Transactivation of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) Infected Cell Protein 4 Enhancer by Glucocorticoid Receptor and Stress-Induced Transcription Factors Requires Overlapping Krüppel-Like Transcription Factor 4/Sp1 Binding Sites

Human alpha-herpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) viral replication and reactivation from latency are expedited by the glucocorticoid receptor

Acute human alpha-herpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) infection leads to infection of neurons within trigeminal ganglia (TG), brainstem, and other regions of the central nervous system. Lytic cycle viral gene expression is subsequently silenced, a subset of neurons survive infection, and life-long latency is established. In contrast to lytic infection, the latency-associated transcript (LAT) is the only viral gene product abundantly expressed in latently infected neurons. Stress (acute or chronic), UV light, or heat stress increases the incidence of reactivation from latency in humans and mouse models of infection. Ironically, these divergent reactivation stimuli activate the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Recent studies revealed GR and Krüppel-like factors (KLF), KLF4 or KLF15 for example, cooperatively transactivate the infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) promoter and cis-regulatory motifs that activate ICP4 and ICP27 promoter activity. GR and KLF4 are "pioneer transcription factors" that specifically bind DNA even when it exists as heterochromatin; consequently, chromatin is remodeled, and transcription is activated. Conversely, a VP16 cis-regulatory motif is transactivated by GR and Slug but not KLF family members. Female mice that express a GR containing a serine → alanine mutation at position 229 (GRS229A) shed significantly lower HSV-1 levels compared with age-matched male GRS229A mice or wild-type parental C57BL/6 mice during reactivation from latency. These observations imply GR and stress-induced cellular transcription factors play an important role during reactivation from latency by activating key viral promoters. GR activation may also enhance virus spread by impairing immune and inflammatory responses.

Murine nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) harbors human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) DNA during latency, and dexamethasone triggers viral replication

Human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) acute infection causes conjunctivitis, encephalitis, genital lesions, and herpes esophagitis. Following acute infection, HSV-1 and other alpha-herpesvirinae subfamily members establish life-long latency in neurons within the trigeminal ganglia and central nervous system. Notably, certain animal alpha-herpesvirinae subfamily members, including bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), canine herpesvirus 1, equine herpesvirus 4, and pseudorabies virus, establish a quiescent/latent infection in tonsils. BoHV-1 viral gene expression and virus shedding from tonsils also occur during reactivation from latency in calves. Consequently, we tested whether nasopharyngeal lymphoid tissue (NALT) harbors HSV-1 DNA in latently infected mice because it is structurally and functionally comparable with tonsils. NALT prepared from latently infected mice consistently contained viral DNA, but infectious virus was not detected. In contrast to latently infected TG neurons, the HSV-1 latency-associated transcript was not detected in NALT of latently infected mice. HSV-1 DNA levels, immediate early RNA expression, and virus shedding were readily detected when NALT explants were cultured with a medium containing the synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone for 48 h. Increased viral DNA and virus production were not detected in NALT explants when incubated with a medium lacking dexamethasone. Sorting cells from NALT of HSV-1 latently infected mice revealed that dendritic cells, microfold cells, and natural killer cells, but not B or T cells, harbor HSV-1 DNA, and infectious virus was readily detected when cultured in medium containing dexamethasone. In summary, certain NALT cells consistently contain viral DNA in latently infected mice, and dexamethasone triggers viral gene expression and virus production.

IMPORTANCE

Human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) acute infection causes various diseases, including herpes esophagitis. HSV-1 subsequently establishes lifelong latency in neurons within the trigeminal ganglia and central nervous system. Viral DNA, but not infectious virus, was consistently detected in nasopharyngeal lymphoid tissue (NALT) of latently infected mice. NALT is structurally and functionally comparable with the tonsils of other mammals, including humans. RNA and protein expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) and ICP4 plus virus production were consistently detected when NALT explants were cultured with a medium containing dexamethasone, a synthetic corticosteroid. Sorting NALT cells from HSV-1 latently infected mice revealed dendritic cells, microfold cells, and natural killer cells that harbor HSV-1 DNA. Virus shedding was readily detected when viral DNA-positive NALT cells were cultured in a medium containing dexamethasone. These studies revealed that specific NALT cells harbor viral DNA, and dexamethasone triggered viral replication and virus production, suggesting that reactivation from a latent or quiescent infection had occurred.

Distinct effects of glucocorticoid on pseudorabies virus infection in neuron-like and epithelial cells

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a porcine neurotropic alphaherpesvirus that infects peripheral tissues of its host, spreads into the nervous system, and establishes a life-long latency in neuronal cells. During productive infection, PRV replicates rapidly and causes pseudorabies or Aujeszky's disease. Reactivation from latent infection in the nervous system may lead to anterograde axonal transport of progeny virions, leading to recurrent infection of the epithelial layer and virus spread. Dexamethasone (DEX), a member of the glucocorticoid family that is widely used in clinical treatment as a high-efficiency glucocorticoid receptor (GR) agonist, is known to trigger reactivation of alphaherpesviruses like PRV and the closely related bovine alphaherpesvirus 1. In the current study, two cell type-dependent distinct regulatory mechanisms of glucocorticoid during PRV infection are described. In neuron-like cells, DEX upregulates expression of PRV IE180 and promotes viral productive infection. In addition, we found that GR activates the IE180 promoter by binding multiple GR response elements. The amino acids A465, P631, and I634 in GR were found to be critical for IE180 promoter activation. The impact of DEX on PRV productive infection in epithelial cells was also investigated. Interestingly, DEX was found to downregulate IE180 expression and suppress PRV infection in epithelial cells. Mechanistically, in epithelial cells, activation of the IE180 promoter by the VP16/Oct-1 (octamer-binding transcription factor 1) complex was suppressed by DEX-mediated degradation of Oct-1 in epithelial cells. In summary, our work reveals two distinct, cell type-dependent biological functions of glucocorticoid during PRV infection in neuron-like and epithelial cells, respectively.IMPORTANCEPseudorabies virus (PRV) can infect mucosal epithelium and the peripheral nervous system of its host, resulting in acute infection in epithelial cells and neuronal cells. In this study, we describe that glucocorticoid promotes PRV replication in neuron-like cells while it suppresses productive infection in epithelial cells through distinct regulations of the viral transactivator IE180, thereby revealing a cell type-dependent regulatory mechanism of glucocorticoid on PRV infection. Therefore, our findings provide a new perspective on the role of glucocorticoids during PRV infection.

Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) and Specificity Protein 1 (Sp1) or Sp3 Transactivate the Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1)-Infected Cell Protein 0 Early Promoter

Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) acute infection leads to latently infected sensory neurons in trigeminal ganglia. During lytic infection, the immediate early expression of infected cell protein 0 (bICP0) and bICP4 is regulated by an immediate early transcription unit 1 (IEtu1) promoter. A separate bICP0 early (E) promoter drives bICP0 as an early viral gene, presumably to sustain high levels during productive infection. Notably, bICP0 protein expression is detected before bICP4 during reactivation from latency, suggesting the bICP0 E promoter drives bICP0 protein expression during the early phases of reactivation from latency. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) cooperatively transactivate the bICP0 E promoter despite this promoter lacks a consensus GR response element (GRE). KLF and specificity protein (Sp) family members comprise a "super-family" of transcription factors. Consequently, we hypothesized Sp1 and Sp3 transactivated the bICP0 E promoter. These studies revealed GR and Sp3 or Sp1 cooperatively transactivated bICP0 E promoter activity. KLF4 and Sp3, but not Sp1, had an additive effect on bICP0 E promoter activity. Mutating the consensus Sp1 and CACCC binding sites proximal to the TATA box impaired promoter activity more than the Sp1 sites further upstream from the TATA box.

Mechanisms of HSV gene regulation during latency and reactivation

Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) are prevalent human pathogens associated with many diseases. After productive (lytic) infection in peripheral tissues, HSV establishes lifelong latent infection in neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Periodic reactivation from latency, triggered by certain stimuli, can resume the lytic cycle. Lytic infection, latent infection and reactivation follow distinct viral gene expression patterns. The switch between the different infection programs is controlled by complicated regulatory mechanisms involving numerous viral and host molecules. Recent studies integrating cutting-edge technologies including neuronal culture techniques have greatly improved our understanding of the molecular details of latency and reactivation but many questions remain. This review summarizes the current knowledge about how HSV gene expression is regulated during latency and reactivation and discusses the important questions remaining to be addressed in future.

Glucocorticoid receptor and specificity protein 1 (Sp1) or Sp3 transactivate HSV-1 ICP0 promoter sequences but a GC-rich binding antibiotic, Mithramycin A, impairs reactivation from latency

Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activation enhances Human alpha-herpes virus 1 (HSV-1) replication and explant-induced reactivation from latency. Furthermore, GR and Krüppel-like factor 15 (KLF15) cooperatively transactivate cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) that drive expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), ICP4, and ICP27. KLF and specificity protein (Sp) family members bind GC-rich or C-rich sequences and belong to the same super-family of transcription factors. Based on these observations, we hypothesized CRMs spanning the ICP0 promoter are transactivated by GR and Sp1 or Sp3. CRM-A (-800 to -635), CRM-B (-485 to -635), and CRM-D (-232 to -24), but not CRM-C, were significantly transactivated by GR, DEX, and Sp1 or Sp3 in mouse neuroblastoma cells (Neuro-2A). Mutagenesis of Sp1/Sp3 binding sites were important for transactivation of CRM-A and CRM-B. Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies revealed significantly higher levels of GR occupied ICP0 promoter sequences when Sp1 or Sp3 was over-expressed suggesting these transcriptions factors recruit GR to ICP0 CRM sequences. Mithramycin A, an antibiotic that preferentially binds GC-rich DNA and impairs Sp1/Sp3 dependent transactivation and reduced virus shedding during reactivation from latency in mice latently infected with HSV-1. These studies indicate GR and certain stress-induced cellular transcription factors preferentially bind GC rich DNA, which stimulates HSV-1 gene expression and reactivation from latency in trigeminal ganglia of latently infected mice.

The immunobiology of corneal HSV-1 infection and herpetic stromal keratitis

SUMMARYHuman alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) is a highly successful neurotropic pathogen that primarily infects the epithelial cells lining the orofacial mucosa. After primary lytic replication in the oral, ocular, and nasal mucosal epithelial cells, HSV-1 establishes life-long latency in neurons within the trigeminal ganglion. Patients with compromised immune systems experience frequent reactivation of HSV-1 from latency, leading to virus entry in the sensory neurons, followed by anterograde transport and lytic replication at the innervated mucosal epithelial surface. Although recurrent infection of the corneal mucosal surface is rare, it can result in a chronic immuno-inflammatory condition called herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK). HSK leads to gradual vision loss and can cause permanent blindness in severe untreated cases. Currently, there is no cure or successful vaccine to prevent latent or recurrent HSV-1 infections, posing a significant clinical challenge to managing HSK and preventing vision loss. The conventional clinical management of HSK primarily relies on anti-virals to suppress HSV-1 replication, anti-inflammatory drugs (such as corticosteroids) to provide symptomatic relief from pain and inflammation, and surgical interventions in more severe cases to replace damaged cornea. However, each clinical treatment strategy has limitations, such as local and systemic drug toxicities and the emergence of anti-viral-resistant HSV-1 strains. In this review, we summarize the factors and immune cells involved in HSK pathogenesis and highlight alternate therapeutic strategies for successful clinical management of HSK. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of immunoregulatory cytokines and immunometabolism modulators as promising HSK therapies against emerging anti-viral-resistant HSV-1 strains.

Glucocorticoid receptor and specificity protein 1 (Sp1) or Sp3, but not the antibiotic Mithramycin A, stimulates human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) replication

Following acute human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) infection of oral-facial mucosal surfaces, sensory neurons in trigeminal ganglia (TG) are important sites for life-long latency. Neurons in the central nervous system, including brainstem, also harbor viral genomes during latency. Periodically, certain cellular stressors trigger reactivation from latency, which can lead to recurrent HSV-1 disease: herpes labialis, herpes stromal keratitis, and encephalitis for example. Activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) by stressful stimuli enhances HSV-1 gene expression, replication, and explant-induced reactivation. GR and certain stress-induced Krüppel like factors (KLF) cooperatively transactivate cis-regulatory modules (CRM) that drive expression of viral transcriptional regulatory proteins (ICP0, ICP4, and ICP27). These CRMs lack GR response elements (GRE); however, specificity protein 1 (Sp1) binding sites are crucial for GR and KLF15 or KLF4 mediated transactivation. Hence, we tested whether Sp1 or Sp3 regulate viral replication and transactivation of the ICP0 promoter. During early stages of explant-induced reactivation from latency, the number of Sp3+ TG neurons were significantly higher relative to TG from latently infected mice. Conversely, Sp1+ TG neurons were only increased in females, but not male mice, during explant-induced reactivation. Sp1 siRNA significantly reduced HSV-1 replication in cultured mouse (Neuro-2A) and monkey (CV-1) cells. Mithramycin A, an antibiotic that has anti-tumor activity preferentially interacts with GC-rich DNA, including Sp1 binding sites, significantly reduced HSV-1 replication indicating it has antiviral activity. GR and Sp1 or Sp3 transactivated the HSV-1 ICP0 promoter in Neuro-2A and CV-1 cells confirming these transcription factors enhance viral replication and gene expression.

The immunobiology of herpes simplex virus encephalitis and post-viral autoimmunity

Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) is the leading cause of non-epidemic encephalitis in the developed world and, despite antiviral therapy, mortality and morbidity is high. The emergence of post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis reveals a new immunological paradigm in autoantibody-mediated disease. A reductionist evaluation of the immunobiological mechanisms in HSE is crucial to dissect the origins of post-viral autoimmunity and supply rational approaches to the selection of immunotherapeutics. Herein, we review the latest evidence behind the phenotypic progression and underlying immunobiology of HSE including the cytokine/chemokine environment, the role of pathogen-recognition receptors, T- and B-cell immunity and relevant inborn errors of immunity. Second, we provide a contemporary review of published patients with post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis from a combined cohort of 110 patients. Third, we integrate novel mechanisms of autoimmunization in deep cervical lymph nodes to explore hypotheses around post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis and challenge these against mechanisms of molecular mimicry and others. Finally, we explore translational concepts where neuroglial surface autoantibodies have been observed with other neuroinfectious diseases and those that generate brain damage including traumatic brain injury, ischaemic stroke and neurodegenerative disease. Overall, the clinical and immunological landscape of HSE is an important and evolving field, from which precision immunotherapeutics could soon emerge.

Sp1 facilitates continued HSV-1 gene expression in the absence of key viral transactivators

Productive replication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) relies upon a well-ordered transcriptional cascade flowing from immediate-early (IE) to early (E) to late (L) gene products. While several virus-encoded transcriptional activators are involved in this process, IE and E gene promoters also contain multiple binding sites for the ubiquitously expressed cellular transcription factor Sp1. Sp1 has been previously implicated in activating HSV-1 gene transcription downstream of these sites, but why Sp1-binding sites are maintained in the promoters of genes activated by virus-encoded activators remains unclear. We hypothesized that Sp1 enables continued HSV-1 transcription and replication when viral transactivators are limited. We used a depletion-based approach in human foreskin fibroblasts to investigate the specific contribution of Sp1 to the initiation and progression of the HSV-1 lytic gene cascade. We found that Sp1 increased viral transcript levels, protein expression, and replication following infection with VP16- or ICP0-deficient viruses but had little to no effect on rescued viruses or during wild-type (WT) HSV-1 infection. Moreover, Sp1 promoted WT virus transcription and replication following interferon treatment of fibroblasts and thus may contribute to viral immune evasion. Interestingly, we observed reduced expression of Sp1 and Sp1-family transcription factors in differentiated sensory neurons compared to undifferentiated cells, suggesting that reduced Sp1 levels may also contribute to HSV-1 latent infection. Overall, these findings indicate that Sp1 can promote HSV-1 gene expression in the absence of key viral transactivators; thus, HSV-1 may use Sp1 to maintain its gene expression and replication under adverse conditions.IMPORTANCEHerpes simplex virus (HSV) is a common human pathogen that actively replicates in the epithelia but can persist for the lifetime of the infected host via a stable, latent infection in neurons. A key feature of the HSV replication cycle is a complex transcriptional program in which virus and host-cell factors coordinate to regulate expression of the viral gene products necessary for continued viral replication. Multiple binding sites for the cellular transcription factor Sp1 are located in the promoters of HSV-1 genes, but how Sp1 binding contributes to transcription and replication of wild-type virus is not fully understood. In this study, we identified a specific role for Sp1 in maintaining HSV-1 gene transcription under adverse conditions, as when virus-encoded transcriptional activators were absent or limited. Preservation of Sp1-binding sites in HSV-1 gene promoters may thus benefit the virus as it navigates diverse cell types and host-cell conditions during infection.

c-Jun signaling during initial HSV-1 infection modulates latency to enhance later reactivation in addition to directly promoting the progression to full reactivation

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) establishes a latent infection in peripheral neurons and periodically reactivates to permit transmission, which can result in clinical manifestations. Viral transactivators required for lytic infection are largely absent during latent infection, and therefore, HSV-1 relies on the co-option of neuronal host signaling pathways to initiate its gene expression. The activation of the neuronal c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) cell stress pathway is central to initiating biphasic reactivation in response to multiple stimuli. However, how host factors work with JNK to stimulate the initial wave of gene expression (known as Phase I) or the progression to full Phase II reactivation remains unclear. Here, we found that c-Jun, the primary target downstream of neuronal JNK cell stress signaling, functions during reactivation but not during the JNK-mediated initiation of Phase I gene expression. Instead, c-Jun was required to transition from Phase I to full HSV-1 reactivation and was detected in viral replication compartments of reactivating neurons. Interestingly, we also identified a role for both c-Jun and enhanced neuronal stress during initial neuronal infection in promoting a more reactivation-competent form of HSV-1 latency. Therefore, c-Jun functions at multiple stages during the HSV latent infection of neurons to promote reactivation but not during the initial JNK-dependent Phase I. Importantly, by demonstrating that initial infection conditions can contribute to later reactivation abilities, this study highlights the potential for latently infected neurons to maintain a molecular scar of previous exposure to neuronal stressors.IMPORTANCEThe molecular mechanisms that regulate the reactivation of herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) from latent infection are unknown. The host transcription and pioneer factor c-Jun is the main target of the JNK cell stress pathway that is known to be important in exit of HSV from latency. Surprisingly, we found that c-Jun does not act with JNK during exit from latency but instead promotes the transition to full reactivation. Moreover, c-Jun and enhanced neuronal stress during initial neuronal infection promoted a more reactivation-competent form of HSV-1 latency. c-Jun, therefore, functions at multiple stages during HSV-1 latent infection of neurons to promote reactivation. Importantly, this study contributes to a growing body of evidence that de novo HSV-1 infection conditions can modulate latent infection and impact future reactivation events, raising important questions on the clinical impact of stress during initial HSV-1 acquisition on future reactivation events and consequences.

Specificity protein 1 (Sp1) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) stimulate bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) replication and cooperatively transactivate the immediate early transcription unit 1 promoter

Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) infections cause respiratory tract disorders and suppress immune responses, which can culminate in bacterial pneumonia. Following acute infection, BoHV-1 establishes lifelong latency in sensory neurons present in trigeminal ganglia (TG) and unknown cells in pharyngeal tonsil. Latently infected calves consistently reactivate from latency after an intravenous injection of the synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone (DEX), which mimics the effects of stress. The immediate early transcription unit 1 (IEtu1) promoter drives expression of infected cell protein 0 (bICP0) and bICP4, two key viral transcriptional regulators. The IEtu1 promoter contains two functional glucocorticoid receptor (GR) response elements (GREs), and this promoter is transactivated by GR, DEX, and certain Krüppel transcription factors that interact with GC-rich motifs, including consensus specificity protein 1 (Sp1) binding sites. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that Sp1 stimulates productive infection and transactivates key BoHV-1 promoters. DEX treatment of latently infected calves increased the number of Sp1+ TG neurons and cells in pharyngeal tonsil indicating that Sp1 expression is induced by stress. Silencing Sp1 protein expression with siRNA or mithramycin A, a drug that preferentially binds GC-rich DNA, significantly reduced BoHV-1 replication. Moreover, BoHV-1 infection of permissive cells increased Sp1 steady-state protein levels. In transient transfection studies, GR and Sp1 cooperatively transactivate IEtu1 promoter activity unless both GREs are mutated. Co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that GR and Sp1 interact in mouse neuroblastoma cells (Neuro-2A) suggesting this interaction stimulates IEtu1 promoter activity. Collectively, these studies suggested that the cellular transcription factor Sp1 enhances productive infection and stress-induced BoHV-1 reactivation from latency.IMPORTANCEFollowing acute infection, bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) establishes lifelong latency in sensory neurons in trigeminal ganglia (TG) and pharyngeal tonsil. The synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone consistently induces BoHV-1 reactivation from latency. The number of TG neurons and cells in pharyngeal tonsil expressing the cellular transcription factor specificity protein 1 (Sp1) protein increases during early stages of dexamethasone-induced reactivation from latency. Silencing Sp1 expression impairs BoHV-1 replication in permissive cells. Interestingly, mithramycin A, a neuroprotective antibiotic that preferentially binds GC-rich DNA, impairs Sp1 functions and reduces BoHV-1 replication suggesting that it is a potential antiviral drug. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and Sp1 cooperatively transactivate the BoHV-1 immediate early transcript unit 1 (IEtu1) promoter, which drives expression of infected cell protein 0 (bICP0) and bICP4. Mithramycin A also reduced Sp1- and GR-mediated transactivation of the IEtu1 promoter. These studies revealed that GR and Sp1 trigger viral gene expression and replication following stressful stimuli.

Intimate Relationship Between Stress and Human Alpha‑Herpes Virus 1 (HSV‑1) Reactivation from Latency

Purpose of Review

Numerous studies concluded stress (acute, episodic acute, or chronic) increases the incidence of human alpha-herpes virus 1 (HSV-1) reactivation from latency in neurons. This review will summarize how stress stimulates viral gene expression, replication, and reactivation from latency.

Recent Findings

Stress (capital S) stress-mediated activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) accelerates reactivation from latency, whereas a corticosteroid-specific antagonist impairs viral replication and reactivation from latency. GR and specific stress-induced cellular transcription factors also stimulate viral promoters that drive expression of key viral transcriptional regulators: infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), ICP4, ICP27 and viral tegument protein (VP16). Hence, GR is predicted to initially stimulate viral gene expression. GR-mediated immune-inhibitory functions are also predicted to enhance viral replication and viral spread.

Summary

Identifying cellular factors and viral regulatory proteins that trigger reactivation from latency in neurons may provide new therapeutic strategies designed to reduce the incidence of reactivation from latency.

c-Jun Signaling During Initial HSV-1 Infection Modulates Latency to Enhance Later Reactivation in addition to Directly Promoting the Progression to Full Reactivation

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) establishes a latent infection in peripheral neurons and can periodically reactivate to permit transmission and clinical manifestations. Viral transactivators required for lytic infection are largely absent during latent infection and therefore HSV-1 relies on the co-option of neuronal host signaling pathways to initiate its gene expression. Activation of the neuronal c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) cell stress pathway is central to initiating biphasic reactivation in response to multiple stimuli. However, how host factors work with JNK to stimulate the initial wave of gene expression (known as Phase I) or the progression to full, Phase II reactivation remains unclear. Here, we found that c-Jun, the primary target downstream of neuronal JNK cell stress signaling, functions during reactivation but not during the JNK-mediated initiation of Phase I gene expression. Instead, c-Jun was required for the transition from Phase I to full HSV-1 reactivation and was detected in viral replication compartments of reactivating neurons. Interestingly, we also identified a role for both c-Jun and enhanced neuronal stress during initial neuronal infection in promoting a more reactivation-competent form of HSV-1 latency. Therefore, c-Jun functions at multiple stages during HSV latent infection of neurons to promote reactivation. Importantly, by demonstrating that initial infection conditions can contribute to later reactivation abilities, this study highlights the potential for latently infected neurons to maintain a molecular scar of previous exposure to neuronal stressors.

Impaired glucocorticoid receptor function attenuates herpes simplex virus 1 production during explant-induced reactivation from latency in female mice

IMPORTANCE

A correlation exists between stress and increased episodes of human alpha-herpes virus 1 reactivation from latency. Stress increases corticosteroid levels; consequently, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is activated. Recent studies concluded that a GR agonist, but not an antagonist, accelerates productive infection and reactivation from latency. Furthermore, GR and certain stress-induced transcription factors cooperatively transactivate promoters that drive the expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), ICP4, and VP16. This study revealed female mice expressing a GR containing a serine to alanine mutation at position 229 (GRS229A) shed significantly lower levels of infectious virus during explant-induced reactivation compared to male GRS229A or wild-type parental C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, female GRS229A mice contained fewer VP16 + TG neurons compared to male GRS229A mice or wild-type mice during the early stages of explant-induced reactivation from latency. Collectively, these studies revealed that GR transcriptional activity has female-specific effects, whereas male mice can compensate for the loss of GR transcriptional activation.

Pioneer factors in viral infection

Pioneer factors are transcription factors sharing the fascinating ability to bind to compact chromatin and thereby alter its transcriptional fate. Most pioneer factors are known for their importance during embryonic development, for instance, in inducing zygotic genome activation or cell fate decision. Some pioneer factors are actively induced or downregulated by viral infection. With this, viruses are capable to modulate different signaling pathways resulting for example in MHC-receptor up/downregulation which contributes to viral immune evasion. In this article, we review the current state of research on how different viruses (Herpesviruses, Papillomaviruses and Hepatitis B virus) use pioneer factors for their viral replication and persistence in the host, as well as for the development of viral cancer.

Slug, a Stress-Induced Transcription Factor, Stimulates Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Replication and Transactivates a cis-Regulatory Module within the VP16 Promoter

Stress-mediated activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and specific stress-induced transcription factors stimulate herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) productive infection, explant-induced reactivation, and immediate early (IE) promoters that drive expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), ICP4, and ICP27. Several published studies concluded the virion tegument protein VP16, ICP0, and/or ICP4 drives early steps of reactivation from latency. Notably, VP16 protein expression was induced in trigeminal ganglionic neurons of Swiss Webster or C57BL/6J mice during early stages of stress-induced reactivation. If VP16 mediates reactivation, we hypothesized stress-induced cellular transcription factors would stimulate its expression. To address this hypothesis, we tested whether stress-induced transcription factors transactivate a VP16 cis-regulatory module (CRM) located upstream of the VP16 TATA box (-249 to -30). Initial studies revealed the VP16 CRM cis-activated a minimal promoter more efficiently in mouse neuroblastoma cells (Neuro-2A) than mouse fibroblasts (NIH-3T3). GR and Slug, a stress-induced transcription factor that binds enhancer boxes (E-boxes), were the only stress-induced transcription factors examined that transactivated the VP16 CRM construct. GR- and Slug-mediated transactivation was reduced to basal levels when the E-box, two 1/2 GR response elements (GREs), or NF-κB binding site was mutated. Previous studies revealed GR and Slug cooperatively transactivated the ICP4 CRM, but not ICP0 or ICP27. Silencing of Slug expression in Neuro-2A cells significantly reduced viral replication, indicating Slug-mediated transactivation of ICP4 and VP16 CRM activity correlates with enhanced viral replication and reactivation from latency. IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes lifelong latency in several types of neurons. Periodically cellular stressors trigger reactivation from latency. Viral regulatory proteins are not abundantly expressed during latency, indicating cellular transcription factors mediate early stages of reactivation. Notably, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and certain stress-induced transcription factors transactivate cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) essential for expression of infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) and ICP4, key viral transcriptional regulatory proteins linked to triggering reactivation from latency. Virion protein 16 (VP16) specifically transactivates IE promoter and was also reported to mediate early stages of reactivation from latency. GR and Slug, a stress-induced enhancer box (E-box) binding protein, transactivate a minimal promoter downstream of VP16 CRM, and these transcription factors occupy VP16 CRM sequences in transfected cells. Notably, Slug stimulates viral replication in mouse neuroblastoma cells suggesting Slug, by virtue of transactivating VP16 and ICP4 CRM sequences, can trigger reactivation in certain neurons.

Oncolytic HSV-1 suppresses cell invasion through downregulating Sp1 in experimental glioblastoma

Gliomas are highly aggressive intracranial tumors that are difficult to resect and have high lethality and recurrence rates. According to WHO grading criteria, glioblastoma with wild-type IDH1 has a poorer prognosis than WHO grade 4 IDH-mutant astrocytomas. To date, no effective therapeutic strategies have been developed to treat glioblastoma. Clinical trials have shown that herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 is the safest and most efficacious oncolytic virus against glioblastoma, but the molecular antitumor mechanism of action of HSV-1 has not yet been determined. Deletion of the γ34.5 and ICP47 genes from a strain of HSV-1 yielded the oncolytic virus, oHSV-1, which reduced glioma cell viability, migration, and invasive capacity, as well as the growth of microvilli. Infected cell polypeptide 4 (ICP4) expressed by oHSV-1 was found to suppress the expression of the transcription factor Sp1, reducing the expression of host invasion-related genes. In vivo, oHSV-1 showed significant antitumor effects by suppressing the expression of Sp1 and invasion-associated genes, highly expressed in high-grade glioblastoma tissue specimens. These findings indicate that Sp1 may be a molecular marker predicting the antitumor effects of oHSV-1 in the treatment of glioma and that oHSV-1 suppresses host cell invasion through the ICP4-mediated downregulation of Sp1.

Stress Triggers Expression of Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Infected Cell Protein 4 (bICP4) RNA during Early Stages of Reactivation from Latency in Pharyngeal Tonsil

Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), an important pathogen of cattle, establishes lifelong latency in sensory neurons within trigeminal ganglia (TG) after acute infection. The BoHV-1 latency-reactivation cycle, like other alphaherpesvirinae subfamily members, is essential for viral persistence and transmission. Notably, cells within pharyngeal tonsil (PT) also support a quiescent or latent BoHV-1 infection. The synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone, which mimics the effects of stress, consistently induces BoHV-1 reactivation from latency allowing early stages of viral reactivation to be examined in the natural host. Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that stress-induced cellular factors trigger expression of key viral transcriptional regulatory genes. To explore this hypothesis, RNA-sequencing studies compared viral gene expression in PT during early stages of dexamethasone-induced reactivation from latency. Strikingly, RNA encoding infected cell protein 4 (bICP4), which is translated into an essential viral transcriptional regulatory protein, was detected 30 min after dexamethasone treatment. Ninety minutes after dexamethasone treatment bICP4 and, to a lesser extent, bICP0 RNA were detected in PT. All lytic cycle viral transcripts were detected within 3 h after dexamethasone treatment. Surprisingly, the latency related (LR) gene, the only viral gene abundantly expressed in latently infected TG neurons, was not detected in PT during latency. In TG neurons, bICP0 and the viral tegument protein VP16 are expressed before bICP4 during reactivation, suggesting distinct viral regulatory genes mediate reactivation from latency in PT versus TG neurons. Finally, these studies confirm PT is a biologically relevant site for BoHV-1 latency, reactivation from latency, and virus transmission. IMPORTANCE BoHV-1, a neurotropic herpesvirus, establishes, maintains, and reactivates from latency in neurons. BoHV-1 DNA is also detected in pharyngeal tonsil (PT) from latently infected calves. RNA-sequencing studies revealed the viral infected cell protein 4 (bICP4) RNA was expressed in PT of latently infected calves within 30 min after dexamethasone was used to initiate reactivation. As expected, bICP4 RNA was not detected during latency. All lytic cycle viral genes were expressed within 3 h after dexamethasone treatment. Conversely, bICP0 and the viral tegument protein VP16 are expressed prior to bICP4 in trigeminal ganglionic neurons during reactivation. The viral latency related gene, which is abundantly expressed in latently infected neurons, was not abundantly expressed in PT during latency. These studies provide new evidence PT is a biologically relevant site for BoHV-1 latency and reactivation. Finally, we predict other alphaherpesvirinae subfamily members utilize PT as a site for latency and reactivation.

Mechanism of herpesvirus protein kinase UL13 in immune escape and viral replication

Upon infection, the herpes viruses create a cellular environment suitable for survival, but innate immunity plays a vital role in cellular resistance to viral infection. The UL13 protein of herpesviruses is conserved among all herpesviruses and is a serine/threonine protein kinase, which plays a vital role in escaping innate immunity and promoting viral replication. On the one hand, it can target various immune signaling pathways in vivo, such as the cGAS-STING pathway and the NF-κB pathway. On the other hand, it phosphorylates regulatory many cellular and viral proteins for promoting the lytic cycle. This paper reviews the research progress of the conserved herpesvirus protein kinase UL13 in immune escape and viral replication to provide a basis for elucidating the pathogenic mechanism of herpesviruses, as well as providing insights into the potential means of immune escape and viral replication of other herpesviruses that have not yet resolved the function of it.

A map of cis-regulatory modules and constituent transcription factor binding sites in 80% of the mouse genome

BACKGROUND

Mouse is probably the most important model organism to study mammal biology and human diseases. A better understanding of the mouse genome will help understand the human genome, biology and diseases. However, despite the recent progress, the characterization of the regulatory sequences in the mouse genome is still far from complete, limiting its use to understand the regulatory sequences in the human genome.

RESULTS

Here, by integrating binding peaks in ~ 9,000 transcription factor (TF) ChIP-seq datasets that cover 79.9% of the mouse mappable genome using an efficient pipeline, we were able to partition these binding peak-covered genome regions into a cis-regulatory module (CRM) candidate (CRMC) set and a non-CRMC set. The CRMCs contain 912,197 putative CRMs and 38,554,729 TF binding sites (TFBSs) islands, covering 55.5% and 24.4% of the mappable genome, respectively. The CRMCs tend to be under strong evolutionary constraints, indicating that they are likely cis-regulatory; while the non-CRMCs are largely selectively neutral, indicating that they are unlikely cis-regulatory. Based on evolutionary profiles of the genome positions, we further estimated that 63.8% and 27.4% of the mouse genome might code for CRMs and TFBSs, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Validation using experimental data suggests that at least most of the CRMCs are authentic. Thus, this unprecedentedly comprehensive map of CRMs and TFBSs can be a good resource to guide experimental studies of regulatory genomes in mice and humans.

Stress Hormones Epinephrine and Corticosterone Selectively Reactivate HSV-1 and HSV-2 in Sympathetic and Sensory Neurons

Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) establish latency in sensory and autonomic neurons, from which they can reactivate to cause recurrent disease throughout the life of the host. Stress is strongly associated with HSV recurrences in humans and animal models. However, the mechanisms through which stress hormones act on the latent virus to cause reactivation are unknown. We show that the stress hormones epinephrine (EPI) and corticosterone (CORT) induce HSV-1 reactivation selectively in sympathetic neurons, but not sensory or parasympathetic neurons. Activation of multiple adrenergic receptors is necessary for EPI-induced HSV-1 reactivation, while CORT requires the glucocorticoid receptor. In contrast, CORT, but not EPI, induces HSV-2 reactivation in both sensory and sympathetic neurons through either glucocorticoid or mineralocorticoid receptors. Reactivation is dependent on different transcription factors for EPI and CORT, and coincides with rapid changes in viral gene expression, although genes differ for HSV-1 and HSV-2, and temporal kinetics differ for EPI and CORT. Thus, stress-induced reactivation mechanisms are neuron-specific, stimulus-specific and virus-specific. These findings have implications for differences in HSV-1 and HSV-2 recurrent disease patterns and frequencies, as well as development of targeted, more effective antivirals that may act on different responses in different types of neurons.

Regulation of herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-reactivation cycle and ocular disease by cellular signaling pathways

Following acute infection, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) establishes life-long latency in sensory and other neurons. Recurrent ocular HSV-1 outbreaks are generally due to reactivation from latency. The HSV-1 latency-reactivation cycle is a complex virus-host relationship. The viral encoded latency-associated transcript (LAT) is abundantly expressed in latency and encodes several micro-RNAs and other small non-coding RNAs, which may regulate expression of key viral and cellular genes. Certain cellular signaling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin and mTOR pathway, mediate certain aspect of the latency-reactivation cycle. Stress, via activation of the glucocorticoid receptor and other stress induced cellular transcription factors, are predicted to trigger reactivation from latency by stimulating viral gene expression and impairing immune responses and inflammation. These observations suggest stress and certain cellular signaling pathways play key roles in regulating the latency-reactivation cycle and recurrent ocular disease.

Stress Induced Transcription Factors Transactivate the Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infected Cell Protein 27 (ICP27) Transcriptional Enhancer

Following acute infection, herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes lifelong latency in neurons, including sensory neurons within trigeminal ganglia. During latency, lytic cycle viral gene expression is silenced. However, stressful stimuli can trigger reactivation from latency. The viral tegument protein, VP-16, transactivates all immediate early (IE) promoters during productive infection. Conversely, cellular factors are expected to trigger viral gene expression during early stages of reactivation from latency and in non-neuronal cells that do not support high levels of productive infection. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR), synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone, and certain stress-induced transcription factors cooperatively transactivate infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) and ICP4 promoters. Since ICP27 protein expression is required for productive infection, we hypothesized that the ICP27 promoter is transactivated by stress-induced transcription factors. New studies have demonstrated that ICP27 enhancer sequences were transactivated by GR and Krüppel-like factor 15 (KLF15). Mutation of a consensus Sp1 binding site within ICP27 enhancer sequences impaired transactivation by GR and KLF15. Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies have demonstrated that GR and KLF15 occupy ICP27 promoter sequences during productive infection. Cells transfected with an ICP27 enhancer fragment revealed the GR and KLF15 occupancy of ICP27 enhancer sequences required the intact Sp1 binding site. Notably, GR and KLF15 form a feed-forward transcription loop in response to stress, suggesting these cellular factors promote viral replication following stressful stimuli.

Local Immune Control of Latent Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Ganglia of Mice and Man

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a prevalent human pathogen. HSV-1 genomes persist in trigeminal ganglia neuronal nuclei as chromatinized episomes, while epithelial cells are typically killed by lytic infection. Fluctuations in anti-viral responses, broadly defined, may underlay periodic reactivations. The ganglionic immune response to HSV-1 infection includes cell-intrinsic responses in neurons, innate sensing by several cell types, and the infiltration and persistence of antigen-specific T-cells. The mechanisms specifying the contrasting fates of HSV-1 in neurons and epithelial cells may include differential genome silencing and chromatinization, dictated by variation in access of immune modulating viral tegument proteins to the cell body, and protection of neurons by autophagy. Innate responses have the capacity of recruiting additional immune cells and paracrine activity on parenchymal cells, for example via chemokines and type I interferons. In both mice and humans, HSV-1-specific CD8 and CD4 T-cells are recruited to ganglia, with mechanistic studies suggesting active roles in immune surveillance and control of reactivation. In this review we focus mainly on HSV-1 and the TG, comparing and contrasting where possible observational, interventional, and in vitro studies between humans and animal hosts.

Regulation of neurotropic herpesvirus productive infection and latency-reactivation cycle by glucocorticoid receptor and stress-induced transcription factors

Neurotropic α-herpesvirinae subfamily members, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), are important viral pathogens in their respective hosts. Following acute infection on mucosal surfaces, these viruses establish life-long latency in neurons within trigeminal ganglia (TG) and central nervous system. Chronic or acute stress (physiological or psychological) increases the frequency of reactivation from latency, which leads to virus shedding, virus transmission, and recurrent disease. While stress impairs immune responses and inflammatory signaling cascades, we predict stressful stimuli directly stimulate viral gene expression and productive infection during early stages of reactivation from latency. For example, BoHV-1 and HSV-1 productive infection is impaired by glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonists but is stimulated by the synthetic corticosteroid dexamethasone. Promoters that drive expression of key viral transcriptional regulatory proteins are cooperatively stimulated by GR and specific Krüppel like transcription factors (KLF) induced during stress induced reactivation from latency. The BoHV-1 immediate early transcription unit 1 promoter and contains two GR response elements (GRE) that are essential for cooperative transactivation by GR and KLF15. Conversely, the HSV-1 infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) and ICP4 promoter as well as the BoHV-1 ICP0 early promoter lack consensus GREs: however, these promoters are cooperatively transactivated by GR and KLF4 or KLF15. Hence, growing evidence suggests GR and stress-induced transcription factors directly stimulate viral gene expression and productive infection during early stages of reactivation from latency. We predict the immune inhibitory effects of stress enhance virus spread at late stages during reactivation from latency.

Regulation of Krüppel-Like Factor 15 Expression by Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 or Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Productive Infection

Expression of Krüppel-like factor 15 (KLF15), a stress-induced transcription factor, is induced during bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) reactivation from latency, and KLF15 stimulates BoHV-1 replication. Transient transfection studies revealed that KLF15 and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) cooperatively transactivate the BoHV-1-immediate-early transcription unit 1 (IEtu1), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infected cell protein 0 (ICP0), and ICP4 promoters. The IEtu1 promoter drives expression of bICP0 and bICP4, two key BoHV-1 transcriptional regulatory proteins. Based on these studies, we hypothesized infection is a stressful stimulus that increases KLF15 expression and enhances productive infection. New studies demonstrated that silencing KLF15 impaired HSV-1 productive infection, and KLF15 steady-state protein levels were increased at late stages of productive infection. KLF15 was primarily localized to the nucleus following infection of cultured cells with HSV-1, but not BoHV-1. When cells were transfected with a KLF15 promoter construct and then infected with HSV-1, promoter activity was significantly increased. The ICP0 gene, and to a lesser extent, bICP0 transactivated the KLF15 promoter in the absence of other viral proteins. In contrast, BoHV-1 or HSV-1 encoded VP16 had no effect on KLF15 promoter activity. Collectively, these studies revealed that HSV-1 and BoHV-1 productive infection increased KLF15 steady-state protein levels, which correlated with increased virus production.