Proteolysis of vimentin and desmin by the Ca2+-activated proteinase specific for these intermediate filament proteins

The vimentin cytoskeleton: when polymer physics meets cell biology

The proper functions of tissues depend on the ability of cells to withstand stress and maintain shape. Central to this process is the cytoskeleton, comprised of three polymeric networks: F-actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments (IFs). IF proteins are among the most abundant cytoskeletal proteins in cells; yet they remain some of the least understood. Their structure and function deviate from those of their cytoskeletal partners, F-actin and microtubules. IF networks show a unique combination of extensibility, flexibility and toughness that confers mechanical resilience to the cell. Vimentin is an IF protein expressed in mesenchymal cells. This review highlights exciting new results on the physical biology of vimentin intermediate filaments and their role in allowing whole cells and tissues to cope with stress.

Unidirectional Regulation of Vimentin Intermediate Filaments to Caveolin-1

Both the mechanosensitive vimentin cytoskeleton and endocytic caveolae contribute to various active processes such as cell migration, morphogenesis, and stress response. However, the crosstalk between these two systems has remained elusive. Here, we find that the subcellular expression between vimentin and caveolin-1 is mutual exclusive, and vimentin filaments physically arrest the cytoplasmic motility of caveolin-1 vesicles. Importantly, vimentin depletion increases the phosphorylation of caveolin-1 on site Tyr14, and restores the compromised cell migration rate and directionality caused by caveolin-1 deprivation. Moreover, upon hypo-osmotic shock, vimentin-knockout recovers the reduced intracellular motility of caveolin-1 vesicles. In contrary, caveolin-1 depletion shows no effect on the expression, phosphorylation (on sites Ser39, Ser56, and Ser83), distribution, solubility, and cellular dynamics of vimentin filaments. Taken together, our data reveals a unidirectional regulation of vimentin to caveolin-1, at least on the cellular level.

GSK3-β promotes calpain-1-mediated desmin filament depolymerization and myofibril loss in atrophy

Phosphorylation by protein kinase GSK3-β is essential for desmin filament depolymerization by calpain-1 and the resulting myofibril destruction in muscle atrophy.

Myofibril breakdown is a fundamental cause of muscle wasting and inevitable sequel of aging and disease. We demonstrated that myofibril loss requires depolymerization of the desmin cytoskeleton, which is activated by phosphorylation. Here, we developed a mass spectrometry–based kinase-trap assay and identified glycogen synthase kinase 3-β (GSK3-β) as responsible for desmin phosphorylation. GSK3-β inhibition in mice prevented desmin phosphorylation and depolymerization and blocked atrophy upon fasting or denervation. Desmin was phosphorylated by GSK3-β 3 d after denervation, but depolymerized only 4 d later when cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels rose. Mass spectrometry analysis identified GSK3-β and the Ca²⁺-specific protease, calpain-1, bound to desmin and catalyzing its disassembly. Consistently, calpain-1 down-regulation prevented loss of phosphorylated desmin and blocked atrophy. Thus, phosphorylation of desmin filaments by GSK3-β is a key molecular event required for calpain-1–mediated depolymerization, and the subsequent myofibril destruction. Consequently, GSK3-β represents a novel drug target to prevent myofibril breakdown and atrophy.

Desmin Phosphorylation Triggers Preamyloid Oligomers Formation and Myocyte Dysfunction in Acquired Heart Failure

RATIONALE

Disrupted proteostasis is one major pathological trait that heart failure (HF) shares with other organ proteinopathies, such as Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Yet, differently from the latter, whether and how cardiac preamyloid oligomers (PAOs) develop in acquired forms of HF is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We previously reported a rise in monophosphorylated, aggregate-prone desmin in canine and human HF. We now tested whether monophosphorylated desmin acts as the seed nucleating PAOs formation and determined whether positron emission tomography is able to detect myocardial PAOs in nongenetic HF.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Here, we first show that toxic cardiac PAOs accumulate in the myocardium of mice subjected to transverse aortic constriction and that PAOs comigrate with the cytoskeletal protein desmin in this well-established model of acquired HF. We confirm this evidence in cardiac extracts from human ischemic and nonischemic HF. We also demonstrate that Ser31 phosphorylated desmin aggregates extensively in cultured cardiomyocytes. Lastly, we were able to detect the in vivo accumulation of cardiac PAOs using positron emission tomography for the first time in acquired HF.

CONCLUSIONS

Ser31 phosphorylated desmin is a likely candidate seed for the nucleation process leading to cardiac PAOs deposition. Desmin post-translational processing and misfolding constitute a new, attractive avenue for the diagnosis and treatment of the cardiac accumulation of toxic PAOs that can now be measured by positron emission tomography in acquired HF.

Calcium influx-mediated translocation of m-calpain induces Ku80 cleavage and enhances the Ku80-related DNA repair pathway

Proteomic analysis of ionomycin-treated and untreated mammary epithelial MCF10A cells elucidated differences in Ku80 cleavage. Ku80, a subunit of the Ku protein complex, is an initiator of the non-homologous, end-joining (NHEJ), double-strand breaks (DSBs) repair pathway. The nuclear Ku80 was cleaved in a calcium concentration-dependent manner by m-calpain but not by m-calpain. The cleavage of nuclear Ku80 at its α/β domain was validated by Western blotting analysis using flag-tagged expression vectors of truncated versions of Ku80 and a flag antibody and was confirmed in m-calpain knock-down cells and in vitro cell-free evaluation with recombinant proteins of calpains, Ku70, and Ku80. In addition, the cleaved Ku80 still formed a Ku heterodimer and promoted DNA DSB repair activity. Taken together, these findings indicate that translocated m-calpain enhances the NHEJ pathway through the cleavage of Ku80. Based on the present study, m-calpain in DNA repair pathways might be a novel anticancer drug target, or its mechanism might be a possible route for resistance acquisition of DNA damage-inducing chemotherapeutics.

Dysregulated protease activated receptor 1 (PAR1) promotes metastatic phenotype in breast cancer through HMGA2

As the majority of patients with basal-like breast carcinoma present with invasive, metastatic disease that do not respond to available therapies, it is essential to identify new therapeutic targets that impact invasion and metastasis. Protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1), a G-protein coupled receptor has been shown to act as an oncogene, but underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we show that ectopic expression of functionally active PAR1 in MCF-7 cells induced a hormone-refractory, invasive phenotype representative of advanced basal-like breast carcinoma that readily formed metastatic lesions in lungs of mice. PAR1 was found to globally upregulate mesenchymal markers, including vimentin, a direct target of PAR1, and downregulate the epithelial markers including E-cadherin, as well as estrogen receptor. In contrast, non-signaling PAR1 mutant receptor did not lead to an invasive, hormone refractory phenotype. PAR1 expression increased spheroid formation and the level of stemness markers and self-renewal capacity in human breast cancer cells. We identified HMGA2 (high mobility group A2) as an important regulator of PAR1-mediated invasion. Inhibition of PAR1 signaling suppresses HMGA2-driven invasion in breast cancer cells. HMGA2 gene and protein are highly expressed in metastatic breast cancer cells. Overall, our results show that PAR1/HMGA2 pathway may present a novel therapeutic target.

Desmin modifications associate with amyloid-like oligomers deposition in heart failure

AIMS

The ultimate cause of heart failure (HF) is not known to date. The cytoskeletal protein desmin is differentially modified and forms amyloid-like oligomers in HF. We postulated that desmin post-translational modifications (PTMs) could drive aberrant desmin aggregation in HF. Therefore, we identified these PTMs and investigated their impact on desmin amyloidogenicity in human and experimental HF.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We detected increased levels of selectively phosphorylated and cleaved desmin in a canine pacing model of dyssynchronous HF (DHF) compared with either controls or animals treated with cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT). This unique animal model combines clinically relevant features with the possibility of a partly rescued phenotype. We confirmed analogous changes in desmin modifications in human HF and identified two phosphorylation sites within a glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) consensus sequence. Desmin-positive oligomers were also increased in DHF hearts compared with controls. Their amyloid properties were decreased by treatment with CRT or an anti-amyloid small molecule. Finally, we confirmed GSK3's involvement with desmin phosphorylation using an in vitro model.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these findings, we postulate a new mechanism of cardiac toxicity based on the PTM-driven accumulation of desmin amyloid-like oligomers. Phosphorylation and cleavage as well as oligomers formation are reduced by treatment (CRT) indicating a relationship between the three. Finally, the decrease of desmin amyloid-like oligomers with CRT or small molecules points both to a general mechanism of HF based on desmin toxicity that is independent of protein mutations and to novel potential therapies.

Secreted phospholipases A2 of snake venoms: effects on the peripheral neuromuscular system with comments on the role of phospholipases A2 in disorders of the CNS and their uses in industry

Neuro- and myotoxicological signs and symptoms are significant clinical features of envenoming snakebites in many parts of the world. The toxins primarily responsible for the neuro and myotoxicity fall into one of two categories--those that bind to and block the post-synaptic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) at the neuromuscular junction and neurotoxic phospholipases A2 (PLAs) that bind to and hydrolyse membrane phospholipids of the motor nerve terminal (and, in most cases, the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle) to cause degeneration of the nerve terminal and skeletal muscle. This review provides an introduction to the biochemical properties of secreted sPLA2s in the venoms of many dangerous snakes and a detailed discussion of their role in the initiation of the neurologically important consequences of snakebite. The rationale behind the experimental studies on the pharmacology and toxicology of the venoms and isolated PLAs in the venoms is discussed, with particular reference to the way these studies allow one to understand the biological basis of the clinical syndrome. The review also introduces the involvement of PLAs in inflammatory and degenerative disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) and their commercial use in the food industry. It concludes with an introduction to the problems associated with the use of antivenoms in the treatment of neuro-myotoxic snakebite and the search for alternative treatments.

Desminopathies: pathology and mechanisms

The intermediate filament protein desmin is an essential component of the extra-sarcomeric cytoskeleton in muscle cells. This three-dimensional filamentous framework exerts central roles in the structural and functional alignment and anchorage of myofibrils, the positioning of cell organelles and signaling events. Mutations of the human desmin gene on chromosome 2q35 cause autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and sporadic myopathies and/or cardiomyopathies with marked phenotypic variability. The disease onset ranges from childhood to late adulthood. The clinical course is progressive and no specific treatment is currently available for this severely disabling disease. The muscle pathology is characterized by desmin-positive protein aggregates and degenerative changes of the myofibrillar apparatus. The molecular pathophysiology of desminopathies is a complex, multilevel issue. In addition to direct effects on the formation and maintenance of the extra-sarcomeric intermediate filament network, mutant desmin affects essential protein interactions, cell signaling cascades, mitochondrial functions, and protein quality control mechanisms. This review summarizes the currently available data on the epidemiology, clinical phenotypes, myopathology, and genetics of desminopathies. In addition, this work provides an overview on the expression, filament formation processes, biomechanical properties, post-translational modifications, interaction partners, subcellular localization, and functions of wild-type and mutant desmin as well as desmin-related cell and animal models.

Divide and conquer: the application of organelle proteomics to heart failure

Chronic heart failure is a worldwide cause of mortality and morbidity and is the final outcome of a number of different etiologies. This reflects both the complexity of the disease and our incomplete understanding of its underlying molecular mechanisms. One experimental approach to address this is to study subcellular organelles and how their functions are activated and synchronized under physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we discuss the application of proteomic technologies to organelles and how this has deepened our perception of the cellular proteome and its alterations with heart failure. The use of proteomics to monitor protein quantity and posttranslational modifications has revealed a highly intricate and sophisticated level of protein regulation. Posttranslational modifications have the potential to regulate organelle function and interplay most likely by targeting both structural and signaling proteins throughout the cell, ultimately coordinating their responses. The potentials and limitations of existing proteomic technologies are also discussed emphasizing that the development of novel methods will enhance our ability to further investigate organelles and decode intracellular communication.

Vimentin is a novel AKT1 target mediating motility and invasion

The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is aberrant in a wide variety of cancers. Downstream effectors of AKT are involved in survival, growth and metabolic-related pathways. In contrast, contradictory data relating to AKT effects on cell motility and invasion, crucial prometastatic processes, have been reported pointing to a potential cell type and isoform type-specific AKT-driven function. By implication, study of AKT signaling should optimally be conducted in an appropriate intracellular environment. Prognosis in soft-tissue sarcoma (STS), the aggressive malignancies of mesenchymal origin, is poor, reflecting our modest ability to control metastasis, an effort hampered by lack of insight into molecular mechanisms driving STS progression and dissemination. We examined the impact of the cancer progression-relevant AKT pathway on the mesenchymal tumor cell internal milieu. We demonstrate that AKT1 activation induces STS cell motility and invasiveness at least partially through a novel interaction with the intermediate filament vimentin (Vim). The binding of AKT (tail region) to Vim (head region) results in Vim Ser39 phosphorylation enhancing the ability of Vim to induce motility and invasion while protecting Vim from caspase-induced proteolysis. Moreover, vimentin phosphorylation was shown to enhance tumor and metastasis growth in vivo. Insights into this mesenchymal-related molecular mechanism may facilitate the development of critically lacking therapeutic options for these devastating malignancies.

Proteomic profiling of endothelin-1-stimulated hypertrophic cardiomyocytes reveals the increase of four different desmin species and alpha-B-crystallin

We performed a proteomic investigation on primary cultures of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes after treatment with 10 nM endothelin-1 (ET1) for 48 h, an in vitro model for cardiac hypertrophy. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis profiles of cell lysates were compared after colloidal Coomassie Blue staining. 12 protein spots that significantly changed in density due to ET1 stimulation were selected for in-gel digestion and identified through mass spectrometry. Of these, 8 spots were increased and 4 were decreased. Four of the increased proteins were identified as desmin, the cardiac component of intermediate filaments and one as alpha-B-crystallin, a molecular chaperone that binds desmin. All the desmins increased 2- to 5-fold, and alpha-B-crystallin increased 2-fold after ET1 treatment. Desmin cytoskeleton has been implicated in the regulation of mitochondrial activity and distribution, as well as in the formation of amyloid bodies. Mitochondria-specific fluorescent probe MitoTracker indicated mitochondrial redistribution in hypertrophic cells. An increase of amyloid aggregates containing desmin upon treatment with ET1 was detected by filter assay. Of the four proteins that showed decreased abundance after ET1 treatment, the chaperones hsp60 and grp75 were decreased 13- and 9-fold, respectively. In conclusion, proteomic profiling of ET1-stimulated rat neonatal cardiomyocytes reveals specific changes in cardiac molecular phenotype mainly involving intermediate filament and molecular chaperone proteins.

Muscle fibre breakdown in venom-induced muscle degeneration

We studied the early stages of the degeneration of skeletal muscles using the venom of Notechis scutatus as the myotoxic agent. The venom was used at a dose equivalent to the LD50 in the mouse. There was no mortality amongst the rats. Electron microscopy was used to show the progressive hypercontraction of sarcomeres and the loss of alignment of myofibrils in individual muscle fibres. Between areas of hypercontraction sarcomeres were torn, shedding loosened myofilaments into the cytosol. Western blotting and Coomassie staining were used to compare the respective rates of loss of desmin, titin, actin, myosin and dystrophin. We showed that desmin and titin were the first proteins to be degraded with a time to 50% loss of approximately 1 h and 3 h, respectively. The loss of major contractile proteins, myosin and actin, was rather slower. The loss of dystrophin was also slower than the loss of desmin and titin. Early damage to the plasma membrane of the muscle fibre caused the cells to depolarize, probably promoting the hypercontraction of the sarcomeres, but actual loss of membrane was incomplete even at 24 h. We suggest that the early degradation of desmin and titin was responsible for the disaggregation of the sarcomeres; the liberated contractile proteins myosin and actin were shed into the cytosol, where they were degraded. Phagocytic cells that had invaded the degenerating muscle fibres were primarily involved in the clearance of damaged mitochondria.

Assembly of amino-terminally deleted desmin in vimentin-free cells

To study the role of the amino-terminal domain of the desmin subunit in intermediate filament (IF) formation, several deletions in the sequence encoding this domain were made. The deleted hamster desmin genes were fused to the RSV promoter. Expression of such constructs in vimentin-free MCF-7 cells as well as in vimentin-containing HeLa cells, resulted in the synthesis of mutant proteins of the expected size. Single- and double-label immunofluorescence assays of transfected cells showed that in the absence of vimentin, desmin subunits missing amino acids 4-13 are still capable of filament formation, although in addition to filaments large numbers of desmin dots are present. Mutant desmin subunits missing larger portions of their amino terminus cannot form filaments on their own. It may be concluded that the amino-terminal region comprising amino acids 7-17 contains residues indispensable for desmin filament formation in vivo. Furthermore it was shown that the endogenous vimentin IF network in HeLa cells masks the effects of mutant desmin on IF assembly. Intact and mutant desmin colocalized completely with endogenous vimentin in HeLa cells. Surprisingly, in these cells endogenous keratin also seemed to colocalize with endogenous vimentin, even if the endogenous vimentin filaments were disturbed after expression of some of the mutant desmin proteins. In MCF-7 cells some overlap between endogenous keratin and intact exogenous desmin filaments was also observed, but mutant desmin proteins did not affect the keratin IF structures. In the absence of vimentin networks (MCF-7 cells), the initiation of desmin filament formation seems to start on the preexisting keratin filaments. However, in the presence of vimentin (HeLa cells) a gradual integration of desmin in the preexisting vimentin filaments apparently takes place.

Antibodies to rat sperm tail polypeptides recognize Sertoli cell secretory proteins

We have previously reported that (a) polyclonal antisera raised against rat Sertoli cell secretory protein S70 and S45-S35 heterodimeric protein recognize outer dense fiber polypeptides from rat sperm tail, and (b) protein S70 is antigenically related to polypeptides S45 and S35, the disulfide-linked components of the heterodimeric protein. We now report that polyclonal antisera generated against three different outer dense fiber polypeptides recognize (a) the putative antigen of the sperm tail and (b) Sertoli cell secretory protein S70 and its antigenically-related polypeptides. Immunogold electron microscopy shows that outer dense fibers of epididymal sperm crossreact with anti-S70 serum as well as with an antiserum raised against the polypeptide D complex of extracted outer dense fibers. Electron microscopy demonstrates that outer dense fibers consist of filamentous, coil-coiled units aligned side-by-side with each other. Results of this study strengthen the antigenic homology between Sertoli cell secretory proteins and outer dense fiber polypeptides of the sperm tail.

Cytoskeleton-associated plectin: in situ localization, in vitro reconstitution, and binding to immobilized intermediate filament proteins

The association and interaction of plectin (Mr 300,000) with intermediate filaments and filament subunit proteins were studied. Immunoelectron microscopy of whole mount cytoskeletons from various cultured cell lines (rat glioma C6, mouse BALB/c 3T3, and Chinese hamster ovary) and quick-frozen, deep-etched replicas of Triton X-100-extracted rat embryo fibroblast cells revealed that plectin was primarily located at junction sites and branching points of intermediate filaments. These results were corroborated by in vitro recombination studies using vimentin and plectin purified from C6 cells. Filaments assembled from mixtures of both proteins were extensively crosslinked by oligomeric plectin structures, as demonstrated by electron microscopy of negatively stained and rotary-shadowed specimens as well as by immunoelectron microscopy; the binding of plectin structures on the surface of filaments and cross-link formation occurred without apparent periodicity. Plectin's cross-linking of reconstituted filaments was also shown by ultracentrifugation experiments. As revealed by the rotary-shadowing technique, filament-bound plectin structures were oligomeric and predominantly consisted of a central globular core region of 30-50 nm with extending filaments or filamentous loops. Solid-phase binding to proteolytically degraded vimentin fragments suggested that plectin interacts with the helical rod domain of vimentin, a highly conserved structural element of all intermediate filament proteins. Accordingly, plectin was found to bind to the glial fibrillar acidic protein, the three neurofilament polypeptides, and skin keratins. These results suggest that plectin is a cross-linker of vimentin filaments and possibly also of other intermediate filament types.

Two distinct attachment sites for vimentin along the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope in avian erythrocytes: a basis for a vectorial assembly of intermediate filaments

In vitro binding studies with isolated bovine lens vimentin and avian erythrocyte membranes reveal the existence of two functionally distinct sets of intermediate filament attachment sites. One population of such receptors is located along the nuclear envelope and comprises polypeptides recognizing the carboxy-terminal tail domain of vimentin. Vimentin associates with these nuclear surface receptors in a cooperative manner and forms extensive 10-nm filaments in a concentration-dependent fashion. Conversely, the plasma membrane contains binding sites that interact in a noncooperative, saturable fashion with vimentin, recognizing its amino-terminal head domain. The functional dichotomy of the vimentin-binding sites under in vitro conditions may reflect a vectorial assembly process whereby 10-nm filaments, although structurally apolar, acquire polar features brought about by the differential attachment to specific receptors arranged along the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope.

Translational control of mRNA expression during the early mitogenic response in Swiss mouse 3T3 cells: identification of specific proteins

Addition of serum or epidermal growth factor to quiescent Swiss mouse 3T3 cells in culture leads to a number of specific changes in the pattern of protein synthesis. Earlier experiments with actinomycin D suggested that the altered expression of these proteins was controlled at either the pretranslational or translational level. Here we have identified and further characterized the regulation of mRNA expression for ten of these proteins, including protein synthesis elongation factor eEF-1 alpha, poly A binding protein, vimentin, the multiple forms of the actin protein family, and alpha- and beta-tubulin. Using an in vitro translation system, we determined the change in the level of mRNA encoding for each of these proteins after serum stimulation. The results showed that the amount of mRNA coding for eEF-1 alpha, poly A binding protein, vimentin, and alpha- and beta-tubulin remains unchanged during this time, whereas that of the actin family increases. Thus, with the exception of the actin family, the results argue that the expression of all the proteins identified is regulated at the translational level. The importance of this latter group of proteins in cell growth and the abundance of their cognate mRNAs should prove them useful tools in elucidating the mechanisms involved in the activation of translationally repressed mRNA during the mitogenic response.

Developmentally regulated cytokeratin gene in Xenopus laevis

We have determined the sequence of cloned cDNAs derived from a 1,665-nucleotide mRNA which transiently accumulates during Xenopus laevis embryogenesis. Computer analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence revealed that this mRNA encodes a 47-kilodalton type I intermediate filament subunit, i.e., a cytokeratin. As is common to all intermediate filament subunits so far examined, the predicted polypeptide, named XK70, contains N- and C-terminal domains flanking a central alpha-helical rod domain. The overall amino acid homology between XK70 and a human 50-kilodalton type I keratin is 47%; homology within the alpha-helical domain is 57%. The N-terminal domain, which is not completely contained in our cDNAs, is basic, contains 42% serine plus alanine, and includes five copies of a six-amino-acid repeating unit. The C-terminal domain has a high alpha-helical content and contains a region with sequence homology to the C-terminal domains of other type I and type III intermediate filament proteins. We suggest that different keratin filament subtypes may have different functional roles during amphibian oogenesis and embryogenesis.

The role of keratin subfamilies and keratin pairs in the formation of human epidermal intermediate filaments

The four major keratins of normal human epidermis (molecular mass 50, 56.5, 58, and 65-67 kD) can be subdivided on the basis of charge into two subfamilies (acidic 50-kD and 56.5-kD keratins vs. relatively basic 58-kD and 65-67-kD keratins) or subdivided on the basis of co-expression into two "pairs" (50-kD/58-kD keratin pair synthesized by basal cells vs. 56.5-kD/65-67-kD keratin pair expressed in suprabasal cells). Acidic and basic subfamilies were separated by ion exchange chromatography in 8.5 M urea and tested for their ability to reassemble into 10-nm filaments in vitro. The two keratins in either subfamily did not reassemble into 10-nm filaments unless combined with members of the other subfamily. While electron microscopy of acidic and basic keratins equilibrated in 4.5 M urea showed that keratins within each subfamily formed distinct oligomeric structures, possibly representing precursors in filament assembly, chemical cross-linking followed by gel analysis revealed dimers and larger oligomers only when subfamilies were combined. In addition, among the four major keratins, the acidic 50-kD and basic 58-kD keratins showed preferential association even in 8.5 M urea, enabling us to isolate a 50-kD/58-kD keratin complex by gel filtration. This isolated 50-kD/58-kD keratin pair readily formed 10-nm filaments in vitro. These results demonstrate that in tissues containing multiple keratins, two keratins are sufficient for filament assembly, but one keratin from each subfamily is required. More importantly, these data provide the first evidence for the structural significance of specific co-expressed acidic/basic keratin pairs in the formation of epithelial 10-nm filaments.

Developmentally regulated cytokeratin gene in Xenopus laevis

We have determined the sequence of cloned cDNAs derived from a 1,665-nucleotide mRNA which transiently accumulates during Xenopus laevis embryogenesis. Computer analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence revealed that this mRNA encodes a 47-kilodalton type I intermediate filament subunit, i.e., a cytokeratin. As is common to all intermediate filament subunits so far examined, the predicted polypeptide, named XK70, contains N- and C-terminal domains flanking a central alpha-helical rod domain. The overall amino acid homology between XK70 and a human 50-kilodalton type I keratin is 47%; homology within the alpha-helical domain is 57%. The N-terminal domain, which is not completely contained in our cDNAs, is basic, contains 42% serine plus alanine, and includes five copies of a six-amino-acid repeating unit. The C-terminal domain has a high alpha-helical content and contains a region with sequence homology to the C-terminal domains of other type I and type III intermediate filament proteins. We suggest that different keratin filament subtypes may have different functional roles during amphibian oogenesis and embryogenesis.

Site specificity in vimentin-membrane interactions: intermediate filament subunits associate with the plasma membrane via their head domains

Fragments of vimentin, generated by chemical or enzymatic cleavages, were analyzed for their capacity to bind to human inverted erythrocyte membrane vesicles. Only peptides comprising the amino-terminal head domain of vimentin molecules were competent in associating with the membranes. In vitro studies also demonstrated that isolated ankyrin (the major vimentin acceptor site on the membrane) binds to an oligomeric species of vimentin and prevents the formation of characteristic 10-nm filaments. These data, taken together with the observation that the NH2-terminal end of vimentin is implicated in the polymerization process (Traub, P., and C. Vorgias, J. Cell Sci., 1983, 63:43-67), imply that intermediate filaments may contact the membrane in an end-on fashion, using the exposed head domains of their terminal subunits.

Reconstitution of cytokeratin filaments in vitro: further evidence for the role of nonhelical peptides in filament assembly

The in vitro renaturation and assembly of cytokeratin molecules to form intermediate filaments (IF) illustrates that these molecules contain all of the structural information necessary for IF information. These molecules contain nine structural domains: the amino- and carboxyterminal extra helical regions, and three conserved extra helical segments that separate four helical rod-like domains. Chymotrypsin treatment of these molecules removes the end-peptide domains and inhibits the self-assembly process. We have examined the renaturation and assembly of cytokeratin molecules using solution conditions that favor the presence of intermediate forms of IF organization. Dialysis against low salt buffers revealed the presence of bead-like chains of filaments in which the 6-8-nm beads are separated by a distance of 21 nm. These data suggest that a lateral stagger of protofilaments was among the primary events in IF assembly. Chymotrypsin-modified cytokeratin enriched for alpha-helix barely initiated a turbidity increase at conditions favoring self-assembly. Addition of small amounts of intact cytokeratin accelerated the rate and extent of this reaction. These results indicate that the nonhelical peptides on intact cytokeratin potentiate the assembly of IF by orientating the stagger of laterally associated protofilaments.

Differential control of cytokeratins and vimentin synthesis by cell-cell contact and cell spreading in cultured epithelial cells

The expression of cytokeratins and vimentin was investigated in Madin-Darby bovine epithelial cells (MDBK) in culture under conditions of varied cell spreading and cell-cell contact. When extensive cell-cell contact was achieved by seeding cells at high density in monolayer, or in suspension culture in which multicellular aggregates formed, the cells synthesized high levels of cytokeratins and low levels of vimentin. In contrast, in sparse monolayer and suspension cultures where cell-cell contact was minimal, the cells synthesized very low levels of cytokeratins. The level of vimentin synthesis was high in sparse monolayer culture and was low in both sparse and dense suspension cultures. The ratio of cytokeratin to vimentin synthesis was not affected during the cell cycle, or when cell growth was inhibited by ara C and in serum-starvation-stimulation experiments. The variations in the synthesis of cytokeratins and vimentin under the various culture conditions were also reflected at the level of mRNA activity in a cell-free in vitro translation system and as determined by RNA blot hybridization with cDNA to vimentin and cytokeratins. The results suggest that control of cytokeratin synthesis involves cell-cell contact, characteristic of epithelia in vivo, while vimentin synthesis responds to alterations in cell spreading.

Cysteine proteinases and metastasis

Cysteine proteinases are a subclass of endopeptidases which require activation by thiol reagents. A tumor cysteine proteinase which appears to be related to lysosomal cathepsin B has been implicated in the ability of tumor cells to invade the extracellular matrix and to metastasize to secondary sites. Lysosomal cathepsin B can degrade such components of the extracellular matrix as collagen, fibronectin and proteoglycans. Activity of this cathepsin B-like cysteine proteinase (CB) has been correlated with tumor malignancy in a number of tumor lines yet not in all tumor lines studied. CB activity in tumors seems to be associated with the viable tumor cells, probably with the plasma membrane of these tumor cells. CB activity has been measured in the sera, urine, ascites fluid and pancreatic fluid of tumor-bearing patients. CB is released from tumor explants and tumor cells in vitro as well as from normal subcutaneous tissue exposed to tumor-conditioned medium. Cathepsin B from normal tissues is rapidly inactivated above pH 7.0. Therefore, CB in tumor cell membranes or released from tumor cells (or from host cells in response to tumor cells) may not possess proteolytic activity at neutral pH and thus may not facilitate tumor cell invasion. However, CB exhibits enhanced stability at neutral or slightly alkaline pH's. There is not yet definitive proof that CB plays a role in tumor invasion and metastasis. There is, however, an increasing body of correlative evidence relating CB activity and tumor malignancy. This correlative evidence plus preliminary evidence that tumor CB can degrade components of the extracellular matrix in vitro suggests that CB may be one proteinase active in a proteolytic cascade resulting in tumor invasion and metastasis.

Canavanine inhibits vimentin assembly but not its synthesis in chicken embryo erythroid cells

In chicken embryo erythroid cells, newly synthesized vimentin first enters a Triton X-100 (TX-100)-soluble pool and subsequently assembles posttranslationally into TX-100-insoluble vimentin filaments (Blikstad I., and E. Lazarides, J. Cell Biol., 96:1803-1808). Here we show that incubation of chicken embryo erythroid cells in a medium in which arginine has been substituted by its amino acid analogue, canavanine, results in the inhibition of the posttranslational assembly of vimentin into the TX-100-insoluble filaments. Immunoprecipitation and subsequent SDS gel electrophoresis showed that the synthesis of canavanine-vimentin is not inhibited and that it accumulates in the TX-100-soluble compartment. Pulse-chase experiments with [35S]methionine demonstrated that while arginine-vimentin can be rapidly chased from the soluble to the cytoskeletal fraction, canavanine-vimentin remains in the soluble fraction, where it turns over. The effect of canavanine on the assembly of vimentin did not prevent the assembly of arginine-vimentin, as cells labeled with [35S]methionine first in the presence of canavanine and then in the presence of arginine contained labeled canavanine-vimentin only in the soluble fraction, and arginine-vimentin in both the soluble and cytoskeletal fractions. These results suggest that arginine residues play an essential role in the assembly of vimentin in vivo.