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Broderick JB, Duffus B, Duschene KS, Shepard EM. Radical S-adenosylmethionine enzymes. Chem Rev 2014; 114:4229-317. [PMID: 24476342 PMCID: PMC4002137 DOI: 10.1021/cr4004709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 574] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joan B. Broderick
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Benjamin
R. Duffus
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Kaitlin S. Duschene
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Eric M. Shepard
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
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He Q, He Z, Joyner DC, Joachimiak M, Price MN, Yang ZK, Yen HCB, Hemme CL, Chen W, Fields MM, Stahl DA, Keasling JD, Keller M, Arkin AP, Hazen TC, Wall JD, Zhou J. Impact of elevated nitrate on sulfate-reducing bacteria: a comparative study of Desulfovibrio vulgaris. ISME JOURNAL 2010; 4:1386-97. [PMID: 20445634 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2010.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Sulfate-reducing bacteria have been extensively studied for their potential in heavy-metal bioremediation. However, the occurrence of elevated nitrate in contaminated environments has been shown to inhibit sulfate reduction activity. Although the inhibition has been suggested to result from the competition with nitrate-reducing bacteria, the possibility of direct inhibition of sulfate reducers by elevated nitrate needs to be explored. Using Desulfovibrio vulgaris as a model sulfate-reducing bacterium, functional genomics analysis reveals that osmotic stress contributed to growth inhibition by nitrate as shown by the upregulation of the glycine/betaine transporter genes and the relief of nitrate inhibition by osmoprotectants. The observation that significant growth inhibition was effected by 70 mM NaNO(3) but not by 70 mM NaCl suggests the presence of inhibitory mechanisms in addition to osmotic stress. The differential expression of genes characteristic of nitrite stress responses, such as the hybrid cluster protein gene, under nitrate stress condition further indicates that nitrate stress response by D. vulgaris was linked to components of both osmotic and nitrite stress responses. The involvement of the oxidative stress response pathway, however, might be the result of a more general stress response. Given the low similarities between the response profiles to nitrate and other stresses, less-defined stress response pathways could also be important in nitrate stress, which might involve the shift in energy metabolism. The involvement of nitrite stress response upon exposure to nitrate may provide detoxification mechanisms for nitrite, which is inhibitory to sulfate-reducing bacteria, produced by microbial nitrate reduction as a metabolic intermediate and may enhance the survival of sulfate-reducing bacteria in environments with elevated nitrate level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang He
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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Joe Shaw A, Jenney FE, Adams MW, Lynd LR. End-product pathways in the xylose fermenting bacterium, Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum. Enzyme Microb Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2008.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Structure and function of enzymes involved in the anaerobic degradation of L-threonine to propionate. J Biosci 2007; 32:1195-206. [PMID: 17954980 DOI: 10.1007/s12038-007-0121-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, L-threonine is cleaved non-oxidatively to propionate via 2-ketobutyrate by biodegradative threonine deaminase, 2-ketobutyrate formate-lyase (or pyruvate formate-lyase), phosphotransacetylase and propionate kinase. In the anaerobic condition, L-threonine is converted to the energy-rich keto acid and this is subsequently catabolised to produce ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation, providing a source of energy to the cells. Most of the enzymes involved in the degradation of L-threonine to propionate are encoded by the anaerobically regulated tdc operon. In the recent past, extensive structural and biochemical studies have been carried out on these enzymes by various groups. Besides detailed structural and functional insights, these studies have also shown the similarities and differences between the other related enzymes present in the metabolic network. In this paper, we review the structural and biochemical studies carried out on these enzymes.
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Xu K, Elliott T. Cloning, DNA sequence, and complementation analysis of the Salmonella typhimurium hemN gene encoding a putative oxygen-independent coproporphyrinogen III oxidase. J Bacteriol 1994; 176:3196-203. [PMID: 8195073 PMCID: PMC205488 DOI: 10.1128/jb.176.11.3196-3203.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Coproporphyrinogen oxidation is a last step in heme biosynthesis. The biochemically characterized eukaryotic coproporphyrinogen III oxidases have an obligate requirement for molecular oxygen, and a similar enzyme is encoded by the hemF gene in Salmonella typhimurium. Anaerobic heme synthesis requires an oxygen-independent coproporphyrinogen oxidase, which is probably encoded by the hemN gene in S. typhimurium. The hemN gene has been cloned from an insertion mutant. The nucleotide sequence was obtained and used for PCR amplification of the wild-type gene. A single open reading frame was identified as the hemN gene on the basis of its interruption by the insertion mutation and plasmid complementation studies of hemF hemN double mutants. The predicted HemN protein has 38% amino acid sequence identity to a putative anaerobic Rhodobacter sphaeroides coproporphyrinogen oxidase. The hemN RNA 5' end and the inferred transcription initiation site were mapped by primer extension. The 52.8-kDa HemN protein is expressed from the second ATG codon of the hemN open reading frame. An open reading frame with an unknown function directly upstream of hemN has a striking amino acid sequence, including 11 acidic residues in a row.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Xu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham 35294
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Knappe J, Sawers G. A radical-chemical route to acetyl-CoA: the anaerobically induced pyruvate formate-lyase system of Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Rev 1990; 6:383-98. [PMID: 2248795 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1990.tb04108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaerobically growing Escherichia coli cells contain the enzyme pyruvate formate-lyase which catalyses the non-oxidative cleavage of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and formate. The enzyme is subject to interconversion between inactive and active forms. The active form contains an oxygen-sensitive organic free radical located on the polypeptide chain which is essential for catalysis. It affords a novel homolytic C-C bond cleavage of the pyruvate substrate. The radical is generated by an iron-dependent converter enzyme which requires reduced flavodoxin and adenosyl methionine as co-substrates and pyruvate as a positive allosteric effector. A second converter enzyme, also iron-dependent, accomplishes the removal of the radical. This post-translational interconversion cycle controls the activity state of pyruvate formate-lyase in the anaerobic cell. Anaerobic conditions also regulate pyruvate formate-lyase at the level of gene expression. Multiple promoters are responsible for effecting a twelve to fifteen fold induction and they are coordinately controlled in response to the oxygen and metabolic status of the cell by sequences which are located far upstream of the pfl coding region. The transcription factor Fnr has been identified as being responsible for part of the anaerobic control of pfl expression, probably through direct interaction with the upstream sequences. In contrast, the expression of the gene encoding the first iron-dependent converter enzyme is unaffected by anaerobiosis and is independent of the Fnr protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Knappe
- Institut für Biologische Chemie, Universität Heidelberg, F.R.G
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Takahashi N, Abbe K, Takahashi-Abbe S, Yamada T. Oxygen sensitivity of sugar metabolism and interconversion of pyruvate formate-lyase in intact cells of Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguis. Infect Immun 1987; 55:652-6. [PMID: 3818089 PMCID: PMC260389 DOI: 10.1128/iai.55.3.652-656.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyruvate formate-lyase (PFL) (formate acetyltransferase; EC 2.3.1.54) of oral streptococci is essential for metabolizing sugar into volatile compounds (formate, acetate, and ethanol). This enzyme is extremely sensitive to oxygen, and its activity is irreversibly inactivated by oxygen. When Streptococcus sanguis was anaerobically starved, a part of the active form of PFL was converted into a reversible inactive form that was tolerant of oxygen. This reversible inactive enzyme could be reactivated to the active enzyme by anaerobic sugar metabolism, with the recovery of volatile compound production. The PFL in Streptococcus mutans was not converted into an oxygen-tolerant inactive form by anaerobic starvation, and after exposure of the cells to oxygen the PFL could not be reactivated. These findings suggest that S. mutans can produce acids rapidly under anaerobic conditions because of its capacity to keep PFL active and that S. sanguis can protect its sugar metabolism from oxygen impairment because of its interconversion of PFL.
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Distler W, Kröncke A. Acid formation by mixed cultures of dental plaque bacteria Actinomyces and Veillonella. Arch Oral Biol 1981; 26:123-6. [PMID: 7023440 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9969(81)90081-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Distler W, Kröncke A. The lactate metabolism of the oral bacterium Veillonella from human saliva. Arch Oral Biol 1981; 26:657-61. [PMID: 6947771 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9969(81)90162-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Knappe J, Schmitt T. A novel reaction of S-adenosyl-L-methionine correlated with the activation of pyruvate formate-lyase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1976; 71:1110-7. [PMID: 971302 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(76)90768-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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13
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Knappe J, Blaschkowski HP. Pyruvate formate-lyase from Escherischia coli and its activation system. Methods Enzymol 1975; 41:508-18. [PMID: 1092964 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(75)41107-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Knappe J, Blaschkowski HP, Gröbner P, Schmitt T. Pyruvate formate-lyase of Escherichia coli: the acetyl-enzyme intermediate. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1974; 50:253-63. [PMID: 4615902 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1974.tb03894.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Abstract
Radioisotopic growth studies with specifically labeled (14)C-glucose confirmed that Ruminococcus albus, strain 7, ferments glucose mainly by the Embden-Myerhof-Parnas pathway to acetate, ethanol, formate, CO(2), H(2), and an unidentified product. Cell suspensions and extracts converted pyruvate to acetate, H(2), CO(2), and a small amount of ethanol. Formate was not produced from pyruvate and was not degraded to H(2) and CO(2), indicating that formate was not an intermediate in the production of H(2) and CO(2) from pyruvate. Cell extract and (14)C-glucose growth studies showed that the H(2)-producing pyruvate lyase reaction is the major route of H(2) and CO(2) production. An active pyruvate-(14)CO(2) exchange reaction was demonstrable with cell extracts. The (14)C-glucose growth studies indicated that formate, as well as CO(2), arises from the 3 and 4 carbon positions of glucose. A formate-producing pyruvate lyase system was not demonstrable either by pyruvate-(14)C-formate exchange or by net formate formation from pyruvate. Growth studies with unlabeled glucose and labeled (14)CO(2) or (14)C-formate suggest that formate arises from the 3 and 4 carbon positions of glucose by an irreversible reduction of CO(2). The results of the studies on the time course of formate production showed that formate production is a late function of growth, and the rate of production, as well as the total amount produced, increases as the glucose concentration available to the organism increases.
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Schön G, Biedermann M. Growth and adaptive hydrogen production of Rhodospirillum rubrum (F 1 ) in anaerobic dark cultures. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1973; 304:65-75. [PMID: 4633594 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(73)90115-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Wood NP, Jungermann K. Inactivation of the pyruvate formate lyase of Clostridium butyricum. FEBS Lett 1972; 27:49-52. [PMID: 11946805 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(72)80407-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N P. Wood
- Biochemisches Institut der Universität Freiburg, 78, Freiburg, Germany
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Thauer RK, Kirchniawy FH, Jungermann KA. Properties and function of the pyruvate-formate-lyase reaction in clostridiae. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1972; 27:282-90. [PMID: 4340563 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1972.tb01837.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Zappia V, Ayala F. Studies on the activation of lysine-2,3-aminomutase by (-)-S-adenosyl-L-methionine. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1972; 268:573-80. [PMID: 5026313 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2744(72)90354-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Abstract
Preparations of pyruvate formate-lyase were made from Escherichia coli cells. Net reversal of the "phosphoroclastic split" of pyruvate was readily demonstrated with these preparations. Incubation of acetyl phosphate with formate resulted in the accumulation of pyruvate in concentrations up to 0.5 mm. Catalytic amounts of coenzyme A were essential. Pyruvate was also readily formed from acetyl coenzyme A and formate. The equilibrium constant of the reaction (pyruvate(-) + HPO(4) (2-) --> acetyl phosphate(2-) + formate(-)) has been determined to be about 23 at 37 C.
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Raeburn S, Rabinowitz JC. Pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase. II. Characteristics of the forward and reverse reactions and properties of the enzyme. Arch Biochem Biophys 1971; 146:21-33. [PMID: 4335483 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9861(71)80037-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Salvatore F, Utili R, Zappia V, Shapiro SK. Quantitative analysis of S-adenosylmethionine and S-adenosylhomocysteine in animal tissues. Anal Biochem 1971; 41:16-28. [PMID: 4325338 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(71)90187-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Nakayama H, Midwinter GG, Krampitz LO. Properties of the pyruvate formate-lyase reaction. Arch Biochem Biophys 1971; 143:526-34. [PMID: 4934183 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(71)90237-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Dietrich J, Henning U. Regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex synthesis in Escherichia coli K 12. Identification of the inducing metabolite. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1970; 14:258-69. [PMID: 4918556 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1970.tb00285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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The Regulation of Methionine Synthesis and the Nature of Cystathionine γ-Synthase in Neurospora. J Biol Chem 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)77168-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Hespell RB, Joseph R, Mortlock RP. Requirement for coenzyme A in the phosphoroclastic reaction of anaerobic bacteria. J Bacteriol 1969; 100:1328-34. [PMID: 4982893 PMCID: PMC250329 DOI: 10.1128/jb.100.3.1328-1334.1969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Various bacteria which degrade pyruvate by the phosphoroclastic reaction were examined with respect to the role of coenzyme A (CoA) in this reaction. The strictly anaerobic bacteria, which cleave pyruvate by the phosphoroclastic reaction characteristic of Clostridia, required catalytic levels of CoA for the CO(2)-pyruvate exchange and acetoin-forming portions of the phosphoroclastic reaction. These reactions were reversibly inhibited by the CoA analogue, desulfo-CoA. In contrast, using cell-free extracts of bacteria which degrade pyruvate by the coliform phosphoroclastic reaction (pyruvate formate-lyase), no requirement for CoA could be observed for the formate-pyruvate exchange reaction. It is suggested that CoA serves a regulatory function in the early portion of the clostridal type of phosphoroclastic reaction.
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Knappe J, Schacht J, Möckel W, Höpner T, Vetter H, Edenharder R. Pyruvate formate-lyase reaction in Escherichia coli. The enzymatic system converting an inactive form of the lyase into the catalytically active enzyme. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1969; 11:316-27. [PMID: 4902610 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1969.tb00775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Lindmark DG, Paolella P, Wood NP. The Pyruvate Formate-lyase System of Streptococcus faecalis. J Biol Chem 1969. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)83412-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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