Sulfotyrosines of the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus G protein-coupled receptor promote tumorigenesis through autocrine activation

The Role of vIL-6 in KSHV-Mediated Immune Evasion and Tumorigenesis

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a double-stranded DNA gamma herpesvirus. Like other herpesviruses, KSHV establishes a latent infection with limited gene expression, while KSHV occasionally undergoes the lytic replication phase, which produces KSHV progenies and infects neighboring cells. KSHV genome encodes 80+ open reading frames. One of the KSHV genes, K2, encodes viral interleukin 6 (vIL-6), a homolog of human IL-6 (hIL-6), mainly expressed in the lytic phase of the virus. vIL-6 plays a crucial role in regulating the expression of other viral genes and is also associated with inducing angiogenesis, cell survival, and immune evasion, which is suggested to promote the development of KSHV-associated diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on vIL-6. We focus on the vIL-6 regarding its protein structure, transcriptional regulation, cell signaling pathways, and contribution to the KSHV-associated diseases.

The Chemokine System in Oncogenic Pathways Driven by Viruses: Perspectives for Cancer Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Oncoviruses are viruses with oncogenic potential, responsible for almost 20% of human cancers worldwide. They are from various families, some of which belong to the microbial communities that inhabit several sites in the body of healthy humans. As a result, they most often establish latent infections controlled by the arsenal of human host responses that include the chemokine system playing key roles at the interface between tissue homeostasis and immune surveillance. Yet, chemokines and their receptors also contribute to oncogenic processes as they are targeted by the virus-induced deregulations of host responses and/or directly encoded by viruses. Thus, the chemokine system offers a strong rationale for therapeutic options, some few already approved or in trials, and future ones that we are discussing in view of the pharmacological approaches targeting the different functions of chemokines operating in both cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment.

Abstract

Chemokines interact with glycosaminoglycans of the extracellular matrix and activate heptahelical cellular receptors that mainly consist of G Protein-Coupled Receptors and a few atypical receptors also with decoy activity. They are well-described targets of oncogenic pathways and key players in cancer development, invasiveness, and metastasis acting both at the level of cancer cells and cells of the tumor microenvironment. Hence, they can regulate cancer cell proliferation and survival and promote immune or endothelial cell migration into the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, oncogenic viruses display the potential of jeopardizing the chemokine system by encoding mimics of chemokines and receptors as well as several products such as oncogenic proteins or microRNAs that deregulate their human host transcriptome. Conversely, the chemokine system participates in the host responses that control the virus life cycle, knowing that most oncoviruses establish asymptomatic latent infections. Therefore, the deregulated expression and function of chemokines and receptors as a consequence of acquired or inherited mutations could bias oncovirus infection toward pro-oncogenic pathways. We here review these different processes and discuss the anticancer therapeutic potential of targeting chemokine availability or receptor activation, from signaling to decoy-associated functions, in combination with immunotherapies.

Viral G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Attractive Targets for Herpesvirus-Associated Diseases

Herpesviruses are ubiquitous pathogens that establish lifelong, latent infections in their host. Spontaneous reactivation of herpesviruses is often asymptomatic or clinically manageable in healthy individuals, but reactivation events in immunocompromised or immunosuppressed individuals can lead to severe morbidity and mortality. Moreover, herpesvirus infections have been associated with multiple proliferative cardiovascular and post-transplant diseases. Herpesviruses encode viral G protein-coupled receptors (vGPCRs) that alter the host cell by hijacking cellular pathways and play important roles in the viral life cycle and these different disease settings. In this review, we discuss the pharmacological and signaling properties of these vGPCRs, their role in the viral life cycle, and their contribution in different diseases. Because of their prominent role, vGPCRs have emerged as promising drug targets, and the potential of vGPCR-targeting therapeutics is being explored. Overall, these vGPCRs can be considered as attractive targets moving forward in the development of antiviral, cancer, and/or cardiovascular disease treatments. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In the last decade, herpesvirus-encoded G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have emerged as interesting drug targets with the growing understanding of their critical role in the viral life cycle and in different disease settings. This review presents the pharmacological properties of these viral receptors, their role in the viral life cycle and different diseases, and the emergence of therapeutics targeting viral GPCRs.

Viral G protein-coupled receptors as modulators of cancer hallmarks

Herpesviruses encode transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which share structural homology to human chemokine receptors. These viral GPCRs include KSHV-encoded ORF74, EBV-encoded BILF1, and HCMV-encoded US28, UL33, UL78 and US27. Viral GPCRs hijack various signaling pathways and cellular networks, including pathways involved in the so-called cancer hallmarks as defined by Hanahan and Weinberg. These hallmarks describe cellular characteristics crucial for transformation and tumor progression. The cancer hallmarks involve growth factor-independent proliferation, angiogenesis, avoidance of apoptosis, invasion and metastasis, metabolic reprogramming, genetic instability and immune evasion amongst others. The role of beta herpesviruses modulating these cancer hallmarks is clearly highlighted by the proliferative and pro-angiogenic phenotype associated with KSHV infection which is largely ascribed to the ORF74-mediated modulation of signaling networks in host cells. For HCMV and Epstein-Bar encoded GPCRs, oncomodulatory effects have been described which contribute to the cancer hallmarks, thereby enhancing oncogenic development. In this review, we describe the main signaling pathways controlling the hallmarks of cancer which are affected by the betaherpesvirus encoded GPCRs. Most prominent among these involve the JAK-STAT, PI(3)K-AKT, NFkB and MAPK signaling nodes. These insights are important to effectively target these viral GPCRs and their signaling networks in betaherpesvirus-associated malignancies.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors in the Sweet Spot: Glycosylation and other Post-translational Modifications

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are a fundamental phenomenon across all classes of life and several hundred different types have been identified. PTMs contribute widely to the biological functions of proteins and greatly increase their diversity. One important class of proteins regulated by PTMs, is the cell surface expressed G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). While most PTMs have been shown to exert distinct biological functions, we are only beginning to approach the complexity that the potential interplay between different PTMs may have on biological functions and their regulation. Importantly, PTMs and their potential interplay represent an appealing mechanism for cell and tissue specific regulation of GPCR function and may partially contribute to functional selectivity of some GPCRs. In this review we highlight examples of PTMs located in GPCR extracellular domains, with special focus on glycosylation and the potential interplay with other close-by PTMs such as tyrosine sulfation, proteolytic cleavage, and phosphorylation.

Hijacking GPCRs by viral pathogens and tumor

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of molecules that transduce signals across the plasma membrane. Herpesviruses are successful pathogens that evolved diverse mechanisms to benefit their infection. Several human herpesviruses express GPCRs to exploit cellular signaling cascades during infection. These viral GPCRs demonstrate distinct biochemical and biophysical properties that result in the activation of a broad spectrum of signaling pathways. In immune-deficient individuals, human herpesvirus infection and the expression of their GPCRs are implicated in virus-associated diseases and pathologies. Emerging studies also uncover diverse mutations in components, particularly GPCRs and small G proteins, of GPCR signaling pathways that render the constitutive activation of proliferative and survival signal, which contributes to the oncogenesis of various human cancers. Hijacking GPCR-mediated signaling is a signature shared by diseases associated with constitutively active viral GPCRs and cellular mutations activating GPCR signaling, exposing key molecules that can be targeted for anti-viral and anti-tumor therapy.

Recombinant Murine Gamma Herpesvirus 68 Carrying KSHV G Protein-Coupled Receptor Induces Angiogenic Lesions in Mice

Human gamma herpesviruses, including Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), are capable of inducing tumors, particularly in in immune-compromised individuals. Due to the stringent host tropism, rodents are resistant to infection by human gamma herpesviruses, creating a significant barrier for the in vivo study of viral genes that contribute to tumorigenesis. The closely-related murine gamma herpesvirus 68 (γHV68) efficiently infects laboratory mouse strains and establishes robust persistent infection without causing apparent disease. Here, we report that a recombinant γHV68 carrying the KSHV G protein-coupled receptor (kGPCR) in place of its murine counterpart induces angiogenic tumors in infected mice. Although viral GPCRs are conserved in all gamma herpesviruses, kGPCR potently activated downstream signaling and induced tumor formation in nude mouse, whereas γHV68 GPCR failed to do so. Recombinant γHV68 carrying kGPCR demonstrated more robust lytic replication ex vivo than wild-type γHV68, although both viruses underwent similar acute and latent infection in vivo. Infection of immunosuppressed mice with γHV68 carrying kGPCR, but not wild-type γHV68, induced tumors in mice that exhibited angiogenic and inflammatory features shared with human Kaposi’s sarcoma. Immunohistochemistry staining identified abundant latently-infected cells and a small number of cells supporting lytic replication in tumor tissue. Thus, mouse infection with a recombinant γHV68 carrying kGPCR provides a useful small animal model for tumorigenesis induced by a human gamma herpesvirus gene in the setting of a natural course of infection.

Human gamma herpesviruses, including Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), are causatively linked to a spectrum of human oncogenic malignancies. Due to the stringent host restriction, rodents are generally not amenable to infection by EBV and KSHV. Murine gamma herpesvirus 68 (γHV68) is closely related to KSHV and EBV, although infection in mouse does not manifest apparent diseases. Here we developed a recombinant γHV68 that carries the KSHV G protein-coupled receptor, an important signaling molecule implicated in KSHV pathogenesis. Intriguingly, laboratory mice infected with this recombinant γHV68 developed angiogenic lesions that resembled human Kaposi’s sarcoma. This mouse infection with recombinant γHV68 carrying KSHV GPCR represents a useful model to investigate viral oncogenesis induced by human gamma herpesvirus in the context of viral infection.

The Viral G Protein-Coupled Receptor ORF74 Hijacks β-Arrestins for Endocytic Trafficking in Response to Human Chemokines

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-infected cells express the virally encoded G protein-coupled receptor ORF74. Although ORF74 is constitutively active, it binds human CXC chemokines that modulate this basal activity. ORF74-induced signaling has been demonstrated to underlie the development of the angioproliferative tumor Kaposi’s sarcoma. Whereas G protein-dependent signaling of ORF74 has been the subject of several studies, the interaction of this viral GPCR with β-arrestins has hitherto not been investigated. Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer experiments demonstrate that ORF74 recruits β-arrestins and subsequently internalizes in response to human CXCL1 and CXCL8, but not CXCL10. Internalized ORF74 traffics via early endosomes to recycling and late endosomes. Site-directed mutagenesis and homology modeling identified four serine and threonine residues at the distal end of the intracellular carboxyl-terminal of ORF74 that are required for β-arrestin recruitment and subsequent endocytic trafficking. Hijacking of the human endocytic trafficking machinery is a previously unrecognized action of ORF74.

Glycosylation of KSHV encoded vGPCR functions in its signaling and tumorigenicity

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a tumor virus and the etiologic agent of Kaposi’s Sarcoma (KS). KSHV G protein-coupled receptor (vGPCR) is an oncogene that is implicated in malignancies associated with KHSV infection. In this study, we show that vGPCR undergoes extensive N-linked glycosylation within the extracellular domains, specifically asparagines 18, 22, 31 and 202. An immunofluorescence assay demonstrates that N-linked glycosylation are necessary for vGPCR trafficking to the cellular membrane. Employing vGPCR mutants whose glycosylation sites were ablated, we show that these vGPCR mutants failed to activate downstream signaling in cultured cells and were severely impaired to induce tumor formation in the xenograph nude mouse model. These findings support the conclusion that glycosylation is critical for vGPCR tumorigenesis and imply that chemokine regulation at the plasma membrane is crucial for vGPCR mediated signaling.

Herpesviral G protein-coupled receptors activate NFAT to induce tumor formation via inhibiting the SERCA calcium ATPase

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of proteins that transmit signal to regulate an array of fundamental biological processes. Viruses deploy diverse tactics to hijack and harness intracellular signaling events induced by GPCR. Herpesviruses encode multiple GPCR homologues that are implicated in viral pathogenesis. Cellular GPCRs are primarily regulated by their cognate ligands, while herpesviral GPCRs constitutively activate downstream signaling cascades, including the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) pathway. However, the roles of NFAT activation and mechanism thereof in viral GPCR tumorigenesis remain unknown. Here we report that GPCRs of human Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (kGPCR) and cytomegalovirus (US28) shortcut NFAT activation by inhibiting the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA), which is necessary for viral GPCR tumorigenesis. Biochemical approaches, entailing pharmacological inhibitors and protein purification, demonstrate that viral GPCRs target SERCA2 to increase cytosolic calcium concentration. As such, NFAT activation induced by vGPCRs was exceedingly sensitive to cyclosporine A that targets calcineurin, but resistant to inhibition upstream of ER calcium release. Gene expression profiling identified a signature of NFAT activation in endothelial cells expressing viral GPCRs. The expression of NFAT-dependent genes was up-regulated in tumors derived from tva-kGPCR mouse and human KS. Employing recombinant kGPCR-deficient KSHV, we showed that kGPCR was critical for NFAT-dependent gene expression in KSHV lytic replication. Finally, cyclosporine A treatment diminished NFAT-dependent gene expression and tumor formation induced by viral GPCRs. These findings reveal essential roles of NFAT activation in viral GPCR tumorigenesis and a mechanism of “constitutive” NFAT activation by viral GPCRs.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of proteins that transmit signal across plasma membrane. Herpesviral GPCRs (vGPCRs) activate diverse signaling cascades and are implicated in viral pathogenesis (e.g., tumor development). In contrast to cellular GPCRs that are chiefly regulated via cognate ligand-association, vGPCRs are constitutively active independent of ligand-binding. vGPCRs provide useful tools to dissect signal transduction from plasma membrane receptors to nuclear transcription factors. To probe the activation of nuclear factor of T cells (NFAT), we demonstrate that vGPCRs target the ER calcium ATPase to increase cytosolic calcium concentration and activate NFAT. Inhibition of NFAT activation impairs tumor formation induced by vGPCRs, implying the antitumor therapeutic potential via disabling NFAT activation.

Modulation of cellular signaling by herpesvirus-encoded G protein-coupled receptors

Human herpesviruses (HHVs) are widespread infectious pathogens that have been associated with proliferative and inflammatory diseases. During viral evolution, HHVs have pirated genes encoding viral G protein-coupled receptors (vGPCRs), which are expressed on infected host cells. These vGPCRs show highest homology to human chemokine receptors, which play a key role in the immune system. Importantly, vGPCRs have acquired unique properties such as constitutive activity and the ability to bind a broad range of human chemokines. This allows vGPCRs to hijack human proteins and modulate cellular signaling for the benefit of the virus, ultimately resulting in immune evasion and viral dissemination to establish a widespread and lifelong infection. Knowledge on the mechanisms by which herpesviruses reprogram cellular signaling might provide insight in the contribution of vGPCRs to viral survival and herpesvirus-associated pathologies.

Gene-based vaccination and screening methods to develop monoclonal antibodies

Gene-based in vivo electroporation has the potential to be used as a "protein-free" method to elicit immune responses and to generate monoclonal antibodies (mAb) against proteins/peptides in hosts. However, the method is very useful to raise mAbs against proteins and peptides and not for carbohydrates, lipids, or haptens. Nevertheless, making mAb using this potent method faces a few challenges: the parameters of the electroporation needs further standardized, the final boost still needs protein antigens, and the primary screening of the clones requires purified protein. We present methods to overcome these challenges by an optimized electroporation framework and a method to use transiently transfected cells for the final boost, as well as for screening of the resulting clones via the use of an "In-Cell Western" method.

Molecular mechanisms deployed by virally encoded G protein-coupled receptors in human diseases

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest family of cell surface molecules involved in signal transduction. Surprisingly, open reading frames for multiple GPCRs were hijacked in the process of coevolution between Herpesviridae family viruses and their human and mammalian hosts. Virally encoded GPCRs (vGPCRs) evolved as parts of viral genomes, and this evolution allowed the power of host GPCR signaling circuitries to be harnessed in order to ensure viral replicative success. Phylogenetically, vGPCRs are distantly related to human chemokine receptors, although they feature several unique characteristics. Here, we describe the molecular mechanisms underlying vGPCR-mediated viral pathogenesis. These mechanisms include constitutive activity, aberrant coupling to human G proteins and β-arrestins, binding and activation by human chemokines, and dimerization with other GPCRs expressed in infected cells. The likely structural basis for these molecular events is described for the two closest viral homologs of human GPCRs. This information may aid in the development of novel targeted therapeutic strategies against viral diseases.

Identification of a catalytic exosite for complement component C4 on the serine protease domain of C1s

The classical pathway of complement is crucial to the immune system, but it also contributes to inflammatory diseases when dysregulated. Binding of the C1 complex to ligands activates the pathway by inducing autoactivation of associated C1r, after which C1r activates C1s. C1s cleaves complement component C4 and then C2 to cause full activation of the system. The interaction between C1s and C4 involves active site and exosite-mediated events, but the molecular details are unknown. In this study, we identified four positively charged amino acids on the serine protease domain that appear to form a catalytic exosite that is required for efficient cleavage of C4. These residues are coincidentally involved in coordinating a sulfate ion in the crystal structure of the protease. Together with other evidence, this pointed to the involvement of sulfate ions in the interaction with the C4 substrate, and we showed that the protease interacts with a peptide from C4 containing three sulfotyrosine residues. We present a molecular model for the interaction between C1s and C4 that provides support for the above data and poses questions for future research into this aspect of complement activation.

In vivo electroporation and non-protein based screening assays to identify antibodies against native protein conformations

In vivo electroporation has become a gold standard method for DNA immunization. The method assists the DNA entry into cells, results in expression and the display of the native form of antigens to professional cells of the immune system, uses both arms of immune system, has a built-in adjuvant system, is relatively safe, and is cost-effective. However, there are challenges for achieving an optimized reproducible process for eliciting strong humoral responses and for the screening of specific immune responses, in particular, when the aim is to mount humoral responses or to generate monoclonal antibodies via hybridoma technology. Production of monoclonal antibodies demands generation of high numbers of primed B and CD4 T helper cells in lymphoid organs needed for the fusion that traditionally is achieved by a final intravenous antigen injection. The purified antigen is also needed for screening of hundreds of clones obtained upon fusion of splenocytes. Such challenges make DNA vaccination dependent on purified proteins. Here, we have optimized methods for in vivo electroporation, production, and use of cells expressing the antigen and an in-cell Western screening method. These methods resulted in (1) reproducibly mounting robust humoral responses against antigens with different cell localizations, and (2) the ability to screen for antigen eliminating a need for protein/antigen purification. This process includes optimized parameters for in vivo electroporation, the use of transfected cells for final boost, and mild fixation/permeabilization of cells for screening. Using this process, upon two vaccinations via in vivo electroporation (and final boost), monoclonal antibodies against nucleus and cytoplasmic and transmembrane proteins were achieved.