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Guo Q, Zhu S, Wang D, Li X, Zhu H, Song Y, Liu X, Xiao F, Zhao H, Lu H, Xiao J, Yu L, Wang W, He Y, Liu Y, Li J, Zhang Y, Xu W, Yan D. Genetic characterization and molecular evolution of type 3 vaccine-derived polioviruses from an immunodeficient patient in China. Virus Res 2023; 334:199177. [PMID: 37479187 PMCID: PMC10388201 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
In 2013, a case of immunodeficiency vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) was identified in Jiangxi Province, China. In this study, we purified 14 type 3 original viral isolates from this case and characterized the molecular evolution of these iVDPVs for 298 days. Genetic variants were found in most of the original viral isolates, with complex genetic and evolutionary relationships among the variants. A phylogenetic tree constructed based on the P1 region showed that these iVDPVs were classified into lineage A and B. The dominant lineage B represents a major trend in virus evolution. The nucleotide substitution rate at the third codon position (3CP) estimated by the BEAST program was 1.76 × 10-2 substitutions/site/year (95% HPD: 1.23-2.39 × 10-2). The initial OPV dose was given dating back to March 2013, which was close to the time of the last OPV vaccination, suggesting that OPV infection may have originated with the last dose of vaccine. Recombinant analysis showed that these iVDPVs were inter-vaccine recombinants with two recombination patterns, S3/S2/S1 and S3/S2/S3/S2/S1. Whole genome sequence analysis revealed that key nucleotide sites (C472U, C2034U, U2493C) associated with the attenuated phenotype of Sabin 3 have been replaced. Temperature sensitivity test showed that all tested strains were temperature-sensitive, except for the variant Day11-5. Interestingly, we observed that the variant Day11-5 temperature resistance properties may be associated with the Lys to Met substitution at the VP2-162 site. Serological test and whole genome sequence analysis showed that the seropositivity rate remained high, and mutations in the antigenic sites did not significantly alter neutralization ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Guo
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China; Da Zhou Vocational College of Chinese Medicine, Dazhou, China
| | - Shuangli Zhu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Dongyan Wang
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Xiaolei Li
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Hui Zhu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Yang Song
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoqing Liu
- Jiangxi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang, China
| | - Fang Xiao
- Jiangxi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang, China
| | - Hehe Zhao
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Huanhuan Lu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Jinbo Xiao
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Liheng Yu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Wenhui Wang
- School of Public Health and Management, Shandong First Medical University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Yun He
- School of Public Health and Management, Shandong First Medical University, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Ying Liu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Jichen Li
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Wenbo Xu
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China
| | - Dongmei Yan
- National Polio Laboratory, WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Biosecurity, National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Beijing, China.
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Polio and Its Epidemiology. Infect Dis (Lond) 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2463-0_839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
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Xiao T, Leng H, Zhang Q, Chen Q, Guo H, Qi Y. Isolation and characterization of a Sabin 3/Sabin 1 recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus from a child with severe combined immunodeficiency. Virus Res 2021; 308:198633. [PMID: 34793871 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
An 8-month-old child diagnosed with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) was found to be excreting vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPVs). Five stool samples from the child and stool samples from 24 contacts were collected during the following 7 months. Complete genome sequence by next generation sequencing (NGS) identified 0.7 to 1.4% nucleotide substitutions in the capsid P1 region of the first and the last isolates compared with Sabin 3 strain. Simplot analysis revealed that all isolates were Sabin 3/Sabin 1 recombinants, sharing a single recombination breakpoint in the 2C region. Multiple nucleotide variants were identified in the 5'UTR (T472→C and G395→A); amino acid mutations were identified in residues at VP1-6 (Thr to Ile), VP1-105 (Met to Thr), VP1-286 (Arg to Lys), VP2-155 (Lys to Glu), VP3-59 (Ser to Asn) and VP3-91 (Phe to Ser). These variants were commonly observed in other PV strains, which may contribute to attenuation and temperature sensitivity. None of the 24 tested contacts of the patient and related transmits was found to be infected with poliovirus. Our study provides a rapid and reliable method for the characterization of VDPV research in Poliovirus infection. In post-OPV era, immunodeficient people with persistent and chronic infection remain a major challenge for polio eradication in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianhe Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing 210009, China; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Hongying Leng
- Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- College of pharmacy, Nankai University, Tianjin 300353, China
| | - Qiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Hongxiong Guo
- Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yuhua Qi
- Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanjing 210009, China.
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McDonald SL, Weldon WC, Wei L, Chen Q, Shaw J, Zhao K, Jorba J, Kew OM, Pallansch MA, Burns CC, Steven Oberste M. Neutralization capacity of highly divergent type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses from immunodeficient patients. Vaccine 2020; 38:3042-3049. [PMID: 32089462 PMCID: PMC11382130 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The use of the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) in developing countries has reduced the incidence of poliomyelitis by >99% since 1988 and is the primary tool for global polio eradication. Spontaneous reversions of the vaccine virus to a neurovirulent form can impede this effort. In persons with primary B-cell immunodeficiencies, exposure to OPV can result in chronic infection, mutation, and excretion of immunodeficiency-associated vaccine-derived polioviruses, (iVDPVs). These iVDPVs may have the potential for transmission in a susceptible population and cause paralysis. The extent to which sera from OPV recipients are able to neutralize iVDPVs with varying degrees of antigenic site substitutions is investigated here. We tested sera from a population immunized with a combination vaccine schedule (both OPV and inactivated polio vaccine) against a panel of iVDPVs and found that increases in amino acid substitution in the P1 capsid protein resulted in a decrease in the neutralizing capacity of the sera. This study underscores the importance of maintaining high vaccine coverage in areas of OPV use as well as active surveillance of those known to be immunocompromised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharla L McDonald
- IHRC, Inc. Atlanta, GA, Under Contract with Polio and Picornavirus Laboratory Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA
| | - William C Weldon
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ling Wei
- IHRC, Inc. Atlanta, GA, Under Contract with Polio and Picornavirus Laboratory Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA
| | - Qi Chen
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jing Shaw
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kun Zhao
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jaume Jorba
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Olen M Kew
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mark A Pallansch
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Cara C Burns
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - M Steven Oberste
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Shaghaghi M, Shahmahmoodi S, Abolhassani H, Soleyman-Jahi S, Parvaneh L, Mahmoudi S, Chavoshzadeh Z, Yazdani R, Zahraei SM, Ebrahimi M, Eslamian MH, Tabatabaie H, Yousefi M, Kandelousi YM, Oujaghlou A, Rezaei N, Aghamohammadi A. Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses and Children with Primary Immunodeficiency, Iran, 1995-2014. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 22:1712-9. [PMID: 27648512 PMCID: PMC5038407 DOI: 10.3201/eid2210.151071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polio might not be eradicated unless long-term vaccination with inactivated poliovirus vaccine is implemented. Widespread use of oral poliovirus vaccine has led to an ≈99.9% decrease in global incidence of poliomyelitis (from ≈350,000 cases in 1988 to 74 cases in 2015) and eradication of wild-type poliovirus serotypes 2 and 3. However, patients with primary immunodeficiency might shed vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) for an extended period, which could pose a major threat to polio eradication programs. Since 1995, sixteen VDPV populations have been isolated from 14 patients with immunodeficiency in Iran. For these patients, vaccine-associated paralysis, mostly in >1 extremity, was the first manifestation of primary immunodeficiency. Seven patients with humoral immunodeficiency cleared VDPV infection more frequently than did 6 patients with combined immunodeficiencies. Our results raise questions about manifestations of VDPVs in immunodeficient patients and the role of cellular immunity against enterovirus infections. On the basis of an association between VDPVs and immunodeficiency, we advocate screening of patients with primary immunodeficiency for shedding of polioviruses.
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Foiadelli T, Savasta S, Battistone A, Kota M, Passera C, Fiore S, Bino S, Amato C, Lozza A, Marseglia GL, Fiore L. Nucleotide variation in Sabin type 3 poliovirus from an Albanian infant with agammaglobulinemia and vaccine associated poliomyelitis. BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:277. [PMID: 27287521 PMCID: PMC4903009 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1587-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) and immunodeficient long-term polio excretors constitute a significant public health burden and are a major concern for the WHO global polio eradication endgame. CASE PRESENTATION Poliovirus type 3 characterized as Sabin-like was isolated from a 5-month-old Albanian child with X-linked agammaglobulinemia and VAPP after oral polio vaccine administration. Diagnostic workup and treatment were performed in Italy. Poliovirus replicated in the gut for 7 months. The 5' non coding region (NCR), VP1, VP3 capsid proteins and the 3D polymerase genomic regions of sequential isolates were sequenced. Increasing accumulation of nucleotide mutations in the VP1 region was detected over time, reaching 1.0 % of genome variation with respect to the Sabin reference strain, which is the threshold that defines a vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV). We identified mutations in the 5'NCR and VP3 regions that are associated with reversion to neurovirulence. Despite this, all isolates were characterized as Sabin-like. Several amino acid mutations were identified in the VP1 region, probably involved in growth adaptation and viral persistence in the human gut. Intertypic recombination with Sabin type 2 polio in the 3D polymerase region, possibly associated with increased virus transmissibility, was found in all isolates. Gamma-globulin replacement therapy led to viral clearance and neurological improvement, preventing the occurrence of persistent immunodeficiency-related VDPV. CONCLUSIONS This is the first case of VAPP in an immunodeficient child detected in Albania through the Acute Flaccid Paralysis surveillance system and the first investigated case of vaccine associated poliomyelitis in Italy since the introduction of an all-Salk schedule in 2002. We discuss over the biological and clinical implications in the context of the Global Polio Eradication Program and emphasize on the importance of the Acute Flaccid Paralysis surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Foiadelli
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pavia, Policlinico San Matteo IRCCS Foundation, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Salvatore Savasta
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pavia, Policlinico San Matteo IRCCS Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Andrea Battistone
- National Center for Immunobiologicals Control and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Majlinda Kota
- Control of Communicable Disease Department, Institute of Public Health, Tirana, Albania
| | - Carolina Passera
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pavia, Policlinico San Matteo IRCCS Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Stefano Fiore
- National Center for Immunobiologicals Control and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bino
- Control of Communicable Disease Department, Institute of Public Health, Tirana, Albania
| | - Concetta Amato
- National Center for Immunobiologicals Control and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Lozza
- National Neurological Institute IRCCS Foundation C. Mondino, Pavia, Italy
| | - Gian Luigi Marseglia
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pavia, Policlinico San Matteo IRCCS Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Lucia Fiore
- National Center for Immunobiologicals Control and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Non-polio enterovirus association with persistent diarrhea in children as revealed by a follow-up study of an Indian cohort during the first two years of life. J Clin Virol 2014; 61:125-31. [PMID: 24954472 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2014.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We recently reported significant association of non-polio enteroviruses (NPEVs) with acute diarrhea in children. Persistent diarrhea (PD) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in infants below two years of age in developing countries. Understanding age-dependent frequency and duration of NPEV infections is important to determine their association with persistent diarrhea and disease burden. OBJECTIVES A cohort of 140 infants was followed for 6 months to 2 years of age to determine the frequency, duration, and association with PD of NPEV infections in comparison with rotavirus and other agents. STUDY DESIGN Stool samples were collected every 14 days, and diarrheal episodes and their duration were recorded. Enteroviruses were characterized by RT-PCR and VP1 gene sequence analysis, rotavirus by electropherotyping, and other agents by PCR. RESULTS Of 4545 samples, negative for oral polio vaccine strains, 3907 (85.96%) and 638 (14.04%) were NPEV-negative and NPEV-positive, respectively, representing 403 (8.87%) infection episodes. About 68% of NPEV infections occurred during the first year with every child having at least one episode lasting between four days and four months. Approximately 38% and 22% of total diarrheal episodes were positive for NPEV and RV, respectively. While about 18% of NPEV infection episodes were associated with diarrhea, 6% being persistent, 13% of total diarrheal episodes were persistent involving infections by monotype NPEV strains or sequential infections by multiple strains and other agents. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report revealing NPEVs as the single most frequently and persistently detected viral pathogen in every PD episode.
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In vivo ablation of type I interferon receptor from cardiomyocytes delays coxsackieviral clearance and accelerates myocardial disease. J Virol 2014; 88:5087-99. [PMID: 24574394 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00184-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Acute coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) infection is one of the most prevalent causes of acute myocarditis, a disease that frequently is identified only after the sudden death of apparently healthy individuals. CVB3 infects cardiomyocytes, but the infection is highly focal, even in the absence of a strong adaptive immune response, suggesting that virus spread within the heart may be tightly constrained by the innate immune system. Type I interferons (T1IFNs) are an obvious candidate, and T1IFN receptor (T1IFNR) knockout mice are highly susceptible to CVB3 infection, succumbing within a few days of challenge. Here, we investigated the role of T1IFNs in the heart using a mouse model in which the T1IFNR gene can be ablated in vivo, specifically in cardiomyocytes. We found that T1IFN signaling into cardiomyocytes contributed substantially to the suppression of viral replication and infectious virus yield in the heart; in the absence of such signaling, virus titers were markedly elevated by day 3 postinfection (p.i.) and remained high at day 12 p.i., a time point at which virus was absent from genetically intact littermates, suggesting that the T1IFN-unresponsive cardiomyocytes may act as a safe haven for the virus. Nevertheless, in these mice the myocardial infection remained highly focal, despite the cardiomyocytes' inability to respond to T1IFN, indicating that other factors, as yet unidentified, are sufficient to prevent the more widespread dissemination of the infection throughout the heart. The absence of T1IFN signaling into cardiomyocytes also was accompanied by a profound acceleration and exacerbation of myocarditis and by a significant increase in mortality. IMPORTANCE Acute coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) infection is one of the most common causes of acute myocarditis, a serious and sometimes fatal disease. To optimize treatment, it is vital that we identify the immune factors that limit virus spread in the heart and other organs. Type I interferons play a key role in controlling many virus infections, but it has been suggested that they may not directly impact CVB3 infection within the heart. Here, using a novel line of transgenic mice, we show that these cytokines signal directly into cardiomyocytes, limiting viral replication, myocarditis, and death.
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Henderson DA, Klepac P. Lessons from the eradication of smallpox: an interview with D. A. Henderson. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20130113. [PMID: 23798700 PMCID: PMC3720050 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been more than 35 years since the last naturally occurring case of smallpox. Sufficient time has passed to allow an objective overview of what were the key factors in the success of the eradication effort and what lessons smallpox can offer to other campaigns. Professor D. A. Henderson headed the international effort to eradicate smallpox. Here, we present a summary of D. A. Henderson's perspectives on the eradication of smallpox. This text is based upon the Unither Baruch Blumberg Lecture, delivered by D. A. Henderson at the University of Oxford in November 2012 and upon conversations and correspondence with Professor Henderson.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Henderson
- Center for Health Security, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA.
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Duintjer Tebbens RJ, Pallansch MA, Kim JH, Burns CC, Kew OM, Oberste MS, Diop OM, Wassilak SGF, Cochi SL, Thompson KM. Oral poliovirus vaccine evolution and insights relevant to modeling the risks of circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs). RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2013; 33:680-702. [PMID: 23470192 PMCID: PMC7890645 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The live, attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) provides a powerful tool for controlling and stopping the transmission of wild polioviruses (WPVs), although the risks of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) and circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outbreaks exist as long as OPV remains in use. Understanding the dynamics of cVDPV emergence and outbreaks as a function of population immunity and other risk factors may help to improve risk management and the development of strategies to respond to possible outbreaks. We performed a comprehensive review of the literature related to the process of OPV evolution and information available from actual experiences with cVDPV outbreaks. Only a relatively small fraction of poliovirus infections cause symptoms, which makes direct observation of the trajectory of OPV evolution within a population impractical and leads to significant uncertainty. Despite a large global surveillance system, the existing genetic sequence data largely provide information about transmitted virulent polioviruses that caused acute flaccid paralysis, and essentially no data track the changes that occur in OPV sequences as the viruses transmit largely asymptomatically through real populations with suboptimal immunity. We updated estimates of cVDPV risks based on actual experiences and identified the many limitations in the existing data on poliovirus transmission and immunity and OPV virus evolution that complicate modeling. Modelers should explore the space of potential model formulations and inputs consistent with the available evidence and future studies should seek to improve our understanding of the OPV virus evolution process to provide better information for policymakers working to manage cVDPV risks.
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Sutter RW, Kew OM, Cochi SL, Aylward RB. Poliovirus vaccine—live. Vaccines (Basel) 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4557-0090-5.00035-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
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Pliaka V, Kyriakopoulou Z, Markoulatos P. Risks associated with the use of live-attenuated vaccine poliovirus strains and the strategies for control and eradication of paralytic poliomyelitis. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:609-28. [PMID: 22827246 DOI: 10.1586/erv.12.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was launched in 1988 with the aim to eliminate paralytic poliomyelitis. Two effective vaccines are available: inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and oral polio vaccine (OPV). Since 1964, OPV has been used instead of IPV in most countries due to several economic and biological advantages. However, in rare cases, the live-attenuated Sabin strains of OPV revert to neurovirulence and cause vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in vaccinees or lead to emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus strains. Attenuating mutations and recombination events have been associated with the reversion of vaccine strains to neurovirulence. The substitution of OPV with an improved new-generation IPV and the availability of new specific drugs against polioviruses are considered as future strategies for outbreak control and the eradication of paralytic poliomyelitis worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaia Pliaka
- University of Thessaly, School of Health Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Microbiology-Virology Laboratory, Larissa, Greece.
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van de Ven AAJM, Hoytema van Konijnenburg DP, Wensing AMJ, van Montfrans JM. The role of prolonged viral gastrointestinal infections in the development of immunodeficiency-related enteropathy. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2012; 42:79-91. [PMID: 22116710 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-011-8292-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Patients with primary immunodeficiencies are prone to develop enteropathy of unknown pathogenesis. We hypothesize that ineffective clearance of gastrointestinal pathogens, particularly viruses, in combination with defective immune regulation may cause inflammatory enteropathy in certain immunodeficient hosts. We reviewed publications related to prolonged enteric viral infection, immunodeficiency, and the subsequent development of inflammatory enteropathy. Prolonged infection with especially enteroviral infections was reported more often in immunocompromised hosts than in healthy individuals. Protracted enteric viral shedding was not always associated with the presence or duration of gastrointestinal symptoms. The development of immunodeficiency-associated enteropathy after prolonged viral infections was described in sporadic cases. Clinical consequences of viral gut infections in immunocompromised hosts comprise isolation issues and supportive care. Prospective studies in cohorts of immunodeficient patients are required to study the impact of prolonged enteric viral replication with respect to the pathogenesis of non-infectious enteropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annick A J M van de Ven
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center Utrecht/Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Abstract
Poliovirus causes paralytic poliomyelitis, an ancient disease of humans that became a major public-health issue in the 20th century. The primary site of infection is the gut, where virus replication is entirely harmless; the two very effective vaccines developed in the 1950s (oral polio vaccine, or OPV, and inactivated polio vaccine, or IPV) induce humoral immunity, which prevents viraemic spread and disease. The success of vaccination in middle-income and developing countries encouraged the World Health Organization to commit itself to an eradication programme, which has made great advances. The features of the infection, including its largely silent nature and the ability of the live vaccine (OPV) to evolve and change in vaccine recipients and their contacts, make eradication particularly challenging. Understanding the pathogenesis and virology of the infection is of major significance as the programme reaches its conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip D Minor
- National Institute of Biological Standards and Control, Health Protection Agency, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK
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15
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Medici C, Gonzalez G, Cerisola A, Scavone C. Locked-in syndrome in three children with Guillain-Barré syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 2011; 45:125-8. [PMID: 21763955 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Locked-in syndrome is a rare disorder in childhood. It resembles brain death, but patients are fully conscious, and incapable of communicating because of the complete paralysis of voluntary muscles. Although it can be caused by Guillain-Barré syndrome, it is rarely reported in pediatrics. We describe three pediatric cases of locked-in syndrome in patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome presenting acute tetraplegia, areflexia, cranial nerve involvement, and albuminocytologic dissociation in the cerebrospinal fluid. Electrophysiologic studies indicated acute motor axonal polyradiculoneuropathy in one patient, and acute motor sensory axonal polyradiculoneuropathy in the other two. Most Guillain-Barré syndrome patients with locked-in syndrome demonstrate nerve inexcitability in neurophysiologic studies, poor clinical outcomes, and increased risk of sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrado Medici
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, School of Medicine, Pereira Rossell Children's Hospital, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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16
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Alirezaie B, Taqavian M, Aghaiypour K, Esna-Ashari F, Shafyi A. Phenotypic and genomic analysis of serotype 3 Sabin poliovirus vaccine produced in MRC-5 cell substrate. J Med Virol 2011; 83:897-903. [PMID: 21412797 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The cell substrate has a pivotal role in live virus vaccines production. It is necessary to evaluate the effects of the cell substrate on the properties of the propagated viruses, especially in the case of viruses which are unstable genetically such as polioviruses, by monitoring the molecular and phenotypical characteristics of harvested viruses. To investigate the presence/absence of mutation(s), the near full-length genomic sequence of different harvests of the type 3 Sabin strain of poliovirus propagated in MRC-5 cells were determined. The sequences were compared with genomic sequences of different virus seeds, vaccines, and OPV-like isolates. Nearly complete genomic sequencing results, however, revealed no detectable mutations throughout the genome RNA-plaque purified (RSO)-derived monopool of type 3 OPVs manufactured in MRC-5. Thirty-six years of experience in OPV production, trend analysis, and vaccine surveillance also suggest that: (i) different monopools of serotype 3 OPV produced in MRC-5 retained their phenotypic characteristics (temperature sensitivity and neuroattenuation), (ii) MRC-5 cells support the production of acceptable virus yields, (iii) OPV replicated in the MRC-5 cell substrate is a highly efficient and safe vaccine. These results confirm previous reports that MRC-5 is a desirable cell substrate for the production of OPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behnam Alirezaie
- Human Viral Vaccines Research and Production Department, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Karaj, Tehran, Iran.
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17
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Pliaka V, Kyriakopoulou Z, Tsakogiannis D, Ruether IGA, Gartzonika C, Levidiotou-Stefanou S, Krikelis A, Markoulatos P. Correlation of mutations and recombination with growth kinetics of poliovirus vaccine strains. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 29:1513-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-010-1033-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2009] [Accepted: 08/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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18
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Kemball CC, Alirezaei M, Whitton JL. Type B coxsackieviruses and their interactions with the innate and adaptive immune systems. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:1329-47. [PMID: 20860480 PMCID: PMC3045535 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxsackieviruses are important human pathogens, and their interactions with the innate and adaptive immune systems are of particular interest. Many viruses evade some aspects of the innate response, but coxsackieviruses go a step further by actively inducing, and then exploiting, some features of the host cell response. Furthermore, while most viruses encode proteins that hinder the effector functions of adaptive immunity, coxsackieviruses and their cousins demonstrate a unique capacity to almost completely evade the attention of naive CD8(+) T cells. In this artcle, we discuss the above phenomena, describe the current status of research in the field, and present several testable hypotheses regarding possible links between virus infection, innate immune sensing and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Mehrdad Alirezaei
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - J Lindsay Whitton
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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19
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Pliaka V, Dedepsidis E, Kyriakopoulou Z, Papadi G, Tsakogiannis D, Pratti A, Levidiotou-Stefanou S, Markoulatos P. Growth kinetic analysis of bi-recombinant poliovirus vaccine strains. Virus Genes 2010; 40:200-11. [PMID: 20091423 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-010-0448-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Accepted: 01/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Attenuated strains of Sabin poliovirus vaccine replicate in the human gut and in rare cases may cause vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP). Mutations at specific sites of the genome and recombination between Sabin strains may result in the loss of the attenuated phenotype of OPV (Oral Poliovirus Vaccine) strains and the acquisition of traits characteristic of wild polioviruses, such as increased neurovirulence and loss of temperature sensitivity. In this study, we determined the phenotypic traits such as temperature sensitivity and growth kinetics of eight OPV isolates (six bi-recombinant and two non-recombinant). The growth phenotype of each isolate as well as of Sabin vaccine strains in Hep2 cell line at two different temperatures (37 and 40 degrees C) was evaluated using two different assays, RCT test (Reproductive Capacity at different Temperatures) and one-step growth curve analysis. Moreover, the nucleotide and amino acid positions in the genomes of the isolates that have been identified as being involved in the attenuated and thermo sensitive phenotype of Sabin vaccine strains were investigated. Mutations that result in loss of the attenuated and thermo sensitive phenotype of Sabin vaccine strains were identified in the genomes of all isolates. Both mutations and recombination events correlated well with the reverted phenotypic traits of OPV-derivatives. In the post-eradication era of wild polioviruses, the identification and the characterization (genomic and phenotypic) of vaccine-derived polioviruses become increasingly important in order to prevent cases or even outbreaks of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by neurovirulent strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaia Pliaka
- Department of Biochemistry & Biotechnology, Microbiology-Virology Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Ploutonos 26 & Aiolou, 41221 Larissa, Greece.
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20
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Zhang Y, Zhang F, Zhu S, Chen L, Yan D, Wang D, Tang R, Zhu H, Hou X, An H, Zhang H, Xu W. A Sabin 2-related poliovirus recombinant contains a homologous sequence of human enterovirus species C in the viral polymerase coding region. Arch Virol 2009; 155:197-205. [PMID: 19946714 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0564-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A type 2 vaccine-related poliovirus (strain CHN3024), differing from the Sabin 2 strain by 0.44% in the VP1 coding region was isolated from a patient with vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. Sequences downstream of nucleotide position 6735 (3D(pol) coding region) were derived from an unidentified sequence; no close match for a potential parent was found, but it could be classified into a non-polio human enteroviruses species C (HEV-C) phylogeny. The virus differed antigenically from the parental Sabin strain, having an amino acid substitution in the neutralizing antigenic site 1. The similarity between CHN3024 and Sabin 2 sequences suggests that the recombination was recent; this is supported by the estimation that the initiating OPV dose was given only 36-75 days before sampling. The patient's clinical manifestations, intratypic differentiation examination, and whole-genome sequencing showed that this recombinant exhibited characteristics of neurovirulent vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPV), which may, thus, pose a potential threat to a polio-free world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- WHO WPRO Regional Polio Reference Laboratory and State Key Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Genetic Engineering, Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 27, Nanwei Road, Xuanwu District, 100050, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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21
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Shedding of vaccine viruses with increased antigenic and genetic divergence after vaccination of newborns with monovalent type 1 oral poliovirus vaccine. J Virol 2009; 83:8693-704. [PMID: 19515771 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02388-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
For the final stages in the eradication of poliovirus type 1 (P1), the World Health Organization advocates the selective use of monovalent type 1 oral poliovirus vaccine (mOPV1). To compare the immunogenicity of mOPV1 with that of trivalent OPV (tOPV) in infants, a study was performed in Egypt in 2005. Newborns were vaccinated with mOPV1 or tOPV immediately after birth and were challenged with mOPV1 after 1 month. Vaccination with mOPV1 at birth resulted in significantly higher seroconversion against P1 viruses and lower excretion of P1 viruses than vaccination with tOPV. Intratypic differentiation of the viruses shed by the newborns revealed the presence of remarkably high numbers of antigenically divergent (AD) P1 isolates, especially in the mOPV1 study group. The majority of these AD P1 isolates (71%) were mOPV1 challenge derived and were shed by newborns who did not seroconvert to P1 after the birth dose. Genetic characterization of the viruses revealed that amino acid 60 of the VP3 region was mutated in all AD P1 isolates. Isolates with substitution of residue 99 of the VP1 region had significantly higher numbers of nonsynonymous mutations in the VP1 region than isolates without this substitution and were preferentially shed in the mOPV1 study group. The widespread use of mOPV1 has proven to be a powerful tool for fighting poliovirus circulation in the remaining areas of endemicity. This study provides another justification for the need to achieve high vaccination coverage in order to prevent the circulation of AD strains.
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22
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Chumakov K, Ehrenfeld E. New generation of inactivated poliovirus vaccines for universal immunization after eradication of poliomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47:1587-92. [PMID: 18990066 PMCID: PMC2596976 DOI: 10.1086/593310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Twenty years of global polio eradication efforts may soon eliminate the transmission of wild-type poliovirus. However, new information that has been learned about poliovirus, as well as the political realities of a modern world, demand that universal immunity against poliomyelitis be maintained, even after wild-type poliovirus is eradicated. Although 2 excellent vaccines have proven to be highly effective in the past, neither the live-attenuated vaccine nor the currently used inactivated vaccine are optimal for use in the posteradication era. Therefore, concerted efforts are urgently needed to develop a new generation of vaccine that is risk-free and affordable and can be produced on a global scale. Here, we discuss the desired properties of a vaccine and methods to create a new polio vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ellie Ehrenfeld
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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23
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Shahmahmoodi S, Parvaneh N, Burns C, Asghar H, Mamishi S, Tabatabaie H, Chen Q, Teimourian S, Gooya MM, Esteghamati AR, Mousavi T, Yousefi M, Farrokhi K, Mashlool M, Kew O, Nategh R. Isolation of a type 3 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) from an Iranian child with X-linked agammaglobulinemia. Virus Res 2008; 137:168-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2008] [Revised: 07/02/2008] [Accepted: 07/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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24
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Odoom JK, Yunus Z, Dunn G, Minor PD, Martín J. Changes in population dynamics during long-term evolution of sabin type 1 poliovirus in an immunodeficient patient. J Virol 2008; 82:9179-90. [PMID: 18596089 PMCID: PMC2546908 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00468-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2008] [Accepted: 06/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of the Sabin strain of type 1 poliovirus in a hypogammaglobulinemia patient for a period of 649 days is described. Twelve poliovirus isolates from sequential stool samples encompassing days 21 to 649 after vaccination with Sabin 1 were characterized in terms of their antigenic properties, virulence in transgenic mice, sensitivity for growth at high temperatures, and differences in nucleotide sequence from the Sabin 1 strain. Poliovirus isolates from the immunodeficient patient evolved gradually toward non-temperature-sensitive and neurovirulent phenotypes, accumulating mutations at key nucleotide positions that correlated with the observed reversion to biological properties typical of wild polioviruses. Analysis of plaque-purified viruses from stool samples revealed complex genetic and evolutionary relationships between the poliovirus strains. The generation of various coevolving genetic lineages incorporating different mutations was observed at early stages of virus excretion. The main driving force for genetic diversity appeared to be the selection of mutations at attenuation sites, particularly in the 5' noncoding region and the VP1 BC loop. Recombination between virus strains from the two main lineages was observed between days 63 and 88. Genetic heterogeneity among plaque-purified viruses at each time point seemed to decrease with time, and only viruses belonging to a unique genotypic lineage were seen from day 105 after vaccination. The relevance of vaccine-derived poliovirus strains for disease surveillance and future polio immunization policies is discussed in the context of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K Odoom
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN63QG, United Kingdom
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25
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Riquet FB, Blanchard C, Jegouic S, Balanant J, Guillot S, Vibet MA, Rakoto-Andrianarivelo M, Delpeyroux F. Impact of exogenous sequences on the characteristics of an epidemic type 2 recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus. J Virol 2008; 82:8927-32. [PMID: 18579607 PMCID: PMC2519664 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00239-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2008] [Accepted: 06/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs) have become a major obstacle to the successful completion of the global polio eradication program. Most cVDPVs are recombinant between the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) and human enterovirus species C (HEV-C). To study the role of HEV-C sequences in the phenotype of cVDPVs, we generated a series of recombinants between a Madagascar cVDPV isolate and its parental OPV type 2 strain. Results indicated that the HEV-C sequences present in this cVDPV contribute to its characteristics, including pathogenicity, suggesting that interspecific recombination contributes to the phenotypic biodiversity of polioviruses and may favor the emergence of cVDPVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck B Riquet
- Unité de Biologie des Virus Entériques, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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26
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Isolation of sabin-like polioviruses from wastewater in a country using inactivated polio vaccine. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 74:5608-14. [PMID: 18641161 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02764-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
From 2001 to 2004, Switzerland switched from routine vaccination with oral polio vaccine (OPV) to inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), using both vaccines in the intervening period. Since IPV is less effective at inducing mucosal immunity than OPV, this change might allow imported poliovirus to circulate undetected more easily in an increasingly IPV-immunized population. Environmental monitoring is a recognized tool for identifying polioviruses in a community. To look for evidence of poliovirus circulation following cessation of OPV use, two sewage treatment plants located in the Zurich area were sampled from 2004 to 2006. Following virus isolation using either RD or L20B cells, enteroviruses and polioviruses were identified by reverse transcription-PCR. A total of 20 out of 174 wastewater samples were positive for 62 Sabin-like isolates. One isolate from each poliovirus-positive sample was analyzed in more detail. Sequencing the complete viral protein 1 (VP1) capsid coding region, as well as intratypic differentiation (ITD), identified 3 Sabin type 1, 13 Sabin type 2, and 4 Sabin type 3 strains. One serotype 1 strain showed a discordant result in the ITD. Three-quarters of the strains showed mutations within the 5' untranslated region and VP1, known to be associated with reversion to virulence. Moreover, three strains showed heterotypic recombination (S2/S1 and S3/S2/S3). The low number of synonymous mutations and the partial temperature sensitivity are not consistent with extended circulation of these Sabin virus strains. Nevertheless, the continuous introduction of polioviruses into the community emphasizes the necessity for uninterrupted child vaccination to maintain high herd immunity.
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27
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Calibration of multiple poliovirus molecular clocks covering an extended evolutionary range. J Virol 2008; 82:4429-40. [PMID: 18287242 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02354-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We have calibrated five different molecular clocks for circulating poliovirus based upon the rates of fixation of total substitutions (K(t)), synonymous substitutions (K(s)), synonymous transitions (A(s)), synonymous transversions (B(s)), and nonsynonymous substitutions (K(a)) into the P1/capsid region (2,643 nucleotides). Rates were determined over a 10-year period by analysis of sequences of 31 wild poliovirus type 1 isolates representing a well-defined phylogeny derived from a common imported ancestor. Similar rates were obtained by linear regression, the maximum likelihood/single-rate dated-tip method, and Bayesian inference. The very rapid K(t) [(1.03 +/- 0.10) x 10(-2) substitutions/site/year] and K(s) [(1.00 +/- 0.08) x 10(-2)] clocks were driven primarily by the A(s) clock [(0.96 +/- 0.09) x 10(-2)], the B(s) clock was approximately 10-fold slower [(0.10 +/- 0.03) x 10(-2)], and the more stochastic K(a) clock was approximately 30-fold slower [(0.03 +/- 0.01) x 10(-2)]. Nonsynonymous substitutions at all P1/capsid sites, including the neutralizing antigenic sites, appeared to be constrained by purifying selection. Simulation of the evolution of third-codon positions suggested that saturation of synonymous transitions would be evident at 10 years and complete at approximately 65 years of independent transmission. Saturation of synonymous transversions was predicted to be minimal at 20 years and incomplete at 100 years. The rapid evolution of the K(t), K(s), and A(s) clocks can be used to estimate the dates of divergence of closely related viruses, whereas the slower B(s) and K(a) clocks may be used to explore deeper evolutionary relationships within and across poliovirus genotypes.
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29
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Chumakov K, Ehrenfeld E, Wimmer E, Agol VI. Vaccination against polio should not be stopped. Nat Rev Microbiol 2007; 5:952-8. [PMID: 17965726 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The striking 50-year-long decline in the incidence of poliomyelitis has stalled in the past 7 years, which has led to calls for an urgent re-assessment of eradication and post-eradication campaign strategies. The current plan of eliminating the circulation of wild poliovirus so that further immunization will be unnecessary does not take into account recent scientific data and political realities that limit the likelihood that this strategy can sustain prevention of the disease. It is crucially important that high levels of population immunity are maintained against polio in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Chumakov
- Konstantin Chumakov is at the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 1401 Rockville Pike, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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30
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Dedepsidis E, Kyriakopoulou Z, Pliaka V, Kottaridi C, Bolanaki E, Levidiotou-Stefanou S, Komiotis D, Markoulatos P. Retrospective characterization of a vaccine-derived poliovirus type 1 isolate from sewage in Greece. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:6697-704. [PMID: 17827314 PMCID: PMC2074943 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00535-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Retrospective molecular and phenotypic characterization of a vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) type 1 isolate (7/b/97) isolated from sewage in Athens, Greece, in 1997 is reported. VP1 sequencing of this isolate revealed 1.87% divergence from the VP1 region of reference strain Sabin 1, while further genomic characterization of isolate 7/b/97 revealed a recombination event in the nonstructural part of the genome between a vaccine strain and a nonvaccine strain probably belonging to Enterovirus species C. Amino acid substitutions commonly found in previous studies were identified in the capsid coding region of the isolate, while most of the attenuation and temperature sensitivity determinants were reverted. The ultimate source of isolate 7/b/97 is unknown. The recovery of such a highly divergent derivative of a vaccine strain emphasizes the need for urgent implementation of environmental surveillance as a supportive procedure in the polio surveillance system even in countries with high rates of OPV coverage in order to prevent cases or even outbreaks of poliomyelitis that otherwise would be inevitable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evaggelos Dedepsidis
- Department of Biochemistry & Biotechnology, University of Thessaly, 26 Ploutonos & Aiolou Str., Larissa 41221, Greece
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31
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Adu F, Iber J, Bukbuk D, Gumede N, Yang SJ, Jorba J, Campagnoli R, Sule WF, Yang CF, Burns C, Pallansch M, Harry T, Kew O. Isolation of recombinant type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) from a Nigerian child. Virus Res 2007; 127:17-25. [PMID: 17449127 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2007.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2007] [Revised: 02/26/2007] [Accepted: 03/13/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A type 2 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV), differing from Sabin 2 at 2.5% (22/903) of VP1 nucleotide (nt) positions, was isolated from an incompletely immunized 21-month-old Nigerian child who developed acute flaccid paralysis in 2002. Sequences upstream of nt position 620 (within the 5'-untranslated region [5'-UTR]) and downstream of nt position 5840 (in the 3C(pro) region) were derived from species C enteroviruses unrelated to the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) strains. The two substitutions associated with the attenuated phenotype had either recombined out (A(481)-->G in the 5'-UTR) or reverted (Ile(143)-->Thr in VP1). The VDPV isolate had lost the temperature sensitive phenotype of Sabin 2 and it was antigenically distinct from the parental OPV strain, having amino acid substitutions in or near neutralizing antigenic sites 1 and 3. The date of the initiating OPV dose, calculated from the number of synonymous substitutions in the capsid region, was estimated to be approximately 16 to 18 months before onset of paralysis, a finding inconsistent with the most recent mass OPV campaign (conducted 12 days before onset of paralysis) as being the source of infection. Although no related type 2 VDPVs were detected in Nigeria or elsewhere, the VDPV was found in an area where conditions favor VDPV emergence and spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Festus Adu
- National Poliovirus Laboratory, Department of Virology, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, UCH, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
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32
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Combiescu M, Guillot S, Persu A, Baicus A, Pitigoi D, Balanant J, Oprisan G, Crainic R, Delpeyroux F, Aubert-Combiescu A. Circulation of a type 1 recombinant vaccine-derived poliovirus strain in a limited area in Romania. Arch Virol 2007; 152:727-38. [PMID: 17195957 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-006-0884-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2006] [Accepted: 11/01/2006] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
After intensive immunisation campaigns with the oral polio vaccine (OPV) as part of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, poliomyelitis due to wild viruses has disappeared from most parts of the world, including Europe. Here, we report the characterization of a serotype 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) isolated from one acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) case with tetraplegia and eight healthy contacts belonging to the same small socio-cultural group having a low vaccine coverage living in a small town in Romania. The genomes of the isolated strains appeared to be tripartite type 1/type 2/type 1 vaccine intertypic recombinant genomes derived from a common ancestor strain. The presence of 1.2% nucleotide substitutions in the VP1 capsid protein coding region of most of the strains indicated a circulation time of about 14 months. These VDPVs were thermoresistant and, in transgenic mice expressing the human poliovirus receptor, appeared to have lost the attenuated phenotype. These results suggest that small populations with low vaccine coverage living in globally well-vaccinated countries can be the origin of VDPV emergence and circulation. These results reaffirm the importance of active surveillance for acute flaccid paralysis and poliovirus in both polio-free and polio-endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Combiescu
- Cantacuzino National Institute of Research-Development for Microbiology and Immunology, Bucharest, Romania
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Tebbens RJD, Pallansch MA, Kew OM, Cáceres VM, Jafari H, Cochi SL, Sutter RW, Aylward RB, Thompson KM. Risks of paralytic disease due to wild or vaccine-derived poliovirus after eradication. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2006; 26:1471-505. [PMID: 17184393 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00827.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
After the global eradication of wild polioviruses, the risk of paralytic poliomyelitis from polioviruses will still exist and require active management. Possible reintroductions of poliovirus that can spread rapidly in unprotected populations present challenges to policymakers. For example, at least one outbreak will likely occur due to circulation of a neurovirulent vaccine-derived poliovirus after discontinuation of oral poliovirus vaccine and also could possibly result from the escape of poliovirus from a laboratory or vaccine production facility or from an intentional act. In addition, continued vaccination with oral poliovirus vaccines would result in the continued occurrence of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. The likelihood and impacts of reintroductions in the form of poliomyelitis outbreaks depend on the policy decisions and on the size and characteristics of the vulnerable population, which change over time. A plan for managing these risks must begin with an attempt to characterize and quantify them as a function of time. This article attempts to comprehensively characterize the risks, synthesize the existing data available for modeling them, and present quantitative risk estimates that can provide a starting point for informing policy decisions.
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Abstract
Seven cases of long-term poliovirus excretion in the UK and Ireland are reviewed in this paper. They include a rare case of long-term virus excretion by a healthy child recently found in Ireland and the case with the longest period of vaccine-derived poliovirus excretion by an immunodeficient individual ever known, 18 years. The evolution of viral properties such as antigenic structure, neurovirulence, sensitivity for growth at high temperatures, and differences in nucleotide sequence from the Sabin vaccine strains were studied in detail. The relevance of these cases in the context of the global polio eradication initiative and the design of vaccination strategies for the last stages of eradication and the post-eradication era are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Martín
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
The Sabin oral poliovaccine (OPV) is extremely efficacious and safe, despite its inherent genetic instability. While reversion to nearly wild-type phenotype regularly occurs soon after the onset of OPV reproduction in the gastro-intestinal tract of vaccine recipients or their contacts, this is usually not a big problem, provided the vaccine is used either for mass vaccination or in populations with a relatively high level of anti-polio immunity. However, if these conditions are not met, the vaccine viruses are likely to be converted into highly transmissible agents with a nearly wild-type level of neurovirulence. Moreover, OPV viruses may persist and evolve even in adequately immunized populations. The current strategy for the "endgame" of poliovirus eradication envisions cessation of OPV usage shortly after the last isolation of a wild poliovirus. If implemented, this strategy would result in rapid growth of non-immune human populations at the time when OPV derivatives would very likely be persisting. Therefore, the planned cessation of OPV vaccination is associated with a very high, and in the author's opinion, unacceptable risk of polio outbreaks caused by OPV derivatives. The only currently available tool to curb such outbreaks is OPV, which should have been used at a global scale. Safe discontinuation of OPV vaccination will be possible only after an efficient new vaccine or an anti-poliovirus drug is available. To achieve this goal, stimulation of poliovirus research and elimination of organizational and financial obstacles preventing it are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim I Agol
- M.P. Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Russia.
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Abstract
This review provides an insight into the various opportunities for vaccine intervention, analysis of strategies for vaccine development, vaccine ability to modulate immune responses and resultant rational vaccine design. In addition, wider aspects are considered, such as biotechnological advances, advances in immunological understanding and host–pathogen interactions. The key question addressed here is, with all our research and understanding, have we reached a new echelon in vaccine development, that of rational design?
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Yakovenko ML, Cherkasova EA, Rezapkin GV, Ivanova OE, Ivanov AP, Eremeeva TP, Baykova OY, Chumakov KM, Agol VI. Antigenic evolution of vaccine-derived polioviruses: changes in individual epitopes and relative stability of the overall immunological properties. J Virol 2006; 80:2641-53. [PMID: 16501074 PMCID: PMC1395452 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.6.2641-2653.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2005] [Accepted: 12/21/2005] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) readily undergoes changes in antigenic sites upon replication in humans. Here, a set of antigenically altered descendants of the three OPV serotypes (76 isolates) was characterized to determine the driving forces behind these changes and their biological implications. The amino acid residues of OPV derivatives that lie within or close to the known antigenic sites exhibited a marked tendency to be replaced by residues characteristic of homotypic wild polioviruses, and these changes may occur very early in OPV evolution. The specific amino acid alterations nicely correlated with serotype-specific changes in the reactivity of certain individual antigenic sites, as revealed by the recently devised monoclonal antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In comparison to the original vaccine, small changes, if any, in the neutralizing capacity of human or rabbit sera were observed in highly diverged vaccine polioviruses of three serotypes, in spite of strong alterations of certain epitopes. We propose that the common antigenic alterations in evolving OPV strains largely reflect attempts to eliminate fitness-decreasing mutations acquired either during the original selection of the vaccine or already present in the parental strains. Variability of individual epitopes does not appear to be primarily caused by, or lead to, a significant immune evasion, enhancing only slightly, if at all, the capacity of OPV derivatives to overcome immunity in human populations. This study reveals some important patterns of poliovirus evolution and has obvious implications for the rational design of live viral vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L Yakovenko
- A. N. Belozersky Institute of Physical-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, Moscow 119899, Russia
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Abstract
Replication of poliovirus RNA is accomplished by the error-prone viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and hence is accompanied by numerous mutations. In addition, genetic errors may be introduced by nonreplicative mechanisms. Resulting variability is manifested by point mutations and genomic rearrangements (e.g., deletions, insertions and recombination). After description of basic mechanisms underlying this variability, the review focuses on regularities of poliovirus evolution (mutation fixation) in tissue cultures, human organisms and populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- V I Agol
- M.P. Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 142782, Russia.
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van der Vorst MMJ, Jamal W, Rotimi VO, Moosa A. Infant botulism due to consumption of contaminated commercially prepared honey. First report from the Arabian Gulf States. Med Princ Pract 2006; 15:456-8. [PMID: 17047355 DOI: 10.1159/000095494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2005] [Accepted: 12/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To report the first case of infant botulism in Arabian Gulf States. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND INTERVENTION A 6-week-old infant, presenting with signs of sepsis, was intubated and ventilated due to progressive weakness. Infant botulism was suspected with acute flaccid paralysis and a history of honey consumption. An electromyogram showed decreased amplitude of compound muscle action potential in all motor nerves, preserved sensory responses; the motor terminal latencies and motor conduction velocities were normal. Blood, stool and honey samples were sent for culture. Stool and honey cultures showed two identical strains of Clostridium botulinum. CONCLUSION This case shows that the infant botulism occurred from the ingested contaminated honey. Hence vigilance should be maintained when a baby is fed honey and shows signs of progressive weakness because the disease can quickly progress to respiratory failure.
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Whitton JL, Cornell CT, Feuer R. Host and virus determinants of picornavirus pathogenesis and tropism. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3:765-76. [PMID: 16205710 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The family Picornaviridae contains some notable members, including rhinovirus, which infects humans more frequently than any other virus; poliovirus, which has paralysed or killed millions over the years; and foot-and-mouth-disease virus, which led to the creation of dedicated institutes throughout the world. Despite their profound impact on human and animal health, the factors that regulate pathogenesis and tissue tropism are poorly understood. In this article, we review the clinical and economic challenges that these agents pose, summarize current knowledge of host-pathogen interactions and highlight a few of the many outstanding questions that remain to be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lindsay Whitton
- Department of Neuropharmacology, CVN-9, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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Kew OM, Sutter RW, de Gourville EM, Dowdle WR, Pallansch MA. VACCINE-DERIVED POLIOVIRUSES AND THE ENDGAME STRATEGY FOR GLOBAL POLIO ERADICATION. Annu Rev Microbiol 2005; 59:587-635. [PMID: 16153180 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 466] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
As the global eradication of wild poliovirus nears, the World Health Organization (WHO) is addressing challenges unprecedented in public health. The live, attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), used for more than four decades to interrupt poliovirus transmission, and the vaccine of choice for developing countries, is genetically unstable. Reversion of the small number of substitutions conferring the attenuated phenotype frequently occurs during OPV replication in humans and is the underlying cause of the rare cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) in OPV recipients and their close contacts. Whereas VAPP has long been recognized, two other adverse events have been identified more recently: (a) long-term excretion of highly evolved vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) in persons with primary immunodeficiencies, and (b) polio outbreaks associated with circulating VDPVs in areas with low rates of OPV coverage. Developing a posteradication strategy to minimize the risks of VDPV emergence and spread has become an urgent WHO priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olen M Kew
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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Yang CF, Chen HY, Jorba J, Sun HC, Yang SJ, Lee HC, Huang YC, Lin TY, Chen PJ, Shimizu H, Nishimura Y, Utama A, Pallansch M, Miyamura T, Kew O, Yang JY. Intratypic recombination among lineages of type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus emerging during chronic infection of an immunodeficient patient. J Virol 2005; 79:12623-34. [PMID: 16188964 PMCID: PMC1235840 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.20.12623-12634.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We determined the complete genomic sequences of nine type 1 immunodeficient vaccine-derived poliovirus (iVDPV) isolates obtained over a 337-day period from a poliomyelitis patient from Taiwan with common variable immunodeficiency. The iVDPV isolates differed from the Sabin type 1 oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) strain at 1.84% to 3.15% of total open reading frame positions and had diverged into at least five distinct lineages. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the chronic infection was initiated by the fifth and last OPV dose, given 567 days before onset of paralysis, and that divergence of major lineages began very early in the chronic infection. Key determinants of attenuation in Sabin 1 had reverted in the iVDPV isolates, and representative isolates of each lineage showed increased neurovirulence for PVR-Tg21 transgenic mice. None of the isolates had retained the temperature-sensitive phenotype of Sabin 1. All isolates were antigenic variants of Sabin 1, having multiple amino acid substitutions within or near neutralizing antigenic sites 1, 2, and 3a. Antigenic divergence of the iVDPV variants from Sabin 1 followed two major independent evolutionary pathways. The emergence of distinct coreplicating lineages suggests that iVDPVs can replicate for many months at separate sites in the gastrointestinal tract. Some isolates had mosaic genome structures indicative of recombination across and within lineages. iVDPV excretion apparently ceased after 30 to 35 months of chronic infection. The appearance of a chronic VDPV excretor in a tropical, developing country has important implications for the strategy to stop OPV immunization after eradication of wild polioviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Fu Yang
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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