Toxicity Evaluation of a Non-Pain Pharmacopuncture Extract Using a Bacterial Reverse Mutation Test

Objectives

The objective of this study was to assess the genotoxicity of a no-pain pharmacopuncture (NPP) extract developed in 2022 using a bacterial reverse mutation assay, aiming to further substantiate the safety profile of NPP.

Methods

The genotoxicity evaluation involved a bacterial reverse mutation assay to assess the mutagenic potential of NPP extracts with and without metabolic activation. Histidine-requiring Salmonella typhimurium strains (TA98, TA100, TA1535, and TA1537) and tryptophan-requiring Escherichia coli strains (WP2uvrA) were used in the assay.

Results

The NPP extract did not induce a revertant colony count exceeding two times that of the negative control at any dose level in any of the tested strains, both with and without metabolic activation. Additionally, no growth inhibition or precipitation was observed in the presence of NPP.

Conclusion

Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the NPP extract exhibited no mutagenic potential in the in vitro genotoxicity tests conducted.

Chemodiversity, pharmacological activity, and biosynthesis of specialized metabolites from medicinal model fungi Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is a precious fungus, particularly valued for its dual use as both medicine and food. Ganoderic acids (GAs), the distinctive triterpenoids found in the Ganoderma genus, exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities. However, the limited resources of GAs restrict their clinic usage and drug discovery. In this review, we presented a comprehensive summary focusing on the diverse structures and pharmacological activity of GAs in G. lucidum. Additionally, we discussed the latest advancements in the elucidation of GA biosynthesis, as well as the progress in heterosynthesis and liquid fermentation methods aimed at further increasing GA production. Furthermore, we summarized the omics data, genetic transformation system, and cultivation techniques of G. lucidum, described as medicinal model fungi. The understanding of Ganoderic acids chemodiversity and biosynthesis in medicinal model fungi Ganoderma lucidum will provide important insights into the exploration and utilization of natural products in medicinal fungi.

Exploring Nutrient Profiles, Phytochemical Composition, and the Antiproliferative Activity of Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma leucocontextum: A Comprehensive Comparative Study

Ganoderma, often hailed as a holistic "health package", comprises an array of nutritional components and active compounds, contributing to its esteemed status in the realm of healthy foods. In this study, a comprehensive analysis was performed to elucidate the diverse nutritional profiles, bioactive components, and antiproliferative activities between two Ganoderma species: G. lucidum (GLU) and G. leucocontextum (GLE). The results showed that GLE possessed a higher level of nutritional constituents, except for dietary fiber. Fatty acid analysis revealed comparable profiles rich in unsaturated fatty acids for both species. The ethanol extract of GLU and GLE exhibited potent antioxidant capabilities and remarkable inhibition of tumor cell proliferation via apoptosis induction, with greater potency in GLE. The heightened triterpene levels in GLE potentially contribute to its augmented antitumoral effects. The exploration emphasized the significance of comprehending the varied chemical compositions of Ganoderma species, providing insights into their potential health benefits applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Based on spinal central sensitization creating analgesic screening approach to excavate anti-neuropathic pain ingredients of Corydalis yanhusuo W.T.Wang

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Corydalis Rhizome (RC) as a traditional analgesic Chinese medicine is the dried tuber of Corydalis yanhusuo W.T.Wang. Many efforts have revealed that RC could effectively alleviate neuropathic pain, while its active ingredients in neuropathic pain are still not clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Spinal central sensitization contributes greatly to neuropathic pain, and neuron, astrocyte and microglia play important roles in spinal central sensitization. The aim of the present study is to excavate active compounds in RC regulating spinal central sensitization to inhibit neuropathic pain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Immunofluorescence and western blotting were used to determine protein expression levels. Gene expression levels were detected by RT-PCR. PC12 neuronal cells, C6 astrocyte cells, and BV2 microglia cells were cultured for in vitro studies. Targeting multi types of cells extraction combined with HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS was established to identify components binding to above cells. Animal studies were used to verify the analgesic activities of components.

RESULTS

Total alkaloids of RC (RC-TA) significantly relieved neuropathic pain in chronic constriction injury (CCI) rats and repressed spinal central sensitization. Eight components of RC-TA were found to bind to PC12, C6, or BV2 cells. They could respectively suppress the activation of cells in vitro and alleviate CCI-induced neuropathic pain, among which glaucine and dehydrocorydaline induced antinociception was stronger than l-THP. Meanwhile, glaucine had no effect on acute or chronic inflammatory pain, and its antinociception in neuropathic pain could be abolished by dopamine D1 receptor agonist.

CONCLUSIONS

Employing multi types of cells based on spinal central sensitization rather than single cell may allow for more thorough excavation of active substances. Glaucine was firstly found could attenuate neuropathic pain but not other types of pain which indicated that different alkaloids in RC exert distinct analgesic effects on different pain models, and gluacine has the potential to be developed as an analgesic drug specifically for neuropathic pain relieving.

In Vivo Genotoxicity Evaluation of a No-Pain Pharmacopuncture Extract Using the Micronucleus Test

Objectives

We aimed to evaluate the genotoxicity of a recently developed no-pain pharmacopuncture (NPP) targeting muscle relaxation and analgesia using the micronucleus test.

Methods

To evaluate the potential of NPP extracts to induce micronuclei in rat bone marrow cells, a micronucleus test was performed using male Sprague-Dawley rats. The test substance NPP was administered intramuscularly at concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mL/animal. Saline was used as the negative control and cyclophosphamide as the positive control.

Results

No NPP treatment-related deaths or abnormal changes in general appearance were observed at any dose level during the experimental period. No statistically significant differences in body weight were observed in any of the NPP dose groups compared to the saline negative control group. NPP did not cause a significant increase in the incidence of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (PCEs) and PCEs or in the ratio of PCE-to-total erythrocytes.

Conclusion

The NPP extract did not exhibit genotoxic in Sprague-Dawley rat bone marrow cells under the conditions of this study. Further toxicity studies of the NPP extract are required.

Natural Bio-Compounds from Ganoderma lucidum and Their Beneficial Biological Actions for Anticancer Application: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been known for many centuries in Asian countries under different names, varying depending on the country. The objective of this review is to investigate the scientific research on the natural active bio-compounds in extracts obtained from G. lucidum with significant biological actions in the treatment of cancer. This review presents the classes of bio-compounds existing in G. lucidum that have been reported over time in the main databases and have shown important biological actions in the treatment of cancer. The results highlight the fact that G. lucidum possesses important bioactive compounds such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, sterols, proteins, nucleotides, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which have been demonstrated to exhibit multiple anticancer effects, namely immunomodulatory, anti-proliferative, cytotoxic, and antioxidant action. The potential health benefits of G. lucidum are systematized based on biological actions. The findings present evidence regarding the lack of certainty about the effects of G. lucidum bio-compounds in treating different forms of cancer, which may be due to the use of different types of Ganoderma formulations, differences in the study populations, or due to drug-disease interactions. In the future, larger clinical trials are needed to clarify the potential benefits of pharmaceutical preparations of G. lucidum, standardized by the known active components in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Toxicogenic effects of the mushroom Ganoderma lucidum on human liver and kidney tumor cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst., a bioactive mushroom with medicinal properties, is known to exert immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, and hepatoprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, the effects of the G. lucidum fruiting body dry extract (GLE) on human liver (HepG2/C3A) and kidney (786-O) tumor cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes were evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MTT-based cytotoxicity, trypan blue-based cell viability, comet, and cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assays were performed, and the production of reactive oxygen species was evaluated in vitro.

RESULTS

GLE was toxic to the tumor cells, decreasing their viability by increasing their production of reactive oxygen species and inducing damage to their DNA. By contrast, only high concentrations of GLE were toxic to lymphocytes and decreased their viability, whereas low concentrations increased lymphocyte viability. Moreover, primary DNA damage was induced by GLE only at the highest concentration tested.

CONCLUSIONS

G. lucidum shows potential antitumor effects against cancerous kidney and liver cells, exhibiting cytotoxic and genotoxic activity at low concentrations, whereas the same effects in lymphocytes are mediated only at high concentrations. This mushroom has the potential to be biotechnologically developed into a therapeutic agent for diseases, such as cancer.

Anticancer natural products targeting immune checkpoint protein network

Normal cells express surface proteins that bind to immune checkpoint proteins on immune cells to turn them off, whereby the immune system does not attack normal healthy cells. Cancer cells can also utilize this same protective mechanism by expressing surface proteins that can interact with checkpoint proteins on immune cells to overcome the immune surveillance. Immunotherapy is making the best use of the body's own immune system to reinforce anti-tumor responses. The most generally used immunotherapy is the control of immune checkpoints including the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell deathreceptor 1 (PD-1), or programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1). In spite of the clinical effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitors, the overall response rate still remains low. Therefore, there have been considerable efforts in searching for alternative immune checkpoint proteins that may work as new therapeutic targets for treatment of cancer. Recent studies have identified several additional novel immune checkpoint targets, including lymphocyte activation gene-3, T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3, T cell immunoglobulin and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif domain, V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation, B7 homolog 3 protein, B and T cell lymphocyte attenuator, and inducible T cell COStimulator. Natural compounds, especially those present in medicinal or dietary plants, have been investigated for their anti-tumor effects in various in vitro and in vivo models. Some phytochemicals exert anti-tumor activities based on immunoregulatioby blocking interaction between proteins involved in immune checkpoint signal transduction or regulating their expression/activity. Recently, synergistic anti-cancer effects of diverse phytochemicals with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 or anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody drugs have been continuously reported. Considering an increasing attention to noteworthy therapeutic effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the cancer therapy, this review focuses on regulatory effects of selected phytochemicals on immune checkpoint protein network and their combinational effectiveness with immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting tumor cells.

Regulation of Nrf2 and Nrf2-related proteins by ganoderma lucidum ın hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

HCC is among the most common cancer. Ganoderma lucidum (G.lucidum) has been essential in preventing and treating cancer. The Nrf2 signaling cascade is a cell protective mechanism against further damage, such as cancer development. This signaling pathway upregulates the cytoprotective genes and is vital in eliminating xenobiotics and reactive oxygen. This study aimed to show the potential cytotoxic activity of G. lucidum aqueous extract in HCC.

METHODS AND RESULTS

MTT assay was used to detect cell viability. Nrf2-related proteins were measured by western blotting, and the flow cytometry method assayed cell population in different cycle phases. Cell viability was 49% and 47% following G. lucidum extract at 100 µg/ml at 24 and 48 h treatments, respectively. G. lucidum extract (aqueous, 100 or 50 µg/ml) treatments for 24, 48, or 72 h were able to significantly change the cytoplasmic/nuclear amount of Nrf2 and HO-1, NQO1 protein levels. Moreover, at both concentrations, arrest of the G0/G1 cell cycle was stimulated in HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

The activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathways seems to be among the mechanisms underlining the protective and therapeutic action of G. lucidum against HCC.

Mycomedicine: A Unique Class of Natural Products with Potent Anti-tumour Bioactivities

Mycomedicine is a unique class of natural medicine that has been widely used in Asian countries for thousands of years. Modern mycomedicine consists of fruiting bodies, spores, or other tissues of medicinal fungi, as well as bioactive components extracted from them, including polysaccharides and, triterpenoids, etc. Since the discovery of the famous fungal extract, penicillin, by Alexander Fleming in the late 19th century, researchers have realised the significant antibiotic and other medicinal values of fungal extracts. As medicinal fungi and fungal metabolites can induce apoptosis or autophagy, enhance the immune response, and reduce metastatic potential, several types of mushrooms, such as Ganoderma lucidum and Grifola frondosa, have been extensively investigated, and anti-cancer drugs have been developed from their extracts. Although some studies have highlighted the anti-cancer properties of a single, specific mushroom, only limited reviews have summarised diverse medicinal fungi as mycomedicine. In this review, we not only list the structures and functions of pharmaceutically active components isolated from mycomedicine, but also summarise the mechanisms underlying the potent bioactivities of several representative mushrooms in the Kingdom Fungi against various types of tumour.

Risk of wild fungi treatment failure: Phallus impudicus-induced telomere damage triggers p21/p53 and p16-dependent cell cycle arrest and may contribute to male fertility reduction in vitro

The multifunctional characteristics of Phallus impudicus extract encourage to conduct research for its potential use in medical applications. Well, science is constantly seeking new evidence for the biological activity of extracts of natural origin. Drugs of natural origin should not cause any side effects on the physiological functions of the human body; however, this is not always successful. In this study, we used in vitro approach to evaluate the toxicity of alcohol Phallus impudicus extract on spermatogenic cells. We show, for the first time, cytotoxic properties of Phallus impudicus treatment associated with a decrease in cellular metabolic activity, dysregulation of redox homeostasis and impairment of selected antioxidant cell protection systems. As a consequence, p53/p21- and p16-mediated cell cycle arrest followed by p27 activation is initiated. The observed changes were associated with telomere shortening and numerous DNA damage at the chromosome ends (altered expression pattern of TRF1 and TRF2 proteins), as well as upregulation of cleaved caspase-3 with a decrease in Bcl-2 expression, suggesting induction of apoptotic death. Therefore, these results provide molecular evidence for mechanistic pathways and novel adverse outcomes linked to the Phallus impudicus treatment towards men's health and fertility reduction.

Sporoderm-Removed Ganoderma lucidum Spore Powder May Suppress the Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion of Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells Through PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Erk Pathway

Tumor metastasis is a key factor of therapeutic failure in tumor patients, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains to be explored and novel effective curative strategies are urgently required. Emerging evidence suggests that sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder can suppress tumor growth and metastasis. However, the molecular mechanisms of action remain elusive. In the present study, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder against esophageal squamous cell carcinomas (ESCC). The expression of MCP-1 in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cells was detected by Western blotting. The MTS assay was used to assess the esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cells viability. The clone formation assay was used to evaluate to the proliferation ability of KYSE140 and KYSE510 cells. Apoptosis and the cell cycle were analyzed by flow cytometry. Wound healing and Transwell assays were used to analyze the migration of KYSE140 and KYSE510 cells. Invasion was also analyzed by the Transwell assay. The expressions of PI3K, AKT/p-AKT, Erk/p-Erk, JNK1, and mTOR were detected by Western blotting. We found that the MCP-1 protein was highly expressed in KYSE140 and KYSE510. In addition, sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder treatment was found to inhibit esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell proliferation, to block the cell cycle, to induce cell apoptosis and to inhibit cell migration and invasion. Finally, we found that sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder decreased the expression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Erk signaling pathways. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spore powder suppresses esophageal squamous cell carcinomas by involving MCP-1, regulated by PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Erk signal pathways.

Advances in phytochemical and modern pharmacological research of Rhizoma Corydalis

ABSRACTContext: Rhizoma Corydalis (RC) is the dried tubers of Corydalis yanhusuo (Y. H. Chou and Chun C. Hsu) W. T. Wang ex Z. Y. Su and C. Y. Wu (Papaveraceae). Traditionally, RC is used to alleviate pain such as headache, abdominal pain, and epigastric pain. Modern medicine shows that it has analgesic, anti-arrhythmia, and other effects.Objective: We provided an overview of the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of RC as a foundation for its clinical application and further research and development of new drugs.Methods: We collected data of various phytochemical and pharmacological effects of RC from 1982 to 2019. To correlate with existing scientific evidence, we used Google Scholar and the journal databases Scopus, PubMed, and CNKI. 'Rhizoma Corydalis', 'phytochemistry', and 'pharmacological effects' were used as key words.Results: Currently, more than 100 chemical components have been isolated and identified from RC, among which alkaloid is the pimary active component of RC. Based on prior research, RC has antinociceptive, sedative, anti-epileptic, antidepressive and anti-anxiety, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effect, drug abstinence, anti-arrhythmic, antimyocardial infarction, dilated coronary artery, cerebral ischaemia reperfusion (I/R) injury protection, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antigastrointestinal ulcer, liver protection, antimicrobial, anti-inflammation, antiviral, and anticancer effects.Conclusions: RC is reported to be effective in treating a variety of diseases. Current pharmacological studies on RC mainly focus on the nervous, circulatory, digestive, and endocrine systems, as well as drug withdrawal. Although experimental data support the beneficial effects of this drug, its physiological activity remains a concern. Nonetheless, this review provides a foundation for future research.

The Novel Herbal Cocktail AGA Alleviates Oral Cancer through Inducing Apoptosis, Inhibited Migration and Promotion of Cell Cycle Arrest at SubG1 Phase

Traditional Chinese medicines Antler's extract (A) and Ganoderma lucidum (G) and Antrodia Camphorata (A) have been known to individually contain a plethora of bioactive factors including triterpenoids, polysaccharides etc., exerting various curative impacts such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-atherosclerotic and anti-viral activities. However, their combinatorial therapeutic efficacy for oral cancer has not been investigated. Hence, we synthesized a robust cocktail called AGA and investigated its anti-oral cancer potential in vitro and in vivo. An MTT assay revealed the IC50 of AGA to be about 15 mg at 72 h. Therefore, 10 mg and 20 mg doses were selected to study the effect of AGA. The AGA significantly inhibited proliferation of oral cancer cells (HSC3, SAS, and OECM-1) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. AGA retarded cell cycle regulators (CDK4, CDK6, cyclin A, B1, D1 and E2) and apoptosis inhibitory protein Bcl-2, but enhanced pro-apoptotic protein Bax and a higher percentage of cells in Sub-G1 phase. Mechanistically, AGA suppressed all EMT markers; consequently, it decreased the migration ability of cancer cells. AGA significantly reduced xenograft tumor growth in nude mice with no adverse events in liver and renal toxicity. Conclusively, AGA strongly inhibited oral cancer through inducing apoptosis and inhibiting the migration and promotion of cell cycle arrest at subG1 phase, which may be mediated primarily via cocktail-contained triterpenoids and polysaccharides.

Mushroom extracts and compounds with suppressive action on breast cancer: evidence from studies using cultured cancer cells, tumor-bearing animals, and clinical trials

This article reviews mushrooms with anti-breast cancer activity. The mushrooms covered which are better known include the following: button mushroom Agaricus bisporus, Brazilian mushroom Agaricus blazei, Amauroderma rugosum, stout camphor fungus Antrodia camphorata, Jew's ear (black) fungus or black wood ear fungus Auricularia auricula-judae, reishi mushroom or Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum, Ganoderma sinense, maitake mushroom or sheep's head mushroom Grifola frondosa, lion's mane mushroom or monkey head mushroom Hericium erinaceum, brown beech mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus, sulfur polypore mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom), Phellinus linteus (Japanese "meshimakobu," Chinese "song gen," Korean "sanghwang," American "black hoof mushroom"), abalone mushroom Pleurotus abalonus, king oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii, oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, tuckahoe or Fu Ling Poria cocos, and split gill mushroom Schizophyllum commune. Antineoplastic effectiveness in human clinical trials and mechanism of anticancer action have been reported for Antrodia camphorata, Cordyceps sinensis, Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinula edodes.

Ganoderma lucidum spore oil induces apoptosis of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo by activating caspase-3 and caspase-9

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a traditional Chinese medicine reported to have a variety of pharmacological properties, including anti-cancer activity. G. lucidum spore oil (GLSO) is a lipid substance extracted from sporoderm-broken spore of G. lucidum. However, the effect of GLSO on breast cancer and the underlying molecular mechanism remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to identify the effects of GLSO on breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo as well as to investigate the mechanistic basis for the anticancer effect of GLSO.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, in vitro MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with GLSO (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 μL/mL). The protein levels of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-associated X (Bax), X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP), total poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), caspase-3 and caspase-8 were examined using western blotting. The mRNA expression levels of Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), caspases-3, -8, -9 and Bax were examined using qRT-PCR. Second, in vivo the anticancer properties of GLSO were assessed by H&E, TUNEL and immunohistochemistry in BALB/c mice injected with 4T1 cells. In addition, the levels of caspase-9/caspase-3 signaling pathway proteins in tumor tissue were evaluated by immunoblotting. Finally, MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with caspase inhibitors to measure cell viability, the protein levels were examined with western blotting.

RESULTS

The results in vitro showed that GLSO up-regulated the expression of Bax and caspase-3 in MDA-MB-231 cells, but had no effect on the expression of caspase-8. Moreover, the growth of tumors in vivo was significantly suppressed in the GLSO-treated group. The results of Western blot were consistent with in vitro. In vitro, co-treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells with caspase inhibitors reduced the inhibitory effect of GLSO on cell growth.

CONCLUSIONS

GLSO inhibits the growth of MDA-MB-231 cells and tumors in vivo by inducing apoptosis, which may be achieved through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway.

Steroid sulfatase inhibiting lanostane triterpenes - Structure activity relationship and in silico insights

Steroid sulfatase (STS) transforms hormone precursors into active steroids. Thus, it represents a target of intense research regarding hormone-dependent cancers. In this study, three ligand-based pharmacophore models were developed to identify STS inhibitors from natural sources. In a pharmacophore-based virtual screening of a curated molecular TCM database, lanostane-type triterpenes (LTTs) were predicted as STS ligands. Three traditionally used polypores rich in LTTs, i.e., Ganoderma lucidum Karst., Gloeophyllum odoratum Imazeki, and Fomitopsis pinicola Karst., were selected as starting materials. Based on eighteen thereof isolated LTTs a structure activity relationship for this compound class was established with piptolinic acid D (1), pinicolic acid B (2), and ganoderol A (3) being the most pronounced and first natural product STS inhibitors with IC₅₀ values between 10 and 16 µM. Molecular docking studies proposed crucial ligand target interactions and a prediction tool for these natural compounds correlating with experimental findings.

Chemical Composition and Antiproliferative Effects of a Methanol Extract of Aspongopus chinensis Dallas

Natural products from insects can be potent sources for developing a variety of pharmaceutical products. Aspongopus chinensis Dallas has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine and there are several clinical evidences to support its anticancer activity. However, the anticancer active ingredients present in A. chinensis remain unidentified. In the present study, we investigated the anticancer effects of a methanol extract of A. chinensis (AME). Gas chromatography mass spectrometry was used to analyse the chemical composition of AME. The cell viability of MDA-MB-453 and HCC-1937 cells treated with different concentrations of AME was detected by MTT assay and the ratio of cells in different cell cycle phases was analysed by flow cytometry. The expression of genes associated with cell cycle was analysed by real-time PCR assay. The results showed that oleic acid (25.39%) and palmitic acid (21.798%) are the main anticancer compounds present in AME. There was a concentration-dependent decrease in the proliferation of MDA-MB-453 and HCC-1937 cells. Moreover, treatment with AME induced a S-phase arrest in the cells. Real-time PCR assay demonstrated that AME could significantly downregulate the expression of CDC20, AURKB, PLK1, CCNB2, and TOP2A mRNAs and upregulate the expression of GADD45A mRNA. We demonstrate that the methanol extract of A. chinensis could be a potential natural alternative or complementary therapy for breast cancer.

Focus on Cdc42 in Breast Cancer: New Insights, Target Therapy Development and Non-Coding RNAs

Breast cancer is the most common malignant tumors in females. Although the conventional treatment has demonstrated a certain effect, some limitations still exist. The Rho guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) Cdc42 (Cell division control protein 42 homolog) is often upregulated by some cell surface receptors and oncogenes in breast cancer. Cdc42 switches from inactive guanosine diphosphate (GDP)-bound to active GTP-bound though guanine-nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs), results in activation of signaling cascades that regulate various cellular processes such as cytoskeletal changes, proliferation and polarity establishment. Targeting Cdc42 also provides a strategy for precise breast cancer therapy. In addition, Cdc42 is a potential target for several types of non-coding RNAs including microRNAs and lncRNAs. These non-coding RNAs is extensively involved in Cdc42-induced tumor processes, while many of them are aberrantly expressed. Here, we focus on the role of Cdc42 in cell morphogenesis, proliferation, motility, angiogenesis and survival, introduce the Cdc42-targeted non-coding RNAs, as well as present current development of effective Cdc42-targeted inhibitors in breast cancer.

Anti-breast Cancer Enhancement of a Polysaccharide From Spore of Ganoderma lucidum With Paclitaxel: Suppression on Tumor Metabolism With Gut Microbiota Reshaping

Increasing evidence highlights the cardinal role of gut microbiota in tumorigenesis and chemotherapy outcomes. Paclitaxel (PTX), although as a first-line chemotherapy reagent for breast cancer, still requires for improvement on its efficacy and safety due to drug resistance and adverse effects. The present work explored the enhancement of a polysaccharide derived from spore of Ganoderma lucidum (SGP) with PTX in a murine 4T1-breast cancer model. Results showed that the combination of PTX and SGP displayed an improved tumor control, in which mRNA expression of several Warburg effect-related proteins, i.e., glucose transporter 3 (Glut3), lactate dehydrogenase A (Ldha), and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (Pdk), and the metabolite profile of tumor was evidently altered. Flowcytometry analysis revealed that the combination treatment recovered the exhausted tumor infiltration lymphocytes (TILs) via inhibiting the expressions of immune checkpoints (PD-1 and Tim-3), while PTX alone evidently increased that of CTLA-4. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed a restoration by the combination treatment on gut microbiota dysbiosis induced by PTX, especially that Bacteroides, Ruminococcus, and other 5 genera were significantly enriched while the cancer-risk genera, Desulfovibrio and Odoribacter, were decreased. Moreover, spearman correlation analysis showed that abundance of Ruminococcus was significantly negative-associated with the amount of frucotose-6-phosphate within the tumor. Collectively, the present study suggests the clinical implication of SGP as an adjuvant candidate for PTX against breast cancer, which possibly relies on the regulation of tumor metabolism and gut microbiota.

Ganoderma lucidum extract (GLE) impairs breast cancer stem cells by targeting the STAT3 pathway

The aggressive nature of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) may be explained in part by the presence of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs), a subpopulation of cells, which are involved in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, recurrence, and therapy resistance. The signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway participates in the development and progression of BCSCs, but its role in TNBC remains unclear. Here, we report that Ganoderma lucidum extract (GLE), a medicinal mushroom with anticancer activity, acts on BCSCs in vitro and in TNBC pre-clinical animal tumor models by downregulating the STAT3 pathway. We show that GLE significantly reduces TNBC cell viability, and down-regulates total and phosphorylated STAT3 expression. This is consistent with the reduction of OCT4, NANOG and SOX2 expression, reduction in the BCSC population by loss of the ALDH1 and CD44⁺/CD24^– population, the deformation of mammospheres, and the strong reduction in animal tumor volume and tumor weight. Analysis of the BCSC compartment in tumors revealed that GLE decreases the STAT3 pathway and the expression of OCT4, NANOG, and SOX2 in BCSCs. These findings demonstrate that the anti-cancer activity of GLE targets BCSCs of TNBC through the downregulation of the STAT3 pathway.

Induction of apoptosis and G1 phase cell cycle arrest by Aster incisus in AGS gastric adenocarcinoma cells

In recent decades, various bioactive compounds from plants have been investigated for their potential use in the treatment of diseases in humans. Aster incisus extract (AIE) is the extract of a common plant that is mostly found in Asia. It has traditionally been used for medicinal purposes in South Korea. In this study, we evaluated the potential anticancer effects of a methanolic extract of Aster incisus in a normal human cell line (HaCaT keratinocytes) and in 4 different types of human cancer cell lines (A549, lung cancer; Hep3B, liver cancer; MDA‑MB‑231, breast cancer; and AGS, gastric cancer). The HaCaT, A549, Hep3B, MDA‑MB‑231 and AGS cells were treated with various concentrations of AIE and following treatment, cell survival was evaluated. Additional analyses, such as WST-1 assay, western blot analysis, DAPI staining, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining and wound healing assay were performed to elucidate the mechanisms and pathways involved in the cell death induced by AIE. Treatment with AIE induced morphological changes and considerably reduced the viability of the both normal and cancer cell lines. Further analysis of the AGS gastric cancer cells revealed that AIE led to the induction of apoptosis and a high accumulation of cells in the G1 cell phase following treatment with AIE in a dose-dependent manner. The results also revealed that AIE successfully suppressed the migration of the AIE-treated AGS cells. The results of western blot analysis indicated that AIE increased the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins, particularly Bid, Bad, Bak, cytochrome c, apoptosis inducing factor (AIF), cleaved caspase‑3, -8 and -9 and cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Additionally, AIE decreased the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. On the whole, the findings of this study demonstrate that AIE induces apoptosis through the activation of the caspase‑dependent pathway mediated by the mitochondrial pathway and by arresting the cell cycle in AGS cells.

Antitumor Activity of Extract From the Sporoderm-Breaking Spore of Ganoderma lucidum: Restoration on Exhausted Cytotoxic T Cell With Gut Microbiota Remodeling

As breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women population worldwide, ongoing endeavor has been made for alternative regimens with improved efficacy but fewer adverse effects. Recently, active components from the spores of Ganoderma lucidum have attracted much attention for their versatile biological activities owing to the advance in sporoderm-breaking technology. Here, anticancer potential of an extract derived from the sporoderm-breaking spores of G. lucidum (ESG) was explored in a 4T1-breast cancer xenograft mice model. Results showed that ESG was able to suppress 4T1 tumor growth in vivo rather than in vitro. Flowcytometry analysis revealed that ESG could significantly increase both cytotoxic T cell (Tc) population and the ratio of Tc to helper T cell (Th) in peripheral blood of the tumor-bearing mouse; similar promotion on Tc was also found in tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte. Moreover, ESG evidently downregulated the two immune checkpoints, programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1, in the spleen) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4, in the tumor), suggesting that ESG could effectively restore the T cell paradigm by recovering the exhaustion status via suppressing the co-inhibitory checkpoints. By 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis on the fecal microbiota, it was found that ESG would remodeling the overall structure of the samples from tumor-bearing mice toward that of the normal counterparts, including 18 genera in 5 phyla, together with regulations on several genes that are responsible for signaling pathways involved in metabolism, cellular processes, and environmental information processing. Collectively, this study demonstrated that ESG would serve as a natural anticancer adjuvant via a restoration on the exhausted Tc, highlighting important clinical implications for the treatment of breast cancer.

The ethanol extracts of sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum inhibit colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo

The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been reported to possess a variety of pharmacological activities including anticancer effects. However, the anti-colorectal cancer effects and the potential molecular mechanisms of the ethanol extracts of sporoderm-broken spores of G. lucidum (BSGLEE), which mainly contains triterpenoids, have not been reported. The aim of the present study was to investigate the anticancer effects and molecular mechanisms exerted by BSGLEE on colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. MTT assay revealed that BSGLEE at 1.6 to 10 mg/ml significantly inhibited HCT116 cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that BSGLEE induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase, which are associated with deregulation of the expression of key genes and proteins (p21, p16, cyclin D1, Bcl-2, bax, NAG-1, PARP and caspase-3) that regulate apoptosis and cell cycle cascades. Moreover, BSGLEE significantly inhibited HCT116 cell migration via downregulating MMP-1, MMP-2 and upregulating E-cadherin expression at mRNA levels. Oral gavage of 75 and 150 mg/kg BSGLEE significantly inhibited HCT116 xenograft tumor growth in nude mice, which was accompanied by suppressed Ki-67 staining as determined by immunochemistry. Collectively, we found that BSGLEE effectively inhibits colorectal cancer carcinogenesis through induction of apoptosis, inhibition of migration and promotion of cell cycle arrest. Our results suggest that triterpenoids of sporoderm-broken spores of G. lucidum ethanol extracts may serve as a promising anticancer agent for colorectal cancer chemoprevention and therapy.

Ganoderma spp.: A Promising Adjuvant Treatment for Breast Cancer

For the past several decades, cancer patients in the U.S. have chosen the use of natural products as an alternative or complimentary medicine approach to treat or improve their quality of life via reduction or prevention of the side effects during or after cancer treatment. The genus Ganoderma includes about 80 species of mushrooms, of which several have been used for centuries in traditional Asian medicine for their medicinal properties, including anticancer and immunoregulatory effects. Numerous bioactive compounds seem to be responsible for their healing effects. Among the approximately 400 compounds produced by Ganoderma spp., triterpenes, peptidoglycans and polysaccharides are the major physiologically-active constituents. Ganoderma anticancer effects are attributed to its efficacy in reducing cancer cell survival and growth, as well as by its chemosensitizing role. In vitro and in vivo studies have been conducted in various cancer cells and animal models; however, in this review, we focus on Ganoderma’s efficacy on breast cancers. Evidence shows that some species of Ganoderma have great potential as a natural therapeutic for breast cancer. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to investigate their potential in the clinical setting and to translate our basic scientific findings into therapeutic interventions for cancer patients.

13-Methyl-palmatrubine induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in A549 cells in vitro and in vivo

Corydalis yanhusuo, a well-known herbaceous plant, is commonly used in the treatment of inflammation, injury and pain. One natural agent isolated from Corydalis yanhusuo, 13-methyl-palmatrubine, was found to have a cytotoxic effect on cancer cells as reported in published studies. In the present study, we synthesized a potential anti-lung tumor agent, 13-methyl-palmatrubine and analyzed its activity. 13-Methyl-palmatrubine exhibited a cytotoxic effect on a panel of cancer cell lines in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Among all the tested cancer cell lines, lung cancer A549 cells were most sensitive to 13-methyl-palmatrubine treatment. Meanwhile 13-methyl-palmatrubine showed less cytotoxicity in human normal cells. Our investigation revealed that 13-methyl-palmatrubine induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, 13-methyl-palmatrubine treatment caused activation of P38 and JNK pathways and blocked the EGFR pathway. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that 13-methyl-palmatrubine inhibited the growth of A549 cells mediated by blocking of the EGFR signaling pathway and activation of the MAPK signaling pathway and provides a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of 13-methyl-palmatrubine.

Sporoderm-Broken Spores of Ganoderma lucidum Inhibit the Growth of Lung Cancer: Involvement of the Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway

The sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum (SBGS) and their extracts exhibited a wide range of biological activities. In the present study, we prepare ethanol/ethanol extract (E/E-SBGS) and ethanol/aqueous extract (E/A-SBGS) from SBGS and examine their antitumor activities against human lung cancer. Our results showed that E/E-SBGS, not E/A-SBGS, inhibited the survival and migration of lung cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner. E/E-SBGS arrested cell cycle at G2/M phase and triggered apoptosis by decreasing the expression and activity of cell cycle regulators, cyclin B1 and cdc2, as well as anti-apoptotic proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl. Consequently, colony formation of lung cancer cells was markedly blocked by E/E-SBGS at subtoxic concentrations. Oral administration of both E/E-SBGS and SBGS significantly suppressed tumor volume and tumor weight without gross toxicity in mice. Mechanism study showed that E/E-SBGS dose-dependently suppressed the activation of Akt, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and their downstream molecules S6 kinase and 4E-BP1 in treated tumor cells. Taken together, these results indicate that the ethanol extract of sporoderm-broken spores of G. lucidum suppresses the growth of human lung cancer, at least in part, through inhibition of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, suggesting its potential role in cancer treatments.

From 2000years of Ganoderma lucidum to recent developments in nutraceuticals

Medicinal mushrooms have been used for centuries as nutraceuticals to improve health and to treat numerous chronic and infectious diseases. One such mushroom is Ganoderma lucidum, commonly known as Lingzhi, a species revered as a medicinal mushroom for treating assorted diseases and prolonging life. The fungus is found in diverse locations, and this may have contributed to confusion regarding the correct taxonomic classification of the genus Ganoderma. G. lucidum was first used to name a specimen found in England and thereafter was naively applied to a different Ganoderma species found in Asia, commonly known as Chinese Lingzhi. Despite the taxonomic confusion, which has largely been uncorrected, the popularity of Lingzhi has escalated across the globe. The current taxonomic situation is now discussed accurately in this Special Issue on Ganoderma. Today it is a multi-billion dollar industry wherein Lingzhi is cultivated or collected from the wild and consumed as a tea, in alcoholic beverages, and as a nutraceutical to confer numerous health benefits. Consumption of nutraceuticals has grown in popularity, and it is becoming increasingly important that active ingredients be identified and that suppliers make substantiated health claims about their products. The objective of this article is to present a review of G. lucidum over the past 2000 years from prized ancient "herbal" remedy to its use in nutraceuticals and to the establishment of a 2.5 billion $ (US) industry.

Induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by betulinic acid-rich fraction from Dillenia suffruticosa root in MCF-7 cells involved p53/p21 and mitochondrial signalling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dillenia suffruticosa (Family: Dilleniaceae) or commonly known as "Simpoh air" in Malaysia, is traditionally used for treatment of cancerous growth including breast cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

D. suffruticosa root dichloromethane extract (DCM-DS) has been reported to induce G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in caspase-3 deficient MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The present study was designed to investigate the involvement of p53/p21 and mitochondrial pathway in DCM-DS-treated MCF-7 cells as well as to identify the bioactive compounds responsible for the cytotoxicity of DCM-DS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extraction of D. suffruticosa root was performed by the use of sequential solvent procedure. GeXP-based multiplex system was employed to investigate the expression of p53, p21, Bax and Bcl-2 genes in MCF-7 cells treated with DCM-DS. The protein expression was then determined using Western blot analysis. The bioactive compounds present in DCM-DS were isolated by using column chromatography. The structure of the compounds was elucidated by using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The cytotoxicity of the isolated compounds towards MCF-7 cells was evaluated by using MTT assay. The percentage of betulinic acid (BA) in DCM-DS was determined by HPLC analysis.

RESULTS

The expression of p53 was significantly up-regulated at protein level. The expression of p21 at both gene and protein levels was significantly up-regulated upon treatment with DCM-DS, suggesting that the induction of G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest in MCF-7 cells was via p53/p21 pathway. Bcl-2 protein was down-regulated with no change at the mRNA level, postulating that post-translational modification has occurred resulting in the degradation of Bcl-2 protein. Overall, treatment with DCM-DS increased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 that drove the cells to undergo apoptosis. A total of 3 triterpene compounds were isolated from DCM-DS. Betulinic acid appears to be the most major and most cytotoxic compound in DCM-DS.

CONCLUSION

DCM-DS induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells via p53/p21 pathway. In addition, DCM-DS induced apoptosis by increasing the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2. Betulinic acid, which is one of the major compounds, is responsible for the cytotoxicity of the DCM-DS. Therefore, BA can be used as a marker for standardisation of herbal product from D. suffruticosa. DCM-DS can also be employed as BA-rich extract from roots of D. suffruticosa for the management of breast cancer.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate potentiates the effect of curcumin in inducing growth inhibition and apoptosis of resistant breast cancer cells

Drug resistance remains an on-going challenge in breast cancer chemotherapy. Combination of two or more drugs is an effective strategy to access context-specific multiple targets and overcome undesirable toxicity that is almost inevitable in single-drug chemotherapy. Many plant food-derived polyphenolic compounds have been proven to modulate many key factors responsible for cancer drug resistance, which makes them a promising group of low toxicity candidates for reversing cancer resistance. In this study, we analyzed the combination effect of two chemopreventive polyphenols, curcumin (Cur) and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), in combating resistant breast cancer. Our present results showed that EGCG significantly enhanced the growth inhibition and apoptosis in both doxorubicin (DOX)-sensitive and resistant MCF-7 cells induced by Cur. The mechanism may be related to the further activation of caspase-dependent apoptotic signaling pathways and the enhanced cellular incorporation of Cur by inhibiting P-glycoprotein (P-gp) pump function. Moreover, Cur and EGCG in combination could enhance the toxicity of DOX and increase the intracellular level of DOX in resistant MCF-7 cells. Our findings with this practical combination of Cur and EGCG encourage us to move on to a promising strategy for successful treatment of human breast cancer resistance by combining two low-toxic chemotherapeutic agents from diet.

Ganoderma lucidum derived ganoderenic acid B reverses ABCB1-mediated multidrug resistance in HepG2/ADM cells

Chemotherapy is one of the most common therapeutic option for metastatic tumors and hematological malignancies. ABCB1-mediated multidrug resistance is the major obstacle for chemotherapy. Natural products with diversified structures are ideal source of ABCB1 modulators. Ganoderenic acid B, a lanostane-type triterpene isolated from Ganoderma lucidum, exhibited potent reversal effect on ABCB1-mediated multidrug resistance of HepG2/ADM cells to doxorubicin, vincristine and paclitaxel. Similarly, ganoderenic acid B could also significantly reverse the resistance of ABCB1-overexpressing MCF-7/ADR cells to doxorubicin. Furthermore, ganoderenic acid B notably enhanced intracellular accumulation of rhodamine-123 in HepG2/ADM cells through inhibition of its efflux. ABCB1 siRNA interference assay indicated that the reversal activity of ganoderenic acid B was dependent on ABCB1. Further mechanistic investigations found that ganoderenic acid B did not alter the expression level of ABCB1 and the activity of ABCB1 ATPase. Molecular docking model displayed that the positions of ganoderenic acid B binding to ABCB1 were different from the region of verapamil interacted with ABCB1. Collectively, ganoderenic acid B can enhance the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutics towards ABCB1-mediated MDR cancer cells via inhibition of the transport function of ABCB1. These findings provide evidence that ganoderenic acid B has the potential to be developed into an ABCB1-mediated multidrug resistance reversal agent.

Dilong Prevents the High-KCl Cardioplegic Solution Administration-Induced Apoptosis in H9c2 Cardiomyoblast Cells Mediated by MEK

Infusion of high-KCl cardioplegic solution (High-KCS) is the most common method used to induce asystole before cardiac surgery. However, our previous study showed the High-KCS can cause the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes in patients who were administered High-KCS prior to undergoing coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) to treat coronary artery disease (CAD). Therefore, it is urgent today to find a complementary medicine to reduce this damage. Dilong (earthworm) has been used as a traditional medicine in China for several thousand years, and extract from the Dilong has been empirically used in Asia for the treatment of vascular disorders. In this study, we applied Dilong extract to reduce myocardial cell damage from High-KCS infusion and further investigated the mechanisms. H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells were cultured in serum-free medium for 4 h and then treated with Dilong at 31.25, 62.5, 125, and 250 mg/mL for 24 h, which was then followed by High-KCS treatment for 3 h to detect the protective mechanisms of Dilong behind cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis. Cells were harvested for MTT assay, TUNEL assay, and western blot analysis. We found that High-KCS-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, enhanced the protein level of pro-apoptotic Bad, released cytochrome c, and activated caspase-3 in H9c2 cells. The IGF-I/IGF-IR/ERK pathway involved in non-cardiomyocyte proliferation, and the expression/activation of uPA, Sp-1 and CTGF, which are implicated in the development of cardiac fibrosis were up-regulated, but the Akt for cardiomyocyte survival was greatly deactivated in postcardioplegic H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells. However, Dilong was highly protective and totally reversed the apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis effects induced by High-KCS. Chemical inhibitors P38 (SB203580), JNK (SP600125), MEK (U0126), IGF-1 (AG1024), and PI3K (LY294002) were applied to investigate which is the mediator for Dilong attenuated High-KCS stimulated caspase 3 activation. MEK (U0126) inhibitor completely blocked Dilong inhibited caspase 3 activation in High-KCS treated H9c2 cells. The MEK siRNA was further applied to knockdown MEK to confirm our finding. We found Dilong worked through MEK to inhibit caspase 3 activity induced by High-KCS in H9c2 cells. Furthermore, we used the pure component of Dilong, Lumbrokinase, to block the High-KCS effect. Using the microscope to observe the cell viability, we found Lumbrokinase could reverse the High-KCS effect. Lumbrokinase could also reduce the protein levels of caspase 8, caspase 9, and caspase 3, and enhance the survival related proteins PI3K/Akt and Bcl2. These results demonstrate that Dilong could be used as a potential agent to block the side effects caused by High-KCS in CABG surgery patients.

Traditional Chinese medicine: a treasured natural resource of anticancer drug research and development

To discover and develop novel natural compounds, active ingredients, single herbs and combination formulas or prescriptions in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with therapeutic selectivity that can preferentially kill cancer cells and inhibit the amplification of cancer without significant toxicity is an important area in cancer therapy. A lot of valuable TCMs were applied as alternative or complementary medicines in the United States and Europe. But these TCMs, as one of the main natural resources, were widely used to research and develop new drugs in Asia. In TCMs, some specific herbs, animals, minerals and combination formulas were recorded and exploited due to their active ingredients and specific natural compounds with antitumor activities. The article focused on the antitumor properties of natural compounds and combination formulas or prescriptions in TCMs, described its influence on tumor progression, angiogenesis, metastasis, and revealed its mechanisms of antitumor and inhibitory action. Among the nature compounds, triptolide, berberine, matrine, oxymatrine, kurarinone and deoxypodophyllotoxin (DPT) with specific molecular structures have been separated, purified, and evaluated their antitumor properties in vitro and in vivo. Cancer is a multifactorial and multistep disease, so the treatment effect of combination formulas and prescriptions in TCMs involving multi-targets and multi-signal pathways on tumor may be superior than that of agents targeting a single molecular target alone. Shi Quan Da Bu Tang and Yanshu injection, as well known combination formulas and prescriptions in TCMs, have shown an excellent therapeutic effect on cancer.

Potential antineoplastic effects of Aloe-emodin: a comprehensive review

Aloe-emodin (AE), a bioactive anthraquinone derived from both Aloe vera and Rheum officinale, has recently been demonstrated to have various pharmacological activities. With the widespread popularity of natural products, such as antineoplastic drugs, AE has attracted much attention due to its remarkable antineoplastic activity on multiple tumor cells involving multi-channel mechanisms, including the disruption of cell cycle, induction of apoptosis, anti-metastasis, antiangiogenic, and strengthening of immune function. Experimental data have revealed AE as a potentially potent anti-cancer candidate. Despite this, the pharmaceutical application of AE is still in a fledging period as most research has concentrated on the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of action of existing treatments, rather than the development of novel formulations. Therefore, the present review summarizes the potential toxicity, molecular mechanism, pharmacokinetic characteristics, and pharmaceutical development of AE as an antineoplastic agent. This is based on its physicochemical properties, in an attempt to encourage further research on AE as a potential anti-cancer agent.

Effects of furanodiene on 95-D lung cancer cells: apoptosis, autophagy and G1 phase cell cycle arrest

Furanodiene (FUR) is a natural terpenoid isolated from Rhizoma curcumae, a well-known Chinese medicinal herb that presents anti-proliferative activities in several cancer cell lines. Herein, we systematically investigated the effects of FUR on the significant processes of tumor progression with the relatively low concentrations in 95-D lung cancer cells. FUR concentration-dependently inhibited cell proliferation and blocked the cell cycle progressions in G1 phase by down-regulating the protein levels of cyclin D1 and CDK6, and up-regulating those of p21 and p27 in 95-D cells. FUR also affected the signaling molecules that regulate apoptosis in 95-D cells revealed by the down-regulation of the protein levels of full PARP, pro-caspase-7, survivin, and Bcl-2, and the up-regulation of cleaved PARP. Further studies showed that FUR enhanced the expression of light chain 3-II (LC3-II) in the protein level, indicating that autophagy is involved in this process. Besides, the adhesion ability of 95-D cells to matrigel and fibronectin was slightly inhibited after FUR treatment for 1 h in our experimental condition. FUR also slightly suppressed cell migration and invasion in 95-D cells according to the data from wound healing and Transwell assays, respectively. Taken together, FUR activated the signal molecules regulating G1 cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy, while slightly affecting the key steps of cell metastasis in 95-D lung cancer cells in the relatively low concentrations.

Ganoderiol A-enriched extract suppresses migration and adhesion of MDA-MB-231 cells by inhibiting FAK-SRC-paxillin cascade pathway

Cell adhesion, migration and invasion are critical steps for carcinogenesis and cancer metastasis. Ganoderma lucidum, also called Lingzhi in China, is a traditional Chinese medicine, which exhibits anti-proliferation, anti-inflammation and anti-metastasis properties. Herein, GAEE, G. lucidum extract mainly contains ganoderiol A (GA), dihydrogenated GA and GA isomer, was shown to inhibit the abilities of adhesion and migration, while have a slight influence on that of invasion in highly metastatic breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells at non-toxic doses. Further investigation revealed that GAEE decreased the active forms of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and disrupted the interaction between FAK and SRC, which lead to deactivating of paxillin. Moreover, GAEE treatment downregulated the expressions of RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, and decreased the interaction between neural Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (N-WASP) and Cdc42, which impair cell migration and actin assembly. To our knowledge, this is the first report to show that G.lucidum triterpenoids could suppress cell migration and adhesion through FAK-SRC-paxillin signaling pathway. Our study also suggests that GAEE may be a potential agent for treatment of breast cancer.

Celastrol induced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in human rheumatoid fibroblast-like synovial cells

Celastrol is one of the principal active ingredients of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook.f., a toxic Chinese medical herb traditionally prescribed for controlling pain and inhibiting inflammation in various chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Resistance to apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes is considered a major characteristic of RA. In this study, we test celastrol's cytotoxic effect and potential mechanisms in human rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (RA-FLS). In the cytotoxic assay, we found that celastrol dose-dependently decreased RA-FLS viability and increased LDH release. The apoptotic nuclear morphology was observed after celastrol treatment as determined by DAPI fluorescence staining. Flow cytometry analysis with PI and Annexin V revealed that celastrol induced RA-FLS cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and apoptosis. Furthermore, celastrol dramatically increased expression of Bax/Bcl-2, proteolytic cleavage of Caspase-3, -9, PARP, and decreased expression of FasR. In addition, celastrol treatment resulted in DNA damage. Collectively, we concluded that celastrol inhibits RA-FLS proliferation by inducing DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in vitro, which might provide data for its application in RA treatment.

Role of saffron and its constituents on cancer chemoprevention

CONTEXT

Cancer dramatically impacts human life expectancy and quality of life. Natural substances from vegetables, herbs and spices could be beneficial in the prevention or treatment of a variety of cancers. Crocus sativus (Iridaceae), which has been used as a folk medicine for treating diseases for ages, showed obvious cancer chemoprevention potential.

OBJECTIVE

This article focuses on the effects of Crocus sativus and its main ingredients, such as crocin, on cancer therapeutics.

METHODS

We reviewed research data from saffron, a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, and its constituents using the major databases, namely, Web of Science, SciFinder and PubMed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Saffron possesses free radical-scavenging properties and antitumor activities. Significant cancer chemopreventive effects have been shown in both in vitro and in vivo models. Based on current data, saffron and its ingredients could be considered as a promising candidate for clinical anticancer trials.

Regulation of cell cycle transition and induction of apoptosis in HL-60 leukemia cells by the combination of Coriolus versicolor and Ganoderma lucidum

Medicinal mushrooms have served as the mainstay of treatment for a variety of human illnesses in Asian countries, mostly as supplements by cancer patients. Extracts prepared from Trametes versicolor under the trade name of I'm-Yunity exhibit anti-tumorigenic activities, as supported by inhibition of the proliferation and induction of apoptosis in malignant cells. Similar effects have also been observed for the Reishi mushroom Ganoderma lucidum. The two mushrooms exert their medicinal activities primarily through a family of polysaccharo-peptides. Despite the common identity in their bioactive ingredients, whether their combination might elicit an expanded efficacy and mechanism has not been investigated. In the present study, we investigated similarities and differences between extracts prepared from I'm-Yunity and from a formulation denoted I'm-Yunity-Too combining I'm-Yunity and Ganoderma lucidum. By assaying their anti-proliferative and anti-apoptotic effects using human promyelocytic HL-60 cells, we found that the ethanolic extract of I'm-Yunity-Too was more active in inducing cell death compared to I'm-Yunity, based on measured changes in the expression of caspase 3 and Bax. Moreover, ethanolic extracts of I'm-Yunity-Too exhibited more potent activity compared to its aqueous extracts with regard to suppression of the growth and induction of apoptosis, as assayed by the more pronounced downregulation of phosphorylation of Rb and increased cleavage of poly(ADP‑ribose) polymerase (PARP) from its native 112-kDa form to the inactive 89-kDa product. These results suggested that the chemopreventive potential of I'm-Yunity may be enhanced by adding Ganoderma lucidum and that their bioactive ingre-dients potentially exhibit mechanistic synergism suggesting a more efficacious adjunct in chemotherapy.

Ganoderma tsugae hepatoprotection against exhaustive exercise-induced liver injury in rats

Several studies have been shown that accelerated apoptosis is involved in post-exercise lymphocytopenia and tissue damage after high-intensity exercise. Ganoderma tsugae (GT) is one of the well-known medicinal mushrooms that possess various pharmacological functions. This mushroom has traditionally been used for health promotion purposes. This study investigates the hepatoprotective effects of GT on exhaustive exercise-induced liver damage. Twenty-four male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups and designated as exhaustive exercise only (E), exhaustive exercise with low dosage (EL), medium dosage (EM) and high dosage (EH) GT at 0, 0.1875, 0.9375 and 1.875 g/kg/day, respectively. After 30 days all rats were euthanized immediately after an exhaustive running challenge on a motorized treadmill. The rat livers were immediately harvested. Evidence of apoptotic liver cell death was revealed using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay and caspases mediated cascade events. DNA fragmentation, an apoptosis process, can be examined using TUNEL assay. A few TUNEL-positive hepatocytes, compared to the exercise only group, were observed in the livers from exhaustive animals supplemented with GT. Immunoblot analysis also showed that caspase-6-mediated specific cleavage of lamin A/C was increased significantly in the livers of group E, but was significantly decreased in the EM and EH groups. Our observations demonstrate that GT possesses anti-apoptotic and hepatoprotective potential after exhaustive exercise.