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Gwynne L, Williams GT, Yan KC, Patenall BL, Gardiner JE, He XP, Maillard JY, James TD, Sedgwick AC, Jenkins ATA. TCF-ALP: a fluorescent probe for the selective detection of Staphylococcus bacteria and application in "smart" wound dressings. Biomater Sci 2021; 9:4433-4439. [PMID: 34075906 PMCID: PMC8204156 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm01918f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an important enzyme-based biomarker present in several bacterial species; however, it is currently undervalued as a strategy to detect pathogenic bacteria. Here, we explore our ALP-responsive colorimetric and fluorescent probe (TCF-ALP) for such applications. TCF-ALP displayed a colorimetric and fluorescence response towards Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), with a limit of detection of 3.7 × 106 CFU mL-1 after 24 h incubation. To our surprise, TCF-ALP proved selective towards Staphylococcus bacteria when compared with Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis), and Gram-negative P. aeruginosa and E. coli. Selectivity was also seen in clinically relevant S. aureus biofilms. Owing to the high prevalence and surface location of S. aureus in chronic wounds, TCF-ALP was subsequently encapsulated in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based hydrogels as a proof-of-concept "smart" wound dressing. TCF-ALP hydrogels were capable of detecting S. aureus in planktonic and biofilm assays, and displayed a clear colour change from yellow to purple after 24 h incubation using ex vivo porcine skin models. Overall, TCF-ALP is a simple tool that requires no prior knowledge, training, or specialist equipment, and has the potential to overcome issues related to invasive swabbing and tissue biopsy methods. Thus, TCF-ALP could be used as a tool to monitor the early development of infection in a wound and allow for the rapid provision of appropriate treatment for Staphylococcal bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Gwynne
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - George T Williams
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, UK. and School of Physical sciences, University of Kent, CT2 7NH, UK
| | - Kai-Cheng Yan
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Frontiers Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, P. R. China
| | | | | | - Xiao-Peng He
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Frontiers Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, P. R. China
| | - Jean-Yves Maillard
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, CF10 3NB, UK
| | - Tony D James
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, UK. and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Adam C Sedgwick
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, 105 E 24th St A5300, Austin, Texas 78712-1224, USA
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González F, Munoz J, Arias JM, Montoya E. Production of acid and alkaline phosphatases by Myxococcus coralloides. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 1989; 34:185-94. [PMID: 2509312 DOI: 10.1007/bf02821291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Acid and alkaline phosphatase of Myxococcus coralloides were examined during vegetative growth in a liquid medium. Two extracellular phosphatases and two cell-bound phosphatases, acid and alkaline in both cases, were produced. The phosphatase production was unaltered by the presence of high concentrations of inorganic phosphate. Both enzymes were produced constitutively. These two hydrolases were released into the growth medium during the exponential growth phase (approximately 10% of total activity). The production of these enzymes was modified by the presence of organic acids and metal ions in the medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- F González
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Unversidad de Granada, Spain
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5
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Ghosh R, Ghosh A, Ghosh BK. Properties of the membrane-bound alkaline phosphatase from glucose- and lactate-grown cells of Bacillus subtilis SB 15. J Biol Chem 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)39922-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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6
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Patni NJ, Dhawale SW, Aaronson S. Extracellular phosphatases of Chlamydomonas reinhardi and their regulation. J Bacteriol 1977; 130:205-11. [PMID: 15977 PMCID: PMC235195 DOI: 10.1128/jb.130.1.205-211.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydomonas reinhardi, cultured under normal growth conditions, secreted significant amounts of protein and carbohydrates but not lipids or nucleic acids. A fivefold increase in light intensity led to a tenfold increase in secreted protein and carbohydrate. Among the proteins secreted was acid phosphatase with a pH optimum at 4.8 like the enzyme in the cells. Phosphorus depleted algae grown on minimal orthophosphate contained and secreted both acid and alkaline phosphatase. The pH optimum of the intracellular alkaline phosphatase was 9.2. When phosphorus-depleted cells were grown with increasing orthophosphate, intra- and extracellular alkaline phosphatase was almost completely repressed and intra- and extracellular acid phosphatase was partially repressed. Extracellular acid and alkaline phosphatase increased with the age of the culture. Electrophoresis indicated only one acid and one alkaline phosphatase in phosphorus-satisfied and phosphorus-depleted cells. Chlamydomonas cells suspended in an inorganic salt solution secreted only acid phosphatase; the absence of any extr-cellular cytoplasmic marker enzyme indicated that there was little, if any, autolysis to account for the extracellular acid enzyme. Phosphorus-depleted cells were able to grow on organic phosphates as the sole source of orthophosphate. Ribose-5-phosphate was the best for cell multiplication, and its utility was shown to be due to the cell's ability to use the ribose as well as the orthophosphatase for cell multiplication.
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8
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Bandyopadhyay SK, Majumdar SK. Role of the host in the chemotherapy of infectious diseases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1974; 5:431-4. [PMID: 15825401 PMCID: PMC428988 DOI: 10.1128/aac.5.4.431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of a washed-cell system to study the factors controlling the synthesis of alkaline phosphatase and neomycin by
Streptomyces fradiae
has shown that calcium and magnesium salts are stimulatory, with maximal synthesis of both achieved with a combination of these salts. Among all the carbon sources studied, only arabinose induces alkaline phosphatase synthesis, whereas glucose and other carbon sources inhibit the synthesis of the enzyme. Asparagine is a very good inducer of enzyme and neomycin synthesis, with lysine and alanine having lower stimulatory effects. The appearance of alkaline phosphatase is due to de novo protein synthesis as demonstrated by the inhibition of its synthesis in the presence of chloramphenicol. There is a good correlation between the synthesis of alkaline phosphatase and neomycin biosynthesis.
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12
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Glenn AR, Mandelstam J. Sporulation in Bacillus subtilis 168. Comparison of alkaline phosphatase from sporulating and vegetative cells. Biochem J 1971; 123:129-38. [PMID: 5001777 PMCID: PMC1176915 DOI: 10.1042/bj1230129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
1. The purification of the ;vegetative' alkaline phosphatase of Bacillus subtilis 168 was simplified by ionic elution of the enzyme from intact cells. 2. The enzyme has a molecular weight of about 70000 and treatment of the enzyme with 10mm-hydrochloric acid or 6.0m-guanidine hydrochloride, beta-mercaptoethanol (0.1m) gives rise to enzymically inactive subunits. 3. The amino acid composition of the enzyme was determined. The N-terminal residue determined by the DNS chloride method is glycine. 4. The properties of this enzyme were compared with the ;sporulation' alkaline phosphatase of the same strain. 5. Although the ;sporulation' enzyme differs from the ;vegetative' enzyme in its physiology of appearance and apparent mRNA stability, an examination of properties of the enzymes revealed no differences. 6. The enzyme from both cell forms is bound to the particulate fraction of cell extracts, but can be solubilized by high concentrations of magnesium chloride; removal of the magnesium chloride, by dialysis, results in precipitation of both enzymes. Both enzymes can be removed from intact cells by ionic elution. 7. The ;vegetative' and ;sporulation' enzymes have identical pH optima, K(m) and K(i) values and electrophoretic mobilities in cellulose acetate. 8. Their half-life is 28min at 65 degrees C and their Q(10) is 1.25. 9. The molecular size determined by gel filtration on Sephadex G-100 is about 69000. 10. ;Vegetative' and ;sporulation' forms gave precipitin lines that were continuous and non-spurred when tested against antiserum prepared against the ;vegetative' enzyme. 11. The ;sporulation' alkaline phosphatase appears to be associated with stage II of sporulation and appears to be induced by something specifically concerned in sporulation and not by phosphate starvation.
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Majumdar MK, Majumdar SK. Relationship between alkaline phosphatase and neomycin formation in Streptomyces fradiae. Biochem J 1971; 122:397-404. [PMID: 5001321 PMCID: PMC1176793 DOI: 10.1042/bj1220397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Studies on phosphatase activity of Streptomyces fradiae 3535 grown in three different media indicate that neomycin formation varies directly with enzyme activity, sodium nitrate-maltose-mineral salts medium giving the highest yields of alkaline phosphatase and neomycin. S. fradiae contains more than one alkaline phosphatase and the phosphatase responsible for hydrolysis of neomycin phosphate appears to be substrate specific. The same enzyme apparently hydrolyses both the N-P and P-O-P bonds of neomycin pyrophosphate. The enzyme is stimulated by Ca(2+), is inactive at a pH below 7 and is inhibited by EDTA. Enzymic activity increases when mycelia are incubated in mineral salts medium, but decreases when phosphate or glucose is included in the medium, although the latter is more effective. The inhibitory effect of EDTA on neomycin formation by resting mycelia is completely reversed by Ca(2+).
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Malveaux FJ, Clemente CL. Staphylococcal acid phosphatase: extensive purification and characterization of the loosely bound enzyme. J Bacteriol 1969; 97:1209-14. [PMID: 5776528 PMCID: PMC249836 DOI: 10.1128/jb.97.3.1209-1214.1969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Acid phosphatase of Staphylococcus aureus PS55 was eluted from the surface of these cells with 1.0 m KCl at pH 8.5 by gentle agitation at 25 C and was purified 44-fold (51% recovery) by two cycles of dialysis and gel filtration. The eluted enzyme which had a 280/260 (nm) absorbancy ratio of 0.71 required at least 0.5 m salt solution for solubilization; however, most of the purified product which had a 280/260 (nm) absorbancy ratio of 1.72 was soluble in dilute buffer solution [0.01 m tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane chloride, pH 8.5]. Purified acid phosphatase appeared homogeneous according to the criteria of gel filtration, starch-block electrophoresis, and analytical ultracentrifugation. In a starch block, migration was toward the cathode at pH 8.0. Maximal activity occurred at pH 5.2 to 5.3 and salt concentration had little effect on phosphatase activity up to 1.0 m KCl or NaCl. Progressive loss of enzymatic acitivity occurred at higher salt concentrations. Molecular weight of purified acid phosphatase was estimated to be 58,000.
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