Natural Sources of Therapeutic Agents Used in Skin Conditions

Skin conditions are numerous and often have a major impact on patients' quality of life, and effective and safe treatment is very important. The conventional drugs used for skin diseases are usually corticosteroids and antimicrobial products that can induce various side effects, especially with long-term use, which is why researchers are studying alternatives, especially biologically active natural products. Three products caught our attention: bee venom (BV), due to reported experimental results showing anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antimycotic, and anticancer effects, Ficus carica (FC) due to its demonstrated antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory action, and finally Geranium essential oil (GEO), with proven antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Following a review of the literature, we produced this paper, which presents a review of the potential therapeutic applications of the three products in combating various skin conditions and for skin care, because BV, FC, and GEO have common pharmacological actions (anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant). We also focused on studying the safety of the topical use of BV, FC, and GEO, and new approaches to this. This paper presents the use of these natural therapeutic agents to treat patients with conditions such as vitiligo, melasma, and melanoma, as well as their use in treating dermatological conditions in patients with diabetes.

Bee chitosan nanoparticles loaded with apitoxin as a novel approach to eradication of common human bacterial, fungal pathogens and treating cancer

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the largest medical challenges because of the rising frequency of opportunistic human microbial infections across the globe. This study aimed to extract chitosan from the exoskeletons of dead bees and load it with bee venom (commercially available as Apitoxin [Api]). Then, the ionotropic gelation method would be used to form nanoparticles that could be a novel drug-delivery system that might eradicate eight common human pathogens (i.e., two fungal and six bacteria strains). It might also be used to treat the human colon cancer cell line (Caco2 ATCC ATP-37) and human liver cancer cell line (HepG2ATCC HB-8065) cancer cell lines. The x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) properties, ζ-potentials, and surface appearances of the nanoparticles were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). FTIR and XRD validated that the Api was successfully encapsulated in the chitosan nanoparticles (ChB NPs). According to the TEM, the ChB NPs and the ChB NPs loaded with Apitoxin (Api@ChB NPs) had a spherical shape and uniform size distribution, with non-aggregation, for an average size of approximately 182 and 274 ± 3.8 nm, respectively, and their Zeta potential values were 37.8 ± 1.2 mV and - 10.9 mV, respectively. The Api@ChB NPs had the greatest inhibitory effect against all tested strains compared with the ChB NPs and Api alone. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the Api, ChB NPs, and Api@ChB NPs were evaluated against the offer mentioned colony forming units (CFU/mL), and their lowest MIC values were 30, 25, and 12.5 μg mL-1, respectively, against Enterococcus faecalis. Identifiable morphological features of apoptosis were observed by 3 T3 Phototox software after Api@ChB NPs had been used to treat the normal Vero ATCC CCL-81, Caco2 ATCC ATP-37, and HepG2 ATCC HB-8065 cancer cell lines for 24 h. The morphological changes were clear in a concentration-dependent manner, and the ability of the cells was 250 to 500 μg mL-1. These results revealed that Api@ChB NPs may be a promising natural nanotreatment for common human pathogens.

Comparison of the protective effects of CS/TPP and CS/HPMCP nanoparticles containing berberine in ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity in rat

BACKGROUND

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a globally critical condition with no available efficient treatments.

METHODS

Herein, we generated chitosan (CS) nanoparticles cross-linked with two different agents, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate (HPMCP; termed as CS/HPMCP) and tripolyphosphate (TPP; termed as CS/TPP), and loaded them with berberine (BBr; referred to as CS/HPMCP/BBr and CS/TPP/BBr, respectively). Alongside the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC), the releasing activity of the nanoparticles was also measured in stimulated gastric fluid (SGF) and stimulated intestinal fluid (SIF) conditions. The effects of the prepared nanoparticles on the viability of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were also evaluated. Ultimately, the protective effects of the nanoparticles were investigated in ALD mouse models.

RESULTS

SEM images demonstrated that CS/HPMCP and CS/TPP nanoparticles had an average size of 235.5 ± 42 and 172 ± 21 nm, respectively. The LC and EE for CS/HPMCP/BBr were calculated as 79.78% and 75.79%, respectively; while the LC and EE for CS/TPP/BBr were 84.26% and 80.05%, respectively. pH was a determining factor for releasing BBr from CS/HPMCP nanoparticles as a higher cargo-releasing rate was observed in a less acidic environment. Both the BBr-loaded nanoparticles increased the viability of MSCs in comparison with their BBr-free counterparts. In vivo results demonstrated CS/HPMCP/BBr and CS/TPP/BBr nanoparticles protected enzymatic liver functionality against ethanol-induced damage. They also prevented histopathological ethanol-induced damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Crosslinking CS nanoparticles with HPMCP can mediate controlled drug release in the intestine improving the bioavailability of BBr.

Biogenic selenium nanoparticles and selenium/chitosan-Nanoconjugate biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4 with antimicrobial and anticancer potential

BACKGROUND

As antibiotics and chemotherapeutics are no longer as efficient as they once were, multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens and cancer are presently considered as two of the most dangerous threats to human life. In this study, Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4, nano-chitosan (NCh), and their nanoconjugate (Se/Ch-nanoconjugate) were suggested to be efficacious antimicrobial and anticancer agents.

RESULTS

SeNPs biosynthesized by Streptomyces parvulus MAR4 and NCh were successfully achieved and conjugated. The biosynthesized SeNPs were spherical with a mean diameter of 94.2 nm and high stability. Yet, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate was semispherical with a 74.9 nm mean diameter and much higher stability. The SeNPs, NCh, and Se/Ch-nanoconjugate showed significant antimicrobial activity against various microbial pathogens with strong inhibitory effect on their tested metabolic key enzymes [phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and nitrate reductase (NR)]; Se/Ch-nanoconjugate was the most powerful agent. Furthermore, SeNPs revealed strong cytotoxicity against HepG2 (IC50 = 13.04 μg/ml) and moderate toxicity against Caki-1 (HTB-46) tumor cell lines (IC50 = 21.35 μg/ml) but low cytotoxicity against WI-38 normal cell line (IC50 = 85.69 μg/ml). Nevertheless, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate displayed substantial cytotoxicity against HepG2 and Caki-1 (HTB-46) with IC50 values of 11.82 and 7.83 μg/ml, respectively. Consequently, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate may be more easily absorbed by both tumor cell lines. However, it exhibited very low cytotoxicity on WI-38 with IC50 of 153.3 μg/ml. Therefore, Se/Ch-nanoconjugate presented the most anticancer activity.

CONCLUSION

The biosynthesized SeNPs and Se/Ch-nanoconjugate are convincingly recommended to be used in biomedical applications as versatile and potent antimicrobial and anticancer agents ensuring notable levels of biosafety, environmental compatibility, and efficacy.

Preparation, Characterization, and Anticancer Activity Assessment of Chitosan/TPP Nanoparticles Loaded with Echis carinatus Venom

AIMS AND BACKGROUND

Echis carinatus venom is a toxic substance naturally produced by special glands in this snake species. Alongside various toxic properties, this venom has been used for its therapeutic effects, which are applicable in treating various cancers (liver, breast, etc.).

OBJECTIVE

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems are suitable for protecting Echis carinatus venom against destruction and unwanted absorption. They can manage its controlled transfer and absorption, significantly reducing side effects.

METHODS

In the present study, chitosan nanoparticles were prepared using the ionotropic gelation method with emulsion cross-linking. The venom's encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, and release rate were calculated at certain time points. Moreover, the nanoparticles' optimal formulation and cytotoxic effects were determined using the MTT assay.

RESULTS

The optimized nanoparticle formulation increases cell death induction in various cancerous cell lines. Moreover, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Echis carinatus venom had a significant rate of cytotoxicity against cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

It is proposed that this formulation may act as a suitable candidate for more extensive assessments of cancer treatment using nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems.

Magnetic biopolymers' nanocomposites from chitosan, lignin and phycosynthesized iron nanoparticles to remediate water from polluting oil

Targeting the remediation of oil pollution in water, the construction of super magnetic adsorbent nanocomposites (NCs) was achieved using the nanoparticles of chitosan (Cht), lignin (Lg) and phycosynthesized iron nanoparticles (Fe MNPs) using Gelidium amansii extract. The syntheses and conjugations of nanomaterials were authenticated via infrared spectral analysis and the structural physiognomies of them were appraised via electron microscopy and zeta analysis. The Lg NPs, Cht NPs, Fe MNPs and their composites (Lg/Cht MNCs) had mean particles' sizes of 42.3, 76.4, 14.2 and 108.3 nm, and were charged with - 32.7, + 41.2, + 28.4 and +37.5 mV, respectively. The magnetometer revealed the high magnetic properties of both Fe MNPs and Lg/Cht MNCs; the maximum swelling of Lg/Cht NPs (46.3 %), and Lg/Cht MNPs (33.8 %) was detected after 175 min. The diesel oil adsorption experiments with Lg/Cht MNPs, using batch adsorption practices, revealed the powerful potentiality of magnetic NCs to remove oil pollution in water; the maximum adsorption capacity (qt) was achieved with the conditions of pH = 7.5, adsorption period = 90 min and adsorbent dose = 200 mg/L. The magnetic Lg/Cht MNCs exhibited excellent recovery/reusability attributes for five adsorption cycles; the qt differences were negligible after the entire oil-adsorption cycles, with oil removal of >90 %. The innovative fabricated Lg/Cht MNCs could provide an effectual, sustainable and eco-friendly approach for the removal of pollutant oil in water resources.

Fabrication of bioactive nanocomposites from chitosan, cress mucilage, and selenium nanoparticles with powerful antibacterial and anticancerous actions

Natural bioactive alternatives are the utmost requests from researchers to provide biosafe and effectual health-guarding agents. The biopolymers chitosan nanoparticles (NCT), mucilage of cress seed (GCm; Lepidium sativum), and GCm-mediated selenium nanoparticles (GCm/SeNPs) were innovatively employed for fabricating novel bioactive natural nanocomposites (NCs) with elevated bioactivities as bactericidal (against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus) and anticancer (against CaCo-2 and HeLa cells). The SeNPs were successfully generated with GCm, and different NCs formulations were fabricated from NCT:GCm/SeNPs amalgam ratios including T1, T2, and T3 with 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2 ratios, respectively. The infrared analysis of synthesized molecules appointed apparent physical interactions among interacted molecules. The average particles' sizes and charges of molecules/NCs were (12.7, 316.4, 252.8, and 127.3 nm) and (-6.9, +38.7, +26.2, and -25.8 mV) for SeNPs, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. The biocidal assessment of NCs indicated that T1 was the strongest antibacterial formulation, whereas T3 was the superior anticancer amalgam. These NCs formulations could exceed the biocidal potentialities of standard biocides. T1-NC could cause severe destructions/deformations in challenged S. typhimurium within 9 h, whereas T3-NCs induced apparent fluorescent apoptosis signs in treated HeLa cells. The prospective applications innovatively designed biocidal natural NCs that are recommended for controlling pathogenic bacteria and fighting cancerous cells.

Fabrication and assessment of potent anticancer nanoconjugates from chitosan nanoparticles, curcumin, and eugenol

In cancer management and control, the most challenging difficulties are the complications resulting from customized therapies. The constitution of bioactive anticancer nanoconjugates from natural derivatives, e.g., chitosan (Ct), curcumin (Cur), and eugenol (Eug), was investigated for potential alternatives to cancer cells' treatment. Ct was extracted from Erugosquilla massavensis (mantis shrimp); then, Ct nanoparticles (NCt) was fabricated and loaded with Cur and/or Eug using crosslinking emulsion/ionic-gelation protocol and evaluated as anticancer composites against CaCo2 "colorectal adenocarcinoma" and MCF7 "breast adenocarcinoma" cells. Ct had 42.6 kDa molecular weight and 90.7% deacetylation percentage. The conjugation of fabricated molecules/composites and their interactions were validated via infrared analysis. The generated nanoparticles (NCt, NCt/Cur, NCt/Eug, and NCt/Cur/Eug composites) had mean particle size diameters of 268.5, 314.9, 296.4, and 364.7 nm, respectively; the entire nanoparticles carried positive charges nearby ≥30 mV. The scanning imaging of synthesized nanoconjugates (NCt/Cur, NCt/Eug, and NCt/Cur/Eug) emphasized their homogenous distributions and spherical shapes. The cytotoxic assessments of composited nanoconjugates using the MTT assay, toward CaCo2 and MCF7 cells, revealed elevated anti-proliferative and dose-dependent activities of all nanocomposites against treated cells. The combined nanocomposites (NCt/Eug/Cur) emphasized the highest activity against CaCo2 cells (IC₅₀ = 11.13 μg/ml), followed by Cur/Eug then NCt/Cur. The exposure of CaCo2 cells to the nanocomposites exhibited serious DNA damages and fragmentation in exposed cancerous cells using the comet assay; the NCt/Eug/Cur nanocomposite was the most forceful with 9.54 nm tail length and 77.94 tail moment. The anticancer effectuality of innovatively combined NCt/Cur/Eug nanocomposites is greatly recommended for such biosafe, natural, biocompatible, and powerful anticancer materials, especially for combating colorectal adenocarcinoma cells, with elevated applicability, efficiency, and biosafety.

Enhancement of the Protective Activity of Vanillic Acid against Tetrachloro-Carbon (CCl4) Hepatotoxicity in Male Rats by the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

In the current study, the hepatoprotective activity of vanillic acid, silymarin, and vanillic acid-loaded silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity was tested in male rats for four weeks. Thirty male rats were divided into five groups (n = 6). The 1st group was a negative control, the 2nd group was a positive control, the 3rd group was treated with 100 mg/kg b.w. of vanillic acid, the 4th group was treated with 100 mg/kg b.w. of vanillic acid-AgNPs, and the 5th group was treated with 50 mg/kg b.w. of silymarin. The CCl₄-induced hepatic toxicity in the 2nd group was revealed by the liver function and all other biochemical tests. Liver enzymes, bilirubin, lipid peroxidation, lactate dehydrogenase, and interleukin-6 were elevated, whereas, total protein, antioxidant enzymes, and irisin were decreased compared to the negative control. The hepatic tissues were also injured as a result of the CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity. Treating the hepatotoxic rats with vanillic acid moderately protected the rats of the 3rd group, whereas treatment with vanillic AgNPs and silymarin in G4 and G5, respectively, greatly protected the rats against the CCl₄ hepatotoxicity, approaching the normal biochemical levels and liver tissue appearance. The biochemical tests were confirmed by the histological investigations of liver tissue.

Encapsulation of bioactive compounds extracted from date palm seeds (Phoenix dactylifera L.) and their use in functional food

Liposomes have been used as a novel phytoconstituent delivery system to encapsulate lyophilized palm seed phenolic extract (PSPE) and incorporate it into yogurt as a food model to enhance the bioavailability of PSPE. Phenolic compounds were extracted with aqueous ethanol from palm seed powder using the solvent-maceration approach assisted by ultrasonication. Lyophilized PSPE (0.2-1% w/v) was enclosed in a liposome structure coated with or without chitosan (primary/secondary liposome). Particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were applied to investigate the primary and secondary liposomes. To assess the in vitro bioaccessibility of PSPE and primary/secondary liposomes, the total phenolic content (TPC) and the antioxidant activity were studied during the oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion stages. Three concentrations of lyophilized secondary liposomes (1.25, 2.5, and 3.75% w/v) were added to the yogurt food model. During the 14 days of storage, the physical, chemical, and sensory properties were assessed. Compared to the primary liposomes (87%), the secondary liposomes (91%) showed a higher encapsulation efficiency. Comparing the secondary liposomes to the original liposomes and the non-encapsulated PSPE, the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds was improved. Fortified yogurt with secondary liposomes had a lower syneresis and viscosity than the reference yogurt. The encapsulated PSPE provided a good level of protection, and its release increased throughout the intestinal phase. Thus, PSPE in a microencapsulated form has been proven to be a rich and cost-effective source of phenolics that can be used successfully to produce functional yogurt.

Pharmacological effects and mechanisms of bee venom and its main components: Recent progress and perspective

Bee venom (BV), a type of defensive venom, has been confirmed to have favorable activities, such as anti-tumor, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-infectivity effects, etc. This study reviewed the recent progress on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components against cancer, neurological disorders, inflammatory diseases, pain, microbial diseases, liver, kidney, lung and muscle injury, and other diseases in literature during the years 2018–2021. The related target proteins of BV and its main components against the diseases include Akt, mTOR, JNK, Wnt-5α, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK2, Nrf2, BDNF, Smad2/3, AMPK, and so on, which are referring to PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JAK/STAT, Nrf2/HO-1, TrkB/CREB/BDNF, TGF-β/Smad2/3, and AMPK signaling pathways, etc. Further, with the reported targets, the potential effects and mechanisms on diseases were bioinformatically predicted via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, disease ontology semantic and enrichment (DOSE) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) analyses. This review provides new insights into the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of BV and its main components on diseases.

Nanobiotechnology with Therapeutically Relevant Macromolecules from Animal Venoms: Venoms, Toxins, and Antimicrobial Peptides

Some diseases of uncontrolled proliferation such as cancer, as well as infectious diseases, are the main cause of death in the world, and their causative agents have rapidly developed resistance to the various existing treatments, making them even more dangerous. Thereby, the discovery of new therapeutic agents is a challenge promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO). Biomacromolecules, isolated or synthesized from a natural template, have therapeutic properties which have not yet been fully studied, and represent an unexplored potential in the search for new drugs. These substances, starting from conglomerates of proteins and other substances such as animal venoms, or from minor substances such as bioactive peptides, help fight diseases or counteract harmful effects. The high effectiveness of these biomacromolecules makes them promising substances for obtaining new drugs; however, their low bioavailability or stability in biological systems is a challenge to be overcome in the coming years with the help of nanotechnology. The objective of this review article is to describe the relationship between the structure and function of biomacromolecules of animal origin that have applications already described using nanotechnology and targeted delivery.

Apis mellifera syriaca Venom: Evaluation of Its Anticoagulant Effect, Proteolytic Activity, and Cytotoxicity along with Its Two Main Compounds-MEL and PLA2-On HeLa Cancer Cells

Bee venom (BV) is one of the most remarkable natural products that has been a subject of studies since ancient times. Recent studies have shown that Apis mellifera syriaca venom possesses antibacterial as well as cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines. The venom contains a variety of bioactive molecules—mainly melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), as well as other compounds that are not well characterized. In this work, we continue the biological characterization of A. mellifera syriaca venom by testing its anticoagulant effect on human plasma using the prothrombin time (PT) test, as well as assessing its proteolytic activity. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the crude venom—and of its two main components, MEL and PLA2—was tested on HeLa cancer cell lines for the first time. The results obtained showed the capacity of A. mellifera syriaca venom to increase clotting time, thereby proving its anticoagulant effect. Moreover, the venom did not demonstrate a significant proteolytic activity unless administrated at concentrations ≥ 5 mg/mL. Finally, we showed that crude A. mellifera syriaca venom, along with MEL, exhibit a strong in vitro cytotoxic effect on HeLa cancer cell lines, even at low concentrations. In summary, our findings could serve as a basis for the development of new natural-based drug candidates in the therapeutic field.

Antifungal and antibiofilm activities of bee venom loaded on chitosan nanoparticles: a novel approach for combating fungal human pathogens

The prevalence of opportunistic human fungal pathogens is increasing worldwide, and antimicrobial resistance is one of the greatest medical challenges the world faces. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a novel agent to control fungal pathogens. The honeybee products (honey, royal jelly, propolis, bee bread, and bee venom) were screened against unicellular fungal (UCF) pathogens (Cryptococcus neoformans, Kodamaea ohmeri, and Candida albicans) and the bee venom was only exhibited an inhibitory effect against them. The protein contents of crude bee venom were separated using the gel filtration technique into eight fractions which were visualized on sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) to confirm the presence of five bands with molecular weights of 65, 43, 21, 15, and 3 KDa. Bee venom (BV) of Apis mellifera loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by the ionotropic gelation method. The encapsulation efficiency%, average size, zeta potentials, and surface appearance by Transmission electron microscope (TEM) were evaluated for the prepared nanoparticles. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of crude BV and BV loaded chitosan nanoparticles (BV-CNPs) was evaluated against the offer mentioned UCF where the MIC values of crude BV were 6.25, 3.12 & 6.25 while MIC values in the case of BV-CNPs were decreased to 3.12, 3.12 & 1.56 mg/ml against C. neoformans, K. ohmeri and C. albicans, respectively. Also, the results showed that BV-CNPs suppressed the biofilm formation as well as yeast to hyphal transition formed by the examined UCF. These results revealed that BV-CNPs are a promising natural compound for fungal pathogens treatment.

Preparation, Structural Characterization, and Property Investigation of Gallic Acid-Grafted Fungal Chitosan Conjugate

Oxidative stress is the cause of numerous diseases in humans; therefore, there has been a continuous search for novel antioxidant molecules. Fungal chitosan is an attractive molecule that has several applications (antifungal, antibacterial, anticancer and antiparasitic action) owing to its unique characteristics; however, it exhibits low antioxidant activity. The aim of this study was to obtain fungal chitosan (Chit-F) from the fungus Rhizopus arrhizus and synthesize its derivative, fungal chitosan-gallic acid (Chit-FGal), as a novel antioxidant chitosan derivative for biomedical use. A low molecular weight Chi-F (~3.0 kDa) with a degree of deacetylation of 86% was obtained from this fungus. Chit-FGal (3.0 kDa) was synthesized by an efficient free radical-mediated method using hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and ascorbic acid. Both Chit-F and Chit-FGal showed similar copper chelating activities; however, Chit-FGal was more efficient as an antioxidant, exhibiting twice the total antioxidant capacity than Chi-F (p < 0.05). Furthermore, H₂O₂ (0.06 M) promoted a 50% decrease in the viabilities of the 3T3 fibroblast cells. However, this effect was abolished in the presence of Chit-FGal (0.05–0.25 mg/mL), indicating that Chit-FGal protected the cells from oxidative damage. These results suggest that Chit-FGal may be a promising agent to combat oxidative stress.

Bee Venom: From Venom to Drug

Insects of the order Hymenoptera have a defensive substance that contains many biologically active compounds. Specifically, venom from honeybees (Apis mellifera) contains many enzymes and peptides that are effective against various diseases. Different research papers stated the possibility of using bee venom (a direct bee sting or in an injectable form) in treating several complications; either in vivo or in vitro. Other reports used the active fractions of bee venom clinically or at labratory scale. Many reports and publications have stated that bee venom and its constituents have multiple biological activities including anti-microbial, anti-protozoan, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic properties. The present review aims to refer to the use of bee venom itself or its fractions in treating several diseases and counteracting drug toxicities as an alternative protocol of therapy. The updated molecular mechanisms of actions of bee venom and its components are discussed in light of the previous updated publications. The review also summarizes the potential of venom loaded on nanoparticles as a drug delivery vehicle and its molecular mechanisms. Finally, the products of bee venom available in markets are also demonstrated.

Application of Chitosan/Alginate Nanocomposite Incorporated with Phycosynthesized Iron Nanoparticles for Efficient Remediation of Chromium

Biopolymers and nanomaterials are ideal candidates for environmental remediation and heavy metal removal. As hexavalent chromium (Cr⁶⁺) is a hazardous toxic pollutant of water, this study innovatively aimed to synthesize nanopolymer composites and load them with phycosynthesized Fe nanoparticles for the full Cr⁶⁺ removal from aqueous solutions. The extraction of chitosan (Cht) from prawn shells and alginate (Alg) from brown seaweed (Sargassum linifolium) was achieved with standard characteristics. The tow biopolymers were combined and cross-linked (via microemulsion protocol) to generate nanoparticles from their composites (Cht/Alg NPs), which had a mean diameter of 311.2 nm and were negatively charged (−23.2 mV). The phycosynthesis of iron nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) was additionally attained using S. linifolium extract (SE), and the Fe-NPs had semispherical shapes with a 21.4 nm mean diameter. The conjugation of Cht/Alg NPs with SE-phycosynthesized Fe-NPs resulted in homogenous distribution and stabilization of metal NPs within the polymer nanocomposites. Both nanocomposites exhibited high efficiency as adsorbents for Cr⁶⁺ at diverse conditions (e.g., pH, adsorbent dose, contact time and initial ion concentration) using batch adsorption evaluation; the most effectual conditions for adsorption were a pH value of 5.0, adsorbent dose of 4 g/L, contact time of 210 min and initial Cr⁶⁺ concentration of 75 ppm. These factors could result in full removal of Cr⁶⁺ from batch experiments. The composited nanopolymers (Cht/Alg NPs) incorporated with SE-phycosynthesized Fe-NPs are strongly recommended for complete removal of Cr⁶⁺ from aqueous environments.

Application of Fish Collagen-Nanochitosan-Henna Extract Composites for the Control of Skin Pathogens and Accelerating Wound Healing

Skin is the largest protective organ that could be recurrently wounded and attacked by microorganisms. The wounded skin safeguarding and supporting were intended through natural derivatives. Fish collagen (Cg) type I, extracted from sea bream (Spondyliosoma cantharus), chitosan nanoparticles (NCht) from shrimp shells, and henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) leaves extract (He) were produced and physiochemically characterized. The antimicrobial potentialities of these compounds and their composites were assessed toward skin pathogens (Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus) using various assaying methods and microimaging techniques. The infrared and electrophoretic analysis of Cg validated its characteristics, and the IR-spectroscopic analysis of the compounds/composites indicated their physiochemical attributes and interrelations. The produced NCht particles had a diameter range of 64.6-308.8 nm, 104 nm mean diameter, and +31.3 mV zeta potentiality. Both NCht, He, and NCht/He composite exhibited significant antimicrobial potentiality toward skin pathogens; NCht/He was the strongest with inhibitory concentrations of 20.0 and 22.5 μg/mL and inhibition zones of 25.7 and 26.8 mm against S. aureus and C. albicans, respectively. The electron micrographs verified the synergistic microbicidal action of NCht/He, as they led to severe microbial lysis and deformations. The skin wounds’ treatment with NCht/He/Cg composite promoted the fastest and complete healing of wounded rats’ skin during 8 days of local treatment, with the absence of inflammation and infection signs; treated with NCht/He/Cg composite, the wound area vastly reduced from 63.6 mm2 to 15.9 and 9.1 mm2 after 2 and 4 days, respectively. The natural NCht/He/Cg composites are recommended as topical applications for optimum skin disinfection and regeneration.

Formulation of Insect Chitosan Stabilized Silver Nanoparticles with Propolis Extract as Potent Antimicrobial and Wound Healing Composites

Skin wounds are frequently influenced with microbial infections and inflammation, which need innovative agents for disputing them. Chitosan (Csn) was extracted from larvae of BSF “black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens” and ethanolic propolis extract (Pro) was employed for synthesizing silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs), using facile biogenic protocol. The BSF-Csn was acquired with a yield of 1.56%, 91.3% deacetylation degree, and 88.600 Dalton molecular weight. The Ag-NPs were effectually biosynthesized using Pro, with a mean diameter of 8.73 nm and zeta potential of -21.34 mV. The antimicrobial activities assessment of insect Csn, Pro, synthesized Ag-NPs with Pro, and their composite against skin pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans) revealed the elevated efficiency of the individual agents and the superior action of their composite (Csn/Pro/Ag-NPs), with 26.3 and 23.4 mm inhibition zones and inhibitory concentrations of 35.0 and 45.0 μg/mL from the composite toward S. aureus and C. albicans, respectively, which exceeded the actions of commercial antibiotics. The treatment of rat’s wounds with this composite promisingly led to faster healing of wounds and absence of inflammation and infection signs. The powerful actions of Csn/Pro/Ag-NPs as antimicrobial and wound healing composite strongly advocate their applications for skin protection, disinfection, and regeneration.

Green Biosynthesized Selenium Nanoparticles by Cinnamon Extract and Their Antimicrobial Activity and Application as Edible Coatings with Nano-Chitosan

Bioactive nanocomposites were constructed, containing chitosan (Cht), extracted from shrimps’ wastes, and transformed into nanoparticles (NPs) using ionic-gelation. Selenium NPs (Se-NPs) were phytosynthesized using cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) bark extract (CIE), characterized and evaluated with Cht-NPs as antimicrobial composites against bacterial food-borne pathogens “Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes” and as potential edible coating (EC) basements. The CIE-phytosynthesized Se-NPs had well-distributed and spherical shapes with 23.2 nm mean diameter. The CIE, CIE/Se-NPs, and innovative CIE/Se/Cht-NP composites exhibited distinguished antibacterial actions toward the entire screened pathogens; CIE/Se/Cht-NP composite was significantly the most potent. The formulated ECs from CIE/Se/Cht-NP nanocomposites had matching antibacterial manner, which was strengthened with CIE/Se-NP percentage increments. Scanning micrographs indicated the attachment of CIE/Se-NPs to bacterial cells to cause their complete lysis and death after 10 h of exposure. CIE/Se/Cht-NP composites are proposed as effectual control agents toward food-borne pathogens using efficient biological carriers and eco-friendly phytosynthesis protocol.

Biopreservation of Shrimps Using Composed Edible Coatings from Chitosan Nanoparticles and Cloves Extract

Shrimps are highly valuable and perishable foodstuff that could be rapidly spoiled. Chitosan (Cht) was extracted and transformed into nanoparticles (NPs) via ionic gelation and fortified with cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) buds extract (CLE) for usage as antimicrobial composites against food-borne bacterial pathogens (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus) and as edible coating (EC) for shrimp (Fenneropenaeus indicus) biopreservation throughout refrigerated storage. The synthesized CLE/Cht-NPs were electrostatically cross-linked and appeared with spherical shapes and homogenized distribution, with 159.4 nm mean size diameter and positive charge of 17.4 mV. The entire agents (Cht-NPs, CLE, and CLE/Cht-NPs) exhibited remarkable antibacterial activities toward all food-borne pathogens; CLE/Cht-NPs were significantly the most forceful. The scanning micrographs of treated S. typhimurium with CLE/Cht-NPs displayed NPs ability to attach and destroy bacterial cells. The ECs-treated shrimps exhibited sharp decrease in microbial groups load (aerobic microorganisms, E. coli, Enterobacteriaceae, and staphylococci) during refrigerated storage (4 ± 1°C) for 10 days. Additionally, the sensorial attributes (appearance, odor, color, and texture) of EC-treated samples preserved their elevated qualities for storage duration. The most effective EC blend contained 1.5% from Cht/NPs and 1.0% from CLE. The CLE/Cht-NPs could be impressively recommended as effectual natural composites for shrimps’ biopreservation during cold storage.

Biodegradable Films from Phytosynthesized TiO2 Nanoparticles and Nanofungal Chitosan as Probable Nanofertilizers

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) have great importance for plant nutrition and growth, at little concentrations. The bioactive polymer chitosan and its NPs provide outstanding characteristics for capping and enhancements of nanometals. The phytosynthesis of TiO2-NPswas promisingly achieved using an extract of pomegranate rind, whereas the fungal chitosan (FCt) was produced from Aspergillus brasiliensis biomass and was transformed to nanoform. The phytosynthesis of TiO2-NPs generated homogenous spherical particles with 13 to 64 nm range and 37 nm mean size. The extracted FCt had 92% deacetylation degree and a molecular weight of 28,400 Da. The infrared spectral analysis of TiO2-NPs, FCt-NPs, and their nanocomposite indicated their functional groups and biochemical interactions. The released amounts of TiO2-NPs from their nanocomposite with FCt–NPs were 31% and 50% after the first and third hour, respectively. The nanocomposite film had a faster hydrodegradability rate which resulted from TiO2-NP addition. Therefore, the fabricated nanocomposite from FCt/TiO2-NPs could have elevated potentiality for application as liquid spray for foliar feeding or as powder for soil amendment.