpM), which is associated with RNase P, was also involved in the posttranscriptional regulation of proBA. To clarify this posttranscriptional regulation, we screened transposon (Tn)-inserted mutants for cells with low proB::lacZ expression and identified the DnaJK chaperone as a regulator of proB. To explore the possibility that the complex of YlxR(RnpM) and RNase P might work with DnaJK, we performed an epistatic analysis using the lacZ fusions, which revealed that the regulation of proB by DnaJK/YlxR(RnpM)/RNase P, that is, co-translational chaperone activity, controlled mRNA metabolism. RNA sequencing analysis of cells deficient in the RNA component of RNase P (rnpB) revealed that 261 genes were upregulated in the rnpB::Tn strain. Among them, we identified yoyD/yodF, besA, and epeXE, which were also under the control of DnaJK/YlxR(RnpM)/RNase P regulatory cascade. Finally, we performed yeast two-hybrid analysis using DnaK as bait and identified two genes, spoIVCA and nupG, whose expression was post-transcriptionally regulated by DnaJK but independent of YlxR(RnpM). These results suggest a broader role for posttranscriptional gene regulation by DnaJK.IMPORTANCEBacillus subtilis lacking the DnaJK chaperone has not been reported to exhibit a distinct phenotype. However, our study revealed proline-dependent growth in a minimal medium in the dnaJ::Tn strain. Inhibition of spoIVCA expression in this strain was identified as a probable cause of the sporulation deficiency in previous and current studies using a single cell-level analysis. We also observed posttranscriptional regulation of proBA by the DnaJK and YlxR(RnpM)/RNase P complex. LacZ analyses of proB::lacZ in different backgrounds suggested that the above regulation ultimately functions in mRNA metabolism. In DnaJK-deficient cells, the nascent peptide may be misfolded, and if DnaJK chaperone activity is lost, such a signal may be transferred to RNase P. Therefore, proBA mRNA may be degraded in an RNase P-dependent manner if the misfolding of the polypeptide translated from this mRNA is detected. This system is useful for reducing the biological costs of futile mRNA elongation.

Stereochemical Editing at sp3-Hybridized Carbon Centers by Reversible, Photochemically Triggered Hydrogen Atom Transfer

ConspectusMillions of chiral compounds contain a stereogenic sp3-hybridized carbon center with a hydrogen atom as one of the four different substituents. The stereogenic center can be edited in an increasing number of cases by selective hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) to and from a photocatalyst. This Account describes the development of photochemical deracemization reactions using chiral oxazole-annulated benzophenones with a bonding motif that allows them to recognize chiral lactam substrates by two-point hydrogen bonding. The backbone of the catalysts consists of a chiral azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-2-one with a U-shaped geometry, which enables substrate recognition to occur parallel to the benzoxazole part of the aromatic ketones. The photocatalysts facilitate a catalytic photochemical deracemization of several compound classes including hydantoins, N-carboxyanhydrides, oxindoles, 2,5-diketopiperazines, and 4,7-diaza-1-isoindolinones. In addition, if more than one stereogenic center is present, the editing delivers a distinct diastereoisomer upon the appropriate selection of the respective photocatalyst enantiomer. The chiral photocatalysts operate via the benzophenone triplet that selectively abstracts a properly positioned hydrogen atom in exclusively one of the two substrate enantiomers. The photochemical step creates a planar carbon-centered radical and erases the absolute configuration at this position. While returning HAT to the same position would likely recreate the stereogenic center with the same absolute configuration, spectroscopic and quantum chemical studies suggest that the hydrogen atom is delivered from the photocatalyst to a heteroatom that is in conjugation to the radical center. Two scenarios can be distinguished for the hydrogen atom shuttling process. For hydantoins, N-carboxyanhydrides, and 4,7-diaza-1-isoindolinones, the back HAT occurs to a carbonyl oxygen atom or an imine-type nitrogen atom which is not involved in binding to the catalyst. For oxindoles and 2,5-diketopiperazines, a single lactam carbonyl group in the substrate is available to accept the hydrogen atom. It is currently assumed that back HAT occurs to this group, although the carbonyl oxygen atom is involved in hydrogen bonding to the catalyst. In comparison to the former reaction pathway, the latter process appears to be less efficient and more prone to side reactions. For both cases, an achiral enol or enamine is formed, which delivers upon dissociation from the catalyst statistically either one of the two stereoisomers of the substrate. Since only one substrate enantiomer (or diastereoisomer) is processed, a high enantioselectivity (or diastereoselectivity) results. Even though the editing is a contra-thermodynamic process, the described decoupling of a photochemical and a thermal step allows the usage of a single catalyst in loadings that vary between 2.5 and 10 mol % depending on the specific mode of action.

Expanding molecular diversity of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide (RiPP) natural products by radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzymes: recent advances and mechanistic insights

Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) constitute a vast and diverse family of bioactive peptides. These peptides, synthesized by ribosomes and subsequently modified by various tailoring enzymes, possess a wide chemical space. Among these modifications, radical S-adenosylmethionine (rSAM) enzymes employ unique radical chemistry to introduce a variety of novel peptide structures, which are crucial for their activity. This review examines the major types of modifications in RiPPs catalyzed by rSAM enzymes, incorporating recent advancements in protein structure analysis techniques and computational methods. Additionally, it elucidates the diverse catalytic mechanisms and substrate selectivity of these enzymes through an analysis of the latest crystal structures.

Structural and mechanistic basis for RiPP epimerization by a radical SAM enzyme

D-Amino acid residues, found in countless peptides and natural products including ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs), are critical for the bioactivity of several antibiotics and toxins. Recently, radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) enzymes have emerged as the only biocatalysts capable of installing direct and irreversible epimerization in RiPPs. However, the mechanism underpinning this biochemical process is ill-understood and the structural basis for this post-translational modification remains unknown. Here we report an atomic-resolution crystal structure of a RiPP-modifying radical SAM enzyme in complex with its substrate properly positioned in the active site. Crystallographic snapshots, size-exclusion chromatography-small-angle x-ray scattering, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and biochemical analyses reveal how epimerizations are installed in RiPPs and support an unprecedented enzyme mechanism for peptide epimerization. Collectively, our study brings unique perspectives on how radical SAM enzymes interact with RiPPs and catalyze post-translational modifications in natural products.

Expanding the Landscape of Noncanonical Amino Acids in RiPP Biosynthesis

Advancements in DNA sequencing technologies and bioinformatics have enabled the discovery of new metabolic reactions from overlooked microbial species and metagenomic sequences. Using a bioinformatic co-occurrence strategy, we previously generated a network of ∼600 uncharacterized quorum-sensing-regulated biosynthetic gene clusters that code for ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide (RiPP) natural products and are tailored by radical S-adenosylmethionine (RaS) enzymes in streptococci. The most complex of these is the GRC subfamily, named after a conserved motif in the precursor peptide and found exclusively in Streptococcus pneumoniae, the causative agent of bacterial pneumonia. In this study, using both in vivo and in vitro approaches, we have elucidated the modifications installed by the grc biosynthetic enzymes, including a ThiF-like adenylyltransferase/cyclase that generates a C-terminal Glu-to-Cys thiolactone macrocycle, and two RaS enzymes, which selectively epimerize the β-carbon of threonine and desaturate histidine to generate the first instances of l-allo-Thr and didehydrohistidine in RiPP biosynthesis. RaS-RiPPs that have been discovered thus far have stood out for their exotic macrocycles. The product of the grc cluster breaks this trend by generating two noncanonical residues rather than an unusual macrocycle in the peptide substrate. These modifications expand the landscape of nonproteinogenic amino acids in RiPP natural product biosynthesis and motivate downstream biocatalytic applications of the corresponding enzymes.

Metabolic and chromosomal changes in a Bacillus subtilis whiA mutant

IMPORTANCE

WhiA is a conserved DNA-binding protein that influences cell division in many Gram-positive bacteria and, in B. subtilis, also chromosome segregation. How WhiA works in Bacillus subtilis is unknown. Here, we tested three hypothetical mechanisms using metabolomics, fatty acid analysis, and chromosome confirmation capture experiments. This revealed that WhiA does not influence cell division and chromosome segregation by modulating either central carbon metabolism or fatty acid composition. However, the inactivation of WhiA reduces short-range chromosome interactions. These findings provide new avenues to study the molecular mechanism of WhiA in the future.

The putative role of the epipeptide EpeX in Bacillus subtilis intra-species competition

Bacteria engage in competitive interactions with neighbours that can either be of the same or different species. Multiple mechanisms are deployed to ensure the desired outcome and one tactic commonly implemented is the production of specialised metabolites. The Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis uses specialized metabolites as part of its intra-species competition determinants to differentiate between kin and non-kin isolates. It is, however, unknown if the collection of specialized metabolites defines competitive fitness when the two isolates start as a close, interwoven community that grows into a densely packed colony biofilm. Moreover, the identity of specialized metabolites that have an active role in defining the outcome of an intra-species interaction has not been revealed. Here, we determine the competition outcomes that manifest when 21 environmental isolates of B. subtilis are individually co-incubated with the model isolate NCIB 3610 in a colony biofilm. We correlated these data with the suite of specialized metabolite biosynthesis clusters encoded by each isolate. We found that the epeXEPAB gene cluster was primarily present in isolates with a strong competitive phenotype. This cluster is responsible for producing the epipeptide EpeX. We demonstrated that EpeX is a competition determinant of B. subtilis in an otherwise isogenic context for NCBI 3610. However, when we competed the NCIB 3610 EpeX-deficient strain against our suite of environmental isolates we found that the impact of EpeX in competition is isolate-specific, as only one of the 21 isolates showed increased survival when EpeX was lacking. Taken together, we have shown that EpeX is a competition determinant used by B. subtilis that impacts intra-species interactions but only in an isolate-specific manner.

Interspecies interaction reduces selection for antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli

Evolution of microbial traits depends on the interaction of a species with its environment as well as with other coinhabiting species. However, our understanding of the evolution of specific microbial traits, such as antibiotic resistance in complex environments is limited. Here, we determine the role of interspecies interactions on the dynamics of nitrofurantoin (NIT) resistance selection among Escherichia coli. We created a synthetic two-species community comprised of two variants of E. coli (NIT susceptible and resistant) and Bacillus subtilis in minimal media with glucose as the sole carbon source. We show that the presence of B. subtilis significantly slows down the selection for the resistant E. coli mutant when NIT is present and that this slowdown is not due to competition for resources. Instead, the dampening of NIT resistance enrichment is largely mediated by extracellular compounds produced by B. subtilis with the peptide YydF playing a significant role. Our results not only demonstrate the impact of interspecies interactions on the evolution of microbial traits but also show the importance of using synthetic microbial systems in unravelling relevant interactions and mechanisms affecting the evolution of antibiotic resistance. This finding implies that interspecies interactions should be considered to better understand and predict resistance evolution in the clinic as well as in nature.

Mechanism of Action of Ribosomally Synthesized and Post-Translationally Modified Peptides

Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a natural product class that has undergone significant expansion due to the rapid growth in genome sequencing data and recognition that they are made by biosynthetic pathways that share many characteristic features. Their mode of actions cover a wide range of biological processes and include binding to membranes, receptors, enzymes, lipids, RNA, and metals as well as use as cofactors and signaling molecules. This review covers the currently known modes of action (MOA) of RiPPs. In turn, the mechanisms by which these molecules interact with their natural targets provide a rich set of molecular paradigms that can be used for the design or evolution of new or improved activities given the relative ease of engineering RiPPs. In this review, coverage is limited to RiPPs originating from bacteria.

Conserved Proline Residues of Bacillus subtilis Intramembrane Metalloprotease SpoIVFB Are Important for Substrate Interaction and Cleavage

Intramembrane metalloproteases (IMMPs) regulate diverse biological processes by cleaving membrane-associated substrates within the membrane or near its surface. SpoIVFB is an intramembrane metalloprotease of Bacillus subtilis that cleaves Pro-σK during endosporulation. Intramembrane metalloproteases have a broadly conserved NPDG motif, which in the structure of an archaeal enzyme is located in a short loop that interrupts a transmembrane segment facing the active site. The aspartate residue of the NPDG motif acts as a ligand of the zinc ion involved in catalysis. The functions of other residues in the short loop are less well understood. We found that the predicted short loop of SpoIVFB contains two highly conserved proline residues, P132 of the NPDG motif and P135. Mutational analysis revealed that both proline residues are important for Pro-σK cleavage in Escherichia coli engineered to synthesize the proteins. Substitutions for either residue also impaired the Pro-σK interaction with SpoIVFB in copurification assays. Disulfide cross-linking experiments showed that the predicted short loop of SpoIVFB is in proximity to the N-terminal pro-sequence region (Proregion) of Pro-σK. Alanine substitutions for N129 and P132 of the SpoIVFB NPDG motif reduced cross-linking between its predicted short loop and the Proregion more than a P135A substitution. Conversely, the SpoIVFB P135A substitution reduced Pro-σK cleavage more than the N129A and P132A substitutions during sporulation of B. subtilis. We conclude that all three conserved residues of SpoIVFB are important for substrate interaction and cleavage, and we propose that P135 is necessary to position D137 to act as a zinc ligand. IMPORTANCE Intramembrane metalloproteases (IMMPs) function in numerous signaling pathways. Bacterial IMMPs govern stress responses, including the sporulation of some species, thus enhancing the virulence and persistence of pathogens. Knowledge of IMMP-substrate interactions could aid therapeutic design, but structures of IMMP·substrate complexes are unknown. We examined the interaction of the IMMP SpoIVFB with its substrate Pro-σK, whose cleavage is required for Bacillus subtilis endosporulation. We found that conserved proline residues in a short loop predicted to interrupt a SpoIVFB transmembrane segment are important for Pro-σK binding and cleavage. The corresponding residues of the Escherichia coli IMMP RseP have also been shown to be important for substrate interaction and cleavage, suggesting that this is a broadly conserved feature of IMMPs, potentially suitable as a therapeutic target.

Radical SAM Enzymes and Ribosomally-Synthesized and Post-translationally Modified Peptides: A Growing Importance in the Microbiomes

To face the current antibiotic resistance crisis, novel strategies are urgently required. Indeed, in the last 30 years, despite considerable efforts involving notably high-throughput screening and combinatorial libraries, only few antibiotics have been launched to the market. Natural products have markedly contributed to the discovery of novel antibiotics, chemistry and drug leads, with more than half anti-infective and anticancer drugs approved by the FDA being of natural origin or inspired by natural products. Among them, thanks to their modular structure and simple biosynthetic logic, ribosomally synthesized and posttranslationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are promising scaffolds. In addition, recent studies have highlighted the pivotal role of RiPPs in the human microbiota which remains an untapped source of natural products. In this review, we report on recent developments in radical SAM enzymology and how these unique biocatalysts have been shown to install complex and sometimes unprecedented posttranslational modifications in RiPPs with a special focus on microbiome derived enzymes.

Identification of an RNA sponge that controls the RoxS riboregulator of central metabolism in Bacillus subtilis

sRNAs are a taxonomically-restricted but transcriptomically-abundant class of post-transcriptional regulators. While of major importance for adaption to the environment, we currently lack global-scale methodology enabling target identification, especially in species without known RNA hub proteins (e.g. Hfq). Using psoralen RNA cross-linking and Illumina-sequencing we identify RNA-RNA interacting pairs in vivo in Bacillus subtilis, resolving previously well-described interactants. Although sRNA-sRNA pairings are rare (compared with sRNA-mRNA), we identify a robust example involving the conserved sRNA RoxS and an unstudied sRNA RosA (Regulator of sRNA A). We show RosA to be the first confirmed RNA sponge described in a Gram-positive bacterium. RosA interacts with at least two sRNAs, RoxS and FsrA. The RosA/RoxS interaction not only affects the levels of RoxS but also its processing and regulatory activity. We also found that the transcription of RosA is repressed by CcpA, the key regulator of carbon-metabolism in B. subtilis. Since RoxS is already known to be transcriptionally controlled by malate via the transcriptional repressor Rex, its post-transcriptional regulation by CcpA via RosA places RoxS in a key position to control central metabolism in response to varying carbon sources.

A native conjugative plasmid confers potential selective advantages to plant growth-promoting Bacillus velezensis strain GH1-13

The conjugative plasmid (pBV71) possibly confers a selective advantage to Bacillus velezensis strain GH1-13, although a selective marker gene is yet to be identified. Here we show that few non-mucoid wild-type GH1-13 cells are spontaneously converted to mucoid variants with or without the loss of pBV71. Mucoid phenotypes, which contain or lack the plasmid, become sensitive to bacitracin, gramicidin, selenite, and tellurite. Using the differences in antibiotic resistance and phenotype, we isolated a reverse complement (COM) and a transconjugant of strain FZB42 with the native pBV71. Transformed COM and FZB42p cells were similar to the wild-type strain GH1-13 with high antibiotic resistance and slow growth rates on lactose compared to those of mucoid phenotypes. RT-PCR analysis revealed that the expression of plasmid-encoded orphan aspartate phosphatase (pRapD) was coordinated with a new quorum-sensing (QS) cassette of RapF2-PhrF2 present in the chromosome of strain GH1-13, but not in strain FZB42. Multi-omics analysis on wild-type and plasmid-cured cells of strain GH1-13 suggested that the conjugative plasmid expression has a crucial role in induction of early envelope stress response that promotes cell morphogenesis, biofilm formation, catabolite repression, and biosynthesis of extracellular-matrix components and antibiotics for protection of host cell during exponential phase.

Mini Review: Bacterial Membrane Composition and Its Modulation in Response to Stress

Antibiotics and other agents that perturb the synthesis or integrity of the bacterial cell envelope trigger compensatory stress responses. Focusing on Bacillus subtilis as a model system, this mini-review summarizes current views of membrane structure and insights into how cell envelope stress responses remodel and protect the membrane. Altering the composition and properties of the membrane and its associated proteome can protect cells against detergents, antimicrobial peptides, and pore-forming compounds while also, indirectly, contributing to resistance against compounds that affect cell wall synthesis. Many of these regulatory responses are broadly conserved, even where the details of regulation may differ, and can be important in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in clinical settings.

Metabolome Analysis of Constituents in Membrane Vesicles for Clostridium thermocellum Growth Stimulation

The cultivation of the cellulolytic bacterium, Clostridium thermocellum, can have cost-effective cellulosic biomass utilizations, such as consolidated bioprocessing, simultaneous biological enzyme production and saccharification. However, these processes require a longer cultivation term of approximately 1 week. We demonstrate that constituents of the C. thermocellum membrane vesicle fraction significantly promoted the growth rate of C. thermocellum. Similarly, cell-free Bacillus subtilis broth was able to increase C. thermocellum growth rate, while several B. subtilis single-gene deletion mutants, e.g., yxeJ, yxeH, ahpC, yxdK, iolF, decreased the growth stimulation ability. Metabolome analysis revealed signal compounds for cell–cell communication in the C. thermocellum membrane vesicle fraction (ethyl 2-decenoate, ethyl 4-decenoate, and 2-dodecenoic acid) and B. subtilis broth (nicotinamide, indole-3-carboxaldehyde, urocanic acid, nopaline, and 6-paradol). These findings suggest that the constituents in membrane vesicles from C. thermocellum and B. subtilis could promote C. thermocellum growth, leading to improved efficiency of cellulosic biomass utilization.

Mini Review: Bacterial Membrane Composition and Its Modulation in Response to Stress

Antibiotics and other agents that perturb the synthesis or integrity of the bacterial cell envelope trigger compensatory stress responses. Focusing on Bacillus subtilis as a model system, this mini-review summarizes current views of membrane structure and insights into how cell envelope stress responses remodel and protect the membrane. Altering the composition and properties of the membrane and its associated proteome can protect cells against detergents, antimicrobial peptides, and pore-forming compounds while also, indirectly, contributing to resistance against compounds that affect cell wall synthesis. Many of these regulatory responses are broadly conserved, even where the details of regulation may differ, and can be important in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in clinical settings.

New developments in RiPP discovery, enzymology and engineering

Covering: up to June 2020Ribosomally-synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a large group of natural products. A community-driven review in 2013 described the emerging commonalities in the biosynthesis of RiPPs and the opportunities they offered for bioengineering and genome mining. Since then, the field has seen tremendous advances in understanding of the mechanisms by which nature assembles these compounds, in engineering their biosynthetic machinery for a wide range of applications, and in the discovery of entirely new RiPP families using bioinformatic tools developed specifically for this compound class. The First International Conference on RiPPs was held in 2019, and the meeting participants assembled the current review describing new developments since 2013. The review discusses the new classes of RiPPs that have been discovered, the advances in our understanding of the installation of both primary and secondary post-translational modifications, and the mechanisms by which the enzymes recognize the leader peptides in their substrates. In addition, genome mining tools used for RiPP discovery are discussed as well as various strategies for RiPP engineering. An outlook section presents directions for future research.

The Epipeptide YydF Intrinsically Triggers the Cell Envelope Stress Response of Bacillus subtilis and Causes Severe Membrane Perturbations

The Gram-positive model organism and soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis naturally produces a variety of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), including the ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified AMP YydF, which is encoded in the yydFGHIJ locus. The yydF gene encodes the pre-pro-peptide, which is, in a unique manner, initially modified at two amino acid positions by the radical SAM epimerase YydG. Subsequently, the membrane-anchored putative protease YydH is thought to cleave and release the mature AMP, YydF, to the environment. The AMP YydF, with two discreet epimerizations among 17 residues as sole post-translational modification, defines a novel class of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) called epipeptides, for which the mode-of-action (MOA) is unknown. The predicted ABC transporter encoded by yydIJ was previously postulated as an autoimmunity determinant of B. subtilis against its own AMP. Here, we demonstrate that extrinsically added YydF^* kills B. subtilis cells by dissipating membrane potential via membrane permeabilization. This severe membrane perturbation is accompanied by a rapid reduction of membrane fluidity, substantiated by lipid domain formation. The epipeptide triggers a narrow and highly specific cellular response. The strong induction of liaIH expression, a marker for cell envelope stress in B. subtilis, further supports the MOA described above. A subsequent mutational study demonstrates that LiaIH—and not YydIJ—represents the most efficient resistance determinant against YydF^* action. Unexpectedly, none of the observed cellular effects upon YydF^* treatment alone are able to trigger liaIH expression, indicating that only the unique combination of membrane permeabilization and membrane rigidification caused by the epipetide, leads to the observed cell envelope stress response.

Coordinated Cell Death in Isogenic Bacterial Populations: Sacrificing Some for the Benefit of Many?

Antibiotics are classically perceived as biological weapons that bacteria produce to hold their ground against competing species in their natural habitat. But in the context of multicellular differentiation processes, antimicrobial compounds sometimes also play a role in intraspecies competition, resulting in the death of a sub-population of genetically identical siblings for the benefit of the population. Such a strategy is based on the diversification and hence phenotypic heterogeneity of an isogenic bacterial population. This review article will address three such phenomena. In Bacillus subtilis, cannibalism is a differentiation strategy that enhances biofilm formation, prolongs or potentially even prevents full commitment to endospore formation under starvation conditions, and protects cells within the biofilm against competing species. The nutrients released by lysed cells can be used by the toxin producers, thereby delaying the full activation of the master regulator of sporulation. A related strategy is associated with the initiation of competence development under nutrient excess in Streptococcus pneumoniae. This process, termed fratricide, causes allolysis in a sub-population and is thought to enhance genetic diversity within the species. In Myxococcus xanthus, a large fraction of the population undergoes programmed cell death during the formation of fruiting bodies. This sacrifice ensures the survival of the sporulating sub-population by providing nutrients and hence energy to complete this differentiation process. The biological relevance and underlying regulatory mechanisms of these three processes will be discussed in order to extract common features of such strategies. Moreover, open questions and future challenges will be addressed.

Peptide Epimerization Machineries Found in Microorganisms

D-Amino acid residues have been identified in peptides from a variety of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In microorganisms, UDP-N-acetylmuramic acid pentapeptide (UDP-MurNAc-L-Ala-D-Glu-meso-diaminopimelate-D-Ala-D-Ala), a unit of peptidoglycan, is a representative. During its biosynthesis, D-Ala and D-Glu are generally supplied by racemases from the corresponding isomers. However, we recently identified a unique unidirectional L-Glu epimerase catalyzing the epimerization of the terminal L-Glu of UDP-MurNAc-L-Ala-L-Glu. Several such enzymes, introducing D-amino acid resides into peptides via epimerization, have been reported to date. This includes a L-Ala-D/L-Glu epimerase, which is possibly used during peptidoglycan degradation. In bacterial primary metabolisms, to the best of our knowledge, these two machineries are the only examples of peptide epimerization. However, a variety of peptides containing D-amino acid residues have been isolated from microorganisms as secondary metabolites. Their biosynthetic mechanisms have been studied and three different peptide epimerization machineries have been reported. The first is non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS). Excellent studies with dissected modules of gramicidin synthetase and tyrocidine synthetase revealed the reactions of the epimerization domains embedded in the enzymes. The obtained information is still utilized to predict epimerization domains in uncharacterized NRPSs. The second includes the biosynthetic enzymes of lantibiotics, which are ribosome-dependently supplied peptide antibiotics containing polycyclic thioether amino acids (lanthionines). A mechanism for the formation of the D-Ala moiety in lanthionine by two enzymes, dehydratases catalyzing the conversion of L-Ser into dehydroalanine and enzymes catalyzing nucleophilic attack of the thiol of cysteine into dehydroalanine, was clarified. Similarly, the formation of a D-Ala residue by reduction of the dehydroalanine residue was also reported. The last type of machinery includes radical-S-adenosylmethionine (rSAM)-dependent enzymes, which catalyze a variety of radical-mediated chemical transformations. In the biosynthesis of polytheonamide, a marine sponge-derived and ribosome-dependently supplied peptide composed of 48 amino acids, a rSAM enzyme (PoyD) is responsible for unidirectional epimerizations of multiple different amino acids in the precursor peptide. In this review, we briefly summarize the discovery and current mechanistic understanding of these peptide epimerization enzymes.

Radical SAM Enzymes in the Biosynthesis of Ribosomally Synthesized and Post-translationally Modified Peptides (RiPPs)

Ribosomally-synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a large and diverse family of natural products. They possess interesting biological properties such as antibiotic or anticancer activities, making them attractive for therapeutic applications. In contrast to polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides, RiPPs derive from ribosomal peptides and are post-translationally modified by diverse enzyme families. Among them, the emerging superfamily of radical SAM enzymes has been shown to play a major role. These enzymes catalyze the formation of a wide range of post-translational modifications some of them having no counterparts in living systems or synthetic chemistry. The investigation of radical SAM enzymes has not only illuminated unprecedented strategies used by living systems to tailor peptides into complex natural products but has also allowed to uncover novel RiPP families. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on radical SAM enzymes catalyzing RiPP post-translational modifications and discuss their mechanisms and growing importance notably in the context of the human microbiota.

Radical S-Adenosylmethionine Enzymes Involved in RiPP Biosynthesis

Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) display a diverse range of structures and continue to expand as a natural product class. Accordingly, RiPPs exhibit a wide array of bioactivities, acting as broad and narrow spectrum growth suppressors, antidiabetics, and antinociception and anticancer agents. Because of these properties, and the complex repertoire of post-translational modifications (PTMs) that give rise to these molecules, RiPP biosynthesis has been intensely studied. RiPP biosynthesis often involves enzymes that perform unique chemistry with intriguing reaction mechanisms, which attract chemists and biochemists alike to study and re-engineer these pathways. One particular type of RiPP biosynthetic enzyme is the so-called radical S-adenosylmethionine (rSAM) enzyme, which utilizes radical-based chemistry to install several distinct PTMs. Here, we describe the rSAM enzymes characterized over the past decade that catalyze six reaction types from several RiPP biosynthetic pathways. We present the current state of mechanistic understanding and conclude with possible directions for future characterization of this enzyme family.

Post-translational modification of ribosomally synthesized peptides by a radical SAM epimerase in Bacillus subtilis

Ribosomally synthesized peptides are built out of L-amino acids, whereas D-amino acids are generally the hallmark of non-ribosomal synthetic processes. Here we show that the model bacterium Bacillus subtilis is able to produce a novel type of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide that contains D-amino acids, and which we propose to call epipeptides. We demonstrate that a two [4Fe-4S]-cluster radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) enzyme converts L-amino acids into their D-counterparts by catalysing C_α-hydrogen-atom abstraction and using a critical cysteine residue as the hydrogen-atom donor. Unexpectedly, these D-amino acid residues proved to be essential for the activity of a peptide that induces the expression of LiaRS, a major component of the bacterial cell envelope stress-response system. Present in B. subtilis and in several members of the human microbiome, these epipeptides and radical SAM epimerases broaden the landscape of peptidyl structures accessible to living organisms.

The cell envelope stress response of Bacillus subtilis: from static signaling devices to dynamic regulatory network

The cell envelope stress response (CESR) encompasses all regulatory events that enable a cell to protect the integrity of its envelope, an essential structure of any bacterial cell. The underlying signaling network is particularly well understood in the Gram-positive model organism Bacillus subtilis. It consists of a number of two-component systems (2CS) and extracytoplasmic function σ factors that together regulate the production of both specific resistance determinants and general mechanisms to protect the envelope against antimicrobial peptides targeting the biogenesis of the cell wall. Here, we summarize the current picture of the B. subtilis CESR network, from the initial identification of the corresponding signaling devices to unraveling their interdependence and the underlying regulatory hierarchy within the network. In the course of detailed mechanistic studies, a number of novel signaling features could be described for the 2CSs involved in mediating CESR. This includes a novel class of so-called intramembrane-sensing histidine kinases (IM-HKs), which-instead of acting as stress sensors themselves-are activated via interprotein signal transfer. Some of these IM-HKs are involved in sensing the flux of antibiotic resistance transporters, a unique mechanism of responding to extracellular antibiotic challenge.

Cannibalism stress response in Bacillus subtilis

When faced with carbon source limitation, the Gram-positive soil organism Bacillus subtilis initiates a survival strategy called sporulation, which leads to the formation of highly resistant endospores that allow B. subtilis to survive even long periods of starvation. In order to avoid commitment to this energy-demanding and irreversible process, B. subtilis employs another strategy called 'cannibalism' to delay sporulation as long as possible. Cannibalism involves the production and secretion of two cannibalism toxins, sporulation delaying protein (SDP) and sporulation killing factor (SKF), which are able to lyse sensitive siblings. The lysed cells are thought to then provide nutrients for the cannibals to slow down or even prevent them from entering sporulation. In this study, we uncovered the role of the cell envelope stress response (CESR), especially the Bce-like antimicrobial peptide detoxification modules, in the cannibalism stress response during the stationary phase. SDP and SKF specifically induce Bce-like systems and some extracytoplasmic function σ factors in stationary-phase cultures, but only the latter provide some degree of protection. A full Bce response is only triggered by mature toxins, and not by toxin precursors. Our study provides insights into the close relationship between stationary-phase survival and the CESR of B. subtilis.

The Role of α-CTD in the Genome-Wide Transcriptional Regulation of the Bacillus subtilis Cells

The amino acid sequence of the RNA polymerase (RNAP) α-subunit is well conserved throughout the Eubacteria. Its C-terminal domain (α-CTD) is important for the transcriptional regulation of specific promoters in both Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, through interactions with transcription factors and/or a DNA element called the "UP element". However, there is only limited information regarding the α-CTD regulated genes in B. subtilis and the importance of this subunit in the transcriptional regulation of B. subtilis. Here, we established strains and the growth conditions in which the α-subunit of RNAP was replaced with a C-terminally truncated version. Transcriptomic and ChAP-chip analyses revealed that α-CTD deficiency reduced the transcription and RNAP binding of genes related to the utilization of secondary carbon sources, transition state responses, and ribosome synthesis. In E. coli, it is known that α-CTD also contributes to the expression of genes related to the utilization of secondary carbon sources and ribosome synthesis. Our results suggest that the biological importance of α-CTD is conserved in B. subtilis and E. coli, but that its specific roles have diversified between these two bacteria.

Gene Regulation by the LiaSR Two-Component System in Streptococcus mutans

The LiaSR two-component signal transduction system regulates cellular responses to several environmental stresses, including those that induce cell envelope damages. Downstream regulons of the LiaSR system have been implicated in tolerance to acid, antibiotics and detergents. In the dental pathogen Streptococcus mutans, the LiaSR system is necessary for tolerance against acid, antibiotics, and cell wall damaging stresses during growth in the oral cavity. To understand the molecular mechanisms by which LiaSR regulates gene expression, we created a mutant LiaR in which the conserved aspartic acid residue (the phosphorylation site), was changed to alanine residue (D58A). As expected, the LiaR-D58A variant was unable to acquire the phosphate group and bind to target promoters. We also noted that the predicted LiaR-binding motif upstream of the lia operon does not appear to be well conserved. Consistent with this observation, we found that LiaR was unable to bind to the promoter region of lia; however, we showed that LiaR was able to bind to the promoters of SMU.753, SMU.2084 and SMU.1727. Based on sequence analysis and DNA binding studies we proposed a new 25-bp conserved motif essential for LiaR binding. Introducing alterations at fully conserved positions in the 25-bp motif affected LiaR binding, and the binding was dependent on the combination of positions that were altered. By scanning the S. mutans genome for the occurrence of the newly defined LiaR binding motif, we identified the promoter of hrcA (encoding a key regulator of the heat shock response) that contains a LiaR binding motif, and we showed that hrcA is negatively regulated by the LiaSR system. Taken together our results suggest a putative role of the LiaSR system in heat shock responses of S. mutans.

In Bacillus subtilis LutR is part of the global complex regulatory network governing the adaptation to the transition from exponential growth to stationary phase

The lutR gene, encoding a product resembling a GntR-family transcriptional regulator, has previously been identified as a gene required for the production of the dipeptide antibiotic bacilysin in Bacillus subtilis. To understand the broader regulatory roles of LutR in B. subtilis, we studied the genome-wide effects of a lutR null mutation by combining transcriptional profiling studies using DNA microarrays, reverse transcription quantitative PCR, lacZ fusion analyses and gel mobility shift assays. We report that 65 transcriptional units corresponding to 23 mono-cistronic units and 42 operons show altered expression levels in lutR mutant cells, as compared with lutR + wild-type cells in early stationary phase. Among these, 11 single genes and 25 operons are likely to be under direct control of LutR. The products of these genes are involved in a variety of physiological processes associated with the onset of stationary phase in B. subtilis, including degradative enzyme production, antibiotic production and resistance, carbohydrate utilization and transport, nitrogen metabolism, phosphate uptake, fatty acid and phospholipid biosynthesis, protein synthesis and translocation, cell-wall metabolism, energy production, transfer of mobile genetic elements, induction of phage-related genes, sporulation, delay of sporulation and cannibalism, and biofilm formation. Furthermore, an electrophoretic mobility shift assay performed in the presence of both SinR and LutR revealed a close overlap between the LutR and SinR targets. Our data also revealed a significant overlap with the AbrB regulon. Together, these findings reveal that LutR is part of the global complex, interconnected regulatory systems governing adaptation of bacteria to the transition from exponential growth to stationary phase.

SmbFT, a putative ABC transporter complex, confers protection against the lantibiotic Smb in Streptococci

Streptococcus mutans, a dental pathogen, secretes different kinds of lantibiotic and nonlantibiotic bacteriocins. For self-protection, a bacteriocin producer strain must possess one or more cognate immunity mechanisms. We report here the identification of one such immunity complex in S. mutans strain GS-5 that confers protection against Smb, a two-component lantibiotic. The immunity complex that we identified is an ABC transporter composed of two proteins: SmbF (the ATPase component) and SmbT (the permease component). Both of the protein-encoding genes are located within the smb locus. We show that GS-5 becomes sensitized to Smb upon deletion of smbT, which makes the ABC transporter nonfunctional. To establish the role SmbFT in providing immunity, we heterologously expressed this ABC transporter complex in four different sensitive streptococcal species and demonstrated that it can confer resistance against Smb. To explore the specificity of SmbFT in conferring resistance, we tested mutacin IV (a nonlantibiotic), nisin (a single peptide lantibiotics), and three peptide antibiotics (bacitracin, polymyxin B, and vancomycin). We found that SmbFT does not recognize these structurally different peptides. We then tested whether SmbFT can confer protection against haloduracin, another two-component lantibiotic that is structurally similar to Smb; SmbFT indeed conferred protection against haloduracin. SmbFT can also confer protection against an uncharacterized but structurally similar lantibiotic produced by Streptococcus gallolyticus. Our data suggest that SmbFT truly displays immunity function and confer protection against Smb and structurally similar lantibiotics.

Conjugative transfer and cis-mobilization of a genomic island by an integrative and conjugative element of Streptococcus agalactiae

Putative integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs), i.e., genomic islands which could excise, self-transfer by conjugation, and integrate into the chromosome of the bacterial host strain, were previously identified by in silico analysis in the sequenced genomes of Streptococcus agalactiae (M. Brochet et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:6913-6917, 2008). We investigated here the mobility of the elements integrated into the 3' end of a tRNA(Lys) gene. Three of the four putative ICEs tested were found to excise but only one (ICE_515_tRNA(Lys)) was found to transfer by conjugation not only to S. agalactiae strains but also to a Streptococcus pyogenes strain. Transfer was observed even if recipient cell already carries a related resident ICE or a genomic island flanked by attL and attR recombination sites but devoid of conjugation or recombination genes (CIs-Mobilizable Element [CIME]). The incoming ICE preferentially integrates into the 3' end of the tRNA(Lys) gene (i.e., the attR site of the resident element), leading to a CIME-ICE structure. Transfer of the whole composite element CIME-ICE was obtained, showing that the CIME is mobilizable in cis by the ICE. Therefore, genomic islands carrying putative virulence genes but lacking the mobility gene can be mobilized by a related ICE after site-specific accretion.

RapA2 is a calcium-binding lectin composed of two highly conserved cadherin-like domains that specifically recognize Rhizobium leguminosarum acidic exopolysaccharides

In silico analyses have revealed a conserved protein domain (CHDL) widely present in bacteria that has significant structural similarity to eukaryotic cadherins. A CHDL domain was shown to be present in RapA, a protein that is involved in autoaggregation of Rhizobium cells, biofilm formation, and adhesion to plant roots as shown by us and others. Structural similarity to cadherins suggested calcium-dependent oligomerization of CHDL domains as a mechanistic basis for RapA action. Here we show by circular dichroism spectroscopy, light scattering, isothermal titration calorimetry, and other methods that RapA2 from Rhizobium leguminosarum indeed exhibits a cadherin-like β-sheet conformation and that its proper folding and stability are dependent on the binding of one calcium ion per protein molecule. By further in silico analysis we also reveal that RapA2 consists of two CHDL domains and expand the range of CHDL-containing proteins in bacteria and archaea. However, light scattering assays at various concentrations of added calcium revealed that RapA2 formed neither homo-oligomers nor hetero-oligomers with RapB (a distinct CHDL protein), indicating that RapA2 does not mediate cellular interactions through a cadherin-like mechanism. Instead, we demonstrate that RapA2 interacts specifically with the acidic exopolysaccharides (EPSs) produced by R. leguminosarum in a calcium-dependent manner, sustaining a role of these proteins in the development of the biofilm matrix made of EPS. Because EPS binding by RapA2 can only be attributed to its two CHDL domains, we propose that RapA2 is a calcium-dependent lectin and that CHDL domains in various bacterial and archaeal proteins confer carbohydrate binding activity to these proteins.

The WalRK (YycFG) and σ(I) RsgI regulators cooperate to control CwlO and LytE expression in exponentially growing and stressed Bacillus subtilis cells

The WalRK (YycFG) two-component system co-ordinates cell wall metabolism with growth by regulating expression of autolysins and proteins that modulate autolysin activity. Here we extend its role in cell wall metabolism by showing that WalR binds to 22 chromosomal loci in vivo. Among the newly identified genes of the WalRK bindome are those that encode the wall-associated protein WapA, the penicillin binding proteins PbpH and Pbp5, the minor teichoic acid synthetic enzymes GgaAB and the regulators σ(I) RsgI. The putative WalR binding sequence at many newly identified binding loci deviates from the previously defined consensus. Moreover, expression of many newly identified operons is controlled by multiple regulators. An unusual feature is that WalR binds to an extended DNA region spanning multiple open reading frames at some loci. WalRK directly activates expression of the sigIrsgI operon from a newly identified σ(A) promoter and represses expression from the previously identified σ(I) promoter. We propose that this regulatory link between WalRK and σ(I) RsgI expression ensures that the endopeptidase requirement (CwlO or LytE) for cell viability is fulfilled during growth and under stress conditions. Thus the WalRK and σ(I) RsgI regulatory systems cooperate to control cell wall metabolism in growing and stressed cells.

ABC transporters of antimicrobial peptides in Firmicutes bacteria - phylogeny, function and regulation

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a group of antibiotics that mainly target the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. Resistance is achieved by a variety of mechanisms including target alterations, changes in the cell's surface charge, expression of immunity peptides or by dedicated ABC transporters. The latter often provide the greatest level of protection. Apart from resistance, ABC transporters are also required for the export of peptides during biosynthesis. In this review the different AMP transporters identified to date in Firmicutes bacteria were classified into five distinct groups based on their domain architecture, two groups with a role in biosynthesis, and three involved in resistance. Comparison of the available information for each group regarding function, transport mechanism and gene regulation revealed distinguishing characteristics as well as common traits. For example, a strong correlation between transporter group and mode of gene regulation was observed, with three different types of two-component systems as well as XRE family transcriptional regulators commonly associated with individual transporter groups. Furthermore, the presented summary of the state-of-the-art on AMP transport in Firmicutes bacteria, discussed in the context of transporter phylogeny, provides insights into the mechanisms of substrate translocation and how this may result in resistance against compounds that bind extracellular targets.

Biological systems discovery in silico: radical S-adenosylmethionine protein families and their target peptides for posttranslational modification

Data mining methods in bioinformatics and comparative genomics commonly rely on working definitions of protein families from prior computation. Partial phylogenetic profiling (PPP), by contrast, optimizes family sizes during its searches for the cooccurring protein families that serve different roles in the same biological system. In a large-scale investigation of the incredibly diverse radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) enzyme superfamily, PPP aided in building a collection of 68 TIGRFAMs hidden Markov models (HMMs) that define nonoverlapping and functionally distinct subfamilies. Many identify radical SAM enzymes as molecular markers for multicomponent biological systems; HMMs defining their partner proteins also were constructed. Newly found systems include five groupings of protein families in which at least one marker is a radical SAM enzyme while another, encoded by an adjacent gene, is a short peptide predicted to be its substrate for posttranslational modification. The most prevalent, in over 125 genomes, featuring a peptide that we designate SCIFF (six cysteines in forty-five residues), is conserved throughout the class Clostridia, a distribution inconsistent with putative bacteriocin activity. A second novel system features a tandem pair of putative peptide-modifying radical SAM enzymes associated with a highly divergent family of peptides in which the only clearly conserved feature is a run of His-Xaa-Ser repeats. A third system pairs a radical SAM domain peptide maturase with selenocysteine-containing targets, suggesting a new biological role for selenium. These and several additional novel maturases that cooccur with predicted target peptides share a C-terminal additional 4Fe4S-binding domain with PqqE, the subtilosin A maturase AlbA, and the predicted mycofactocin and Nif11-class peptide maturases as well as with activators of anaerobic sulfatases and quinohemoprotein amine dehydrogenases. Radical SAM enzymes with this additional domain, as detected by TIGR04085, significantly outnumber lantibiotic synthases and cyclodehydratases combined in reference genomes while being highly enriched for members whose apparent targets are small peptides. Interpretation of comparative genomics evidence suggests unexpected (nonbacteriocin) roles for natural products from several of these systems.

Rgg proteins associated with internalized small hydrophobic peptides: a new quorum-sensing mechanism in streptococci

We identified a genetic context encoding a transcriptional regulator of the Rgg family and a small hydrophobic peptide (SHP) in nearly all streptococci and suggested that it may be involved in a new quorum-sensing mechanism, with SHP playing the role of a pheromone. Here, we provide further support for this hypothesis by constructing a phylogenetic tree of the Rgg and Rgg-like proteins from Gram-positive bacteria and by studying the shp/rgg1358 locus of Streptococcus thermophilus LMD-9. We identified the shp1358 gene as a target of Rgg1358, and used it to confirm the existence of the steps of a quorum-sensing mechanism including secretion, maturation and reimportation of the pheromone into the cell. We used surface plasmon resonance to demonstrate interaction between the pheromone and the regulatory protein and performed electrophoretic mobility shift assays to assess binding of the transcriptional regulator to the promoter regions of its target genes. The active form of the pheromone was identified by mass spectrometry. Our findings demonstrate that the shp/rgg1358 locus encodes two components of a novel quorum-sensing mechanism involving a transcriptional regulator of the Rgg family and a SHP pheromone that is detected and reimported into the cell by the Ami oligopeptide transporter.

A phenotypic microarray analysis of a Streptococcus mutans liaS mutant

Streptococcus mutans, a biofilm-forming Gram-positive bacterium that resides in the human oral cavity, is considered to be the primary aetiological agent of human dental caries. A cell-envelope stress-sensing histidine kinase, LiaS, is considered to be important for expression of virulence factors such as glucan-binding protein C and mutacin production. In this study, a liaS mutant was subjected to phenotypic microarray (PM) analysis of about 2000 phenotypes, including utilization of various carbon, nitrogen, phosphate and sulfur sources; osmolytes; metabolic inhibitors; and susceptibility to toxic compounds, including several types of antibiotics. Compared to the parental strain UA159, the liaS mutant strain (IBS148) was more tolerant to various inhibitors that target protein synthesis, DNA synthesis and cell-wall biosynthesis. Some of the key findings of the PM analysis were confirmed in independent growth studies and by using antibiotic discs and E-test strips for susceptibility testing.