Generation of Genetically Engineered Mouse Lung Organoid Models for Squamous Cell Lung Cancers Allows for the Study of Combinatorial Immunotherapy

AZD1775 synergizes with SLC7A11 inhibition to promote ferroptosis

Tumor suppressor p53-mediated cell cycle arrest and DNA damage repair may exert cytoprotective effects against cancer therapies, including WEE1 inhibition. Considering that p53 activation can also lead to multiple types of cell death, the role of this tumor suppressor in WEE1 inhibitor-based therapies remains disputed. In this study, we reported that nucleolar stress-mediated p53 activation enhanced the WEE1 inhibitor AZD1775-induced ferroptosis to suppress lung cancer growth. Our findings showed that AZD1775 promoted ferroptosis by blocking cystine uptake, an action similar to that of Erastin. Meanwhile, inhibition of WEE1 by the WEE1 inhibitors or siRNAs induced compensatory upregulation of SLC7A11, which conferred resistance to ferroptosis. Mechanistically, AZD1775 prevented the enrichment of H3K9me3, a histone marker of transcriptional repression, on the SLC7A11 promoter by repressing the expression of the histone methyltransferase SETDB1, thereby enhancing NRF2-mediated SLC7A11 transcription. This finding was also validated using the H3K9me3 inhibitor BRD4770. Remarkably, we found that the nucleolar stress-inducing agent Actinomycin D (Act. D) inhibited SLC7A11 expression by activating p53, thus augmenting AZD1775-induced ferroptosis. Moreover, the combination of AZD1775 and Act. D synergistically suppressed wild-type p53-harboring lung cancer cell growth both in vitro and in vivo. Altogether, our study demonstrates that AZD1775 promotes ferroptosis by targeting cystine uptake but also mediates the adaptive activation of SLC7A11 through the WEE1-SETDB1 cascade and NRF2-induced transcription, and inhibition of SLC7A11 by Act. D boosts the anti-tumor efficacy of AZD1775 by enhancing ferroptosis in cancers with wild-type p53.

Current application and future perspective of CRISPR/cas9 gene editing system mediated immune checkpoint for liver cancer treatment

Liver cancer, which is well-known to us as one of human most prevalent malignancies across the globe, poses a significant risk to live condition and life safety of individuals in every region of the planet. It has been shown that immune checkpoint treatment may enhance survival benefits and make a significant contribution to patient prognosis, which makes it a promising and popular therapeutic option for treating liver cancer at the current time. However, there are only a very few numbers of patients who can benefit from the treatment and there also exist adverse events such as toxic effects and so on, which is still required further research and discussion. Fortunately, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated nuclease 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) provides a potential strategy for immunotherapy and immune checkpoint therapy of liver cancer. In this review, we focus on elucidating the fundamentals of the recently developed CRISPR/Cas9 technology as well as the present-day landscape of immune checkpoint treatment which pertains to liver cancer. What's more, we aim to explore the molecular mechanism of immune checkpoint treatment in liver cancer based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology. At last, its encouraging and powerful potential in the future application of the clinic is discussed, along with the issues that already exist and the difficulties that must be overcome. To sum up, our ultimate goal is to create a fresh knowledge that we can utilize this new CRISPR/Cas9 technology for the current popular immune checkpoint therapy to overcome the treatment issues of liver cancer.

TET2-STAT3-CXCL5 nexus promotes neutrophil lipid transfer to fuel lung adeno-to-squamous transition

Phenotypic plasticity is a rising cancer hallmark, and lung adeno-to-squamous transition (AST) triggered by LKB1 inactivation is significantly associated with drug resistance. Mechanistic insights into AST are urgently needed to identify therapeutic vulnerability in LKB1-deficient lung cancer. Here, we find that ten-eleven translocation (TET)-mediated DNA demethylation is elevated during AST in KrasLSL-G12D/+; Lkb1L/L (KL) mice, and knockout of individual Tet genes reveals that Tet2 is required for squamous transition. TET2 promotes neutrophil infiltration through STAT3-mediated CXCL5 expression. Targeting the STAT3-CXCL5 nexus effectively inhibits squamous transition through reducing neutrophil infiltration. Interestingly, tumor-infiltrating neutrophils are laden with triglycerides and can transfer the lipid to tumor cells to promote cell proliferation and squamous transition. Pharmacological inhibition of macropinocytosis dramatically inhibits neutrophil-to-cancer cell lipid transfer and blocks squamous transition. These data uncover an epigenetic mechanism orchestrating phenotypic plasticity through regulating immune microenvironment and metabolic communication, and identify therapeutic strategies to inhibit AST.

Modeling of the brain-lung axis using organoids in traumatic brain injury: an updated review

Clinical outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is closely associated conditions of other organs, especially lungs as well as degree of brain injury. Even if there is no direct lung damage, severe brain injury can enhance sympathetic tones on blood vessels and vascular resistance, resulting in neurogenic pulmonary edema. Conversely, lung damage can worsen brain damage by dysregulating immunity. These findings suggest the importance of brain-lung axis interactions in TBI. However, little research has been conducted on the topic. An advanced disease model using stem cell technology may be an alternative for investigating the brain and lungs simultaneously but separately, as they can be potential candidates for improving the clinical outcomes of TBI.In this review, we describe the importance of brain-lung axis interactions in TBI by focusing on the concepts and reproducibility of brain and lung organoids in vitro. We also summarize recent research using pluripotent stem cell-derived brain organoids and their preclinical applications in various brain disease conditions and explore how they mimic the brain-lung axis. Reviewing the current status and discussing the limitations and potential perspectives in organoid research may offer a better understanding of pathophysiological interactions between the brain and lung after TBI.

A systematic review on the culture methods and applications of 3D tumoroids for cancer research and personalized medicine

Cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease, and thus treatment responses vary greatly between patients. To improve therapy efficacy and outcome for cancer patients, more representative and patient-specific preclinical models are needed. Organoids and tumoroids are 3D cell culture models that typically retain the genetic and epigenetic characteristics, as well as the morphology, of their tissue of origin. Thus, they can be used to understand the underlying mechanisms of cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis in a more physiological setting. Additionally, co-culture methods of tumoroids and cancer-associated cells can help to understand the interplay between a tumor and its tumor microenvironment. In recent years, tumoroids have already helped to refine treatments and to identify new targets for cancer therapy. Advanced culturing systems such as chip-based fluidic devices and bioprinting methods in combination with tumoroids have been used for high-throughput applications for personalized medicine. Even though organoid and tumoroid models are complex in vitro systems, validation of results in vivo is still the common practice. Here, we describe how both animal- and human-derived tumoroids have helped to identify novel vulnerabilities for cancer treatment in recent years, and how they are currently used for precision medicine.

Patient-derived organoids in human cancer: a platform for fundamental research and precision medicine

Cancer is associated with a high degree of heterogeneity, encompassing both inter- and intra-tumor heterogeneity, along with considerable variability in clinical response to common treatments across patients. Conventional models for tumor research, such as in vitro cell cultures and in vivo animal models, demonstrate significant limitations that fall short of satisfying the research requisites. Patient-derived tumor organoids, which recapitulate the structures, specific functions, molecular characteristics, genomics alterations and expression profiles of primary tumors. They have been efficaciously implemented in illness portrayal, mechanism exploration, high-throughput drug screening and assessment, discovery of innovative therapeutic targets and potential compounds, and customized treatment regimen for cancer patients. In contrast to conventional models, tumor organoids offer an intuitive, dependable, and efficient in vitro research model by conserving the phenotypic, genetic diversity, and mutational attributes of the originating tumor. Nevertheless, the organoid technology also confronts the bottlenecks and challenges, such as how to comprehensively reflect intra-tumor heterogeneity, tumor microenvironment, tumor angiogenesis, reduce research costs, and establish standardized construction processes while retaining reliability. This review extensively examines the use of tumor organoid techniques in fundamental research and precision medicine. It emphasizes the importance of patient-derived tumor organoid biobanks for drug development, screening, safety evaluation, and personalized medicine. Additionally, it evaluates the application of organoid technology as an experimental tumor model to better understand the molecular mechanisms of tumor. The intent of this review is to explicate the significance of tumor organoids in cancer research and to present new avenues for the future of tumor research.

Recent advances and clinical translation of liposomal delivery systems in cancer therapy

The limitations of conventional cancer treatment are driving the emergence and development of nanomedicines. Research in liposomal nanomedicine for cancer therapy is rapidly increasing, opening up new horizons for cancer treatment. Liposomal nanomedicine, which focuses on targeted drug delivery to improve the therapeutic effect of cancer while reducing damage to normal tissues and cells, has great potential in the field of cancer therapy. This review aims to clarify the advantages of liposomal delivery systems in cancer therapy. We describe the recent understanding of spatiotemporal fate of liposomes in the organism after different routes of drug administration. Meanwhile, various types of liposome-based drug delivery systems that exert their respective advantages in cancer therapy while reducing side effects were discussed. Moreover, the combination of liposomal agents with other therapies (such as photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy) has demonstrated enhanced tumor-targeting efficiency and therapeutic efficacy. Finally, the opportunities and challenges faced by the field of liposome nanoformulations for entering the clinical treatment of cancer are highlighted.

Applications of lung cancer organoids in precision medicine: from bench to bedside

As the leading cause of cancer-related mortality, lung cancer continues to pose a menacing threat to human health worldwide. Lung cancer treatment options primarily rely on chemoradiotherapy, surgery, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy. Despite significant progress in research and treatment, the 5-year survival rate for lung cancer patients is only 10-20%. There is an urgent need to develop more reliable preclinical models and valid therapeutic approaches. Patient-derived organoids with highly reduced tumour heterogeneity have emerged as a promising model for high-throughput drug screening to guide treatment of lung cancer patients. Organoid technology offers a novel platform for disease modelling, biobanking and drug development. The expected benefit of organoids is for cancer patients as the subsequent precision medicine technology. Over the past few years, numerous basic and clinical studies have been conducted on lung cancer organoids, highlighting the significant contributions of this technique. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art technologies and applications relevant to the formation of lung cancer organoids, as well as the potential of organoids in precision medicine and drug testing. Video Abstract.

Harnessing three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models for pulmonary infections: State of the art and future directions

Pulmonary infections have been a leading etiology of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Upper and lower respiratory tract infections have multifactorial causes, which include bacterial, viral, and rarely, fungal infections. Moreover, the recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has created havoc and imposes a huge healthcare burden. Drug and vaccine development against these pulmonary pathogens like respiratory syncytial virus, SARS-CoV-2, Mycobacteria, etc., requires a systematic set of tools for research and investigation. Currently, in vitro 2D cell culture models are widely used to emulate the in vivo physiologic environment. Although this approach holds a reasonable promise over pre-clinical animal models, it lacks the much-needed correlation to the in vivo tissue architecture, cellular organization, cell-to-cell interactions, downstream processes, and the biomechanical milieu. In view of these inadequacies, 3D cell culture models have recently acquired interest. Mammalian embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells may display their remarkable self-organizing abilities in 3D culture, and the resulting organoids replicate important structural and functional characteristics of organs such the kidney, lung, gut, brain, and retina. 3D models range from scaffold-free systems to scaffold-based and hybrid models as well. Upsurge in organs-on-chip models for pulmonary conditions has anticipated encouraging results. Complexity and dexterity of developing 3D culture models and the lack of standardized working procedures are a few of the setbacks, which are expected to be overcome in the coming times. Herein, we have elaborated the significance and types of 3D cell culture models for scrutinizing pulmonary infections, along with the in vitro techniques, their applications, and additional systems under investigation.

Pre-clinical lung squamous cell carcinoma mouse models to identify novel biomarkers and therapeutic interventions

Primary lung carcinoma or lung cancer (LC) is classified into small-cell or non-small-cell (NSCLC) lung carcinoma. Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) is the second most common subtype of NSCLC responsible for 30% of all LCs, and its survival remains low with only 24% of patients living for five years or longer post-diagnosis primarily due to the advanced stage of tumors at the time of diagnosis. The pathogenesis of LSCC is still poorly understood and has hampered the development of effective diagnostics and therapies. This review highlights the known risk factors, genetic and epigenetic alterations, miRNA biomarkers linked to the development and diagnosis of LSCC and the lack of therapeutic strategies to target specifically LSCC. We will also discuss existing animal models of LSCC including carcinogen induced, transgenic and xenograft mouse models, and their advantages and limitations along with the chemopreventive studies and molecular studies conducted using them. The importance of developing new and improved mouse models will also be discussed that will provide further insights into the initiation and progression of LSCC, and enable the identification of new biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Flourishing tumor organoids: History, emerging technology, and application

Malignant tumors are one of the leading causes of death which impose an increasingly heavy burden on all countries. Therefore, the establishment of research models that closely resemble original tumor characteristics is crucial to further understanding the mechanisms of malignant tumor development, developing safer and more effective drugs, and formulating personalized treatment plans. Recently, organoids have been widely used in tumor research owing to their advantages including preserving the structure, heterogeneity, and cellular functions of the original tumor, together with the ease of manipulation. This review describes the history and characteristics of tumor organoids and the synergistic combination of three-dimensional (3D) culture approaches for tumor organoids with emerging technologies, including tissue-engineered cell scaffolds, microfluidic devices, 3D bioprinting, rotating wall vessels, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9). Additionally, the progress in research and the applications in basic and clinical research of tumor organoid models are summarized. This includes studies of the mechanism of tumor development, drug development and screening, precision medicine, immunotherapy, and simulation of the tumor microenvironment. Finally, the existing shortcomings of tumor organoids and possible future directions are discussed.

Downregulation of VRK1 Inhibits Progression of Lung Squamous Cell Carcinoma through DNA Damage

Background

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) is a common malignancy. And the antitumor effect of bovine pox virus-associated kinase 1 (VRK1) is becoming a hot research topic.

Methods

VRK1 expression and prognosis in LUSC were analyzed using the GEPIA database. The expression of VRK1 mRNA was detected in 25 LUSC clinical tissue samples by RT-PCR. VRK1 shRNA was transfected into LUSC NCI-H520 and SK-MES-1 cell lines to interfere with VRK1 expression, and the efficiency of VRK1 shRNA interference was detected by the western blot. The effects of VRK1 downregulation on LUSC cell viability, migration, cell cycle, and apoptosis were analyzed by the CCK8 assay, scratch assay, transwell assay, and flow cytometry. The effect of VRK1 downregulation on DNA damage response (DDR) was examined by immunofluorescence staining and western blot assays and further validated by in vivo experiments.

Results

VRK1 was highly expressed in both LUSC tissues and cells. Survival analysis showed that the overall survival of LUSC patients with high VRK1 expression was significantly lower than that of LUSC patients with low VRK1 expression (P=0.0026). The expression level of the VRK1 gene was significantly higher in cancer tissues of LUSC patients than in paracancerous tissues. After transfection of VRK1 shRNA in both LUSC cells, cell activity decreased (P < 0.001), migration ability started to be inhibited (P < 0.001), the ratio of G0/G1 phase cells increased (P < 0.001), and apoptosis rate increased (P < 0.001). Immunofluorescence and western blot results showed that shVRK1 increased the level of γ-H2A.X (P < 0.001) and promoted apoptosis of tumor cells (P < 0.001). In addition, the results of animal experiments showed that shVRK1 had antitumor effects (P < 0.001) and a combined effect with DOX (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The downregulation of VRK1 significantly affected the proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and cell cycle progression of LUSC cells via DDR, suggesting that VRK1 is a suitable target for potential LUSC therapy.

Application of nano-radiosensitizers in combination cancer therapy

Radiosensitizers are compounds or nanostructures, which can improve the efficiency of ionizing radiation to kill cells. Radiosensitization increases the susceptibility of cancer cells to radiation-induced killing, while simultaneously reducing the potentially damaging effect on the cellular structure and function of the surrounding healthy tissues. Therefore, radiosensitizers are therapeutic agents used to boost the effectiveness of radiation treatment. The complexity and heterogeneity of cancer, and the multifactorial nature of its pathophysiology has led to many approaches to treatment. The effectiveness of each approach has been proven to some extent, but no definitive treatment to eradicate cancer has been discovered. The current review discusses a broad range of nano-radiosensitizers, summarizing possible combinations of radiosensitizing NPs with several other types of cancer therapy options, focusing on the benefits and drawbacks, challenges, and future prospects.

CAR T-cell therapy: Reprogramming patient's immune cell to treat cancer

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy is a game changer in cancer treatment. Although CAR-T cell therapy has achieved significant clinical responses in specific subgroups of B cell leukaemia or lymphoma, various difficulties restrict CAR-T cell therapy's therapeutic effectiveness in solid tumours and haematological malignancies. Severe life-threatening toxicities, poor anti-tumour effectiveness, antigen escape, restricted trafficking, and limited tumour penetration are all barriers to successful CAR-T cell treatment. Furthermore, CAR-T cell interactions with the host and tumour microenvironment have a significant impact on their activity. Furthermore, developing and implementing these therapies necessitates a complicated staff. Innovative methodologies and tactics to engineering more potent CAR-T cells with greater anti-tumour activity and less toxicity are required to address these important difficulties.

KMT2D deficiency drives lung squamous cell carcinoma and hypersensitivity to RTK-RAS inhibition

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) represents a major subtype of lung cancer with limited treatment options. KMT2D is one of the most frequently mutated genes in LUSC (>20%), and yet its role in LUSC oncogenesis remains unknown. Here, we identify KMT2D as a key regulator of LUSC tumorigenesis wherein Kmt2d deletion transforms lung basal cell organoids to LUSC. Kmt2d loss increases activation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), EGFR and ERBB2, partly through reprogramming the chromatin landscape to repress the expression of protein tyrosine phosphatases. These events provoke a robust elevation in the oncogenic RTK-RAS signaling. Combining SHP2 inhibitor SHP099 and pan-ERBB inhibitor afatinib inhibits lung tumor growth in Kmt2d-deficient LUSC murine models and in patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) harboring KMT2D mutations. Our study identifies KMT2D as a pivotal epigenetic modulator for LUSC oncogenesis and suggests that KMT2D loss renders LUSC therapeutically vulnerable to RTK-RAS inhibition.

Organoid technology and applications in lung diseases: Models, mechanism research and therapy opportunities

The prevalency of lung disease has increased worldwide, especially in the aging population. It is essential to develop novel disease models, that are superior to traditional models. Organoids are three-dimensional (3D) in vitro structures that produce from self-organizing and differentiating stem cells, including pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) or adult stem cells (ASCs). They can recapitulate the in vivo cellular heterogeneity, genetic characteristics, structure, and functionality of original tissues. Drug responses of patient-derived organoids (PDOs) are consistent with that of patients, and show correlations with genetic alterations. Thus, organoids have proven to be valuable in studying the biology of disease, testing preclinical drugs and developing novel therapies. In recent years, organoids have been successfully applied in studies of a variety of lung diseases, such as lung cancer, influenza, cystic fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and the recent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic. In this review, we provide an update on the generation of organoid models for these diseases and their applications in basic and translational research, highlighting these signs of progress in pathogenesis study, drug screening, personalized medicine and immunotherapy. We also discuss the current limitations and future perspectives in organoid models of lung diseases.

Development of a nanoparticle-based immunotherapy targeting PD-L1 and PLK1 for lung cancer treatment

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting PD-L1 and PD-1 have improved survival in a subset of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, only a minority of NSCLC patients respond to ICIs, highlighting the need for superior immunotherapy. Herein, we report on a nanoparticle-based immunotherapy termed ARAC (Antigen Release Agent and Checkpoint Inhibitor) designed to enhance the efficacy of PD-L1 inhibitor. ARAC is a nanoparticle co-delivering PLK1 inhibitor (volasertib) and PD-L1 antibody. PLK1 is a key mitotic kinase that is overexpressed in various cancers including NSCLC and drives cancer growth. Inhibition of PLK1 selectively kills cancer cells and upregulates PD-L1 expression in surviving cancer cells thereby providing opportunity for ARAC targeted delivery in a feedforward manner. ARAC reduces effective doses of volasertib and PD-L1 antibody by 5-fold in a metastatic lung tumor model (LLC-JSP) and the effect is mainly mediated by CD8+ T cells. ARAC also shows efficacy in another lung tumor model (KLN-205), which does not respond to CTLA-4 and PD-1 inhibitor combination. This study highlights a rational combination strategy to augment existing therapies by utilizing our nanoparticle platform that can load multiple cargo types at once.

Only a minority of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Here the authors design a nanosystem for the co-delivery of a PLK1 inhibitor and PD-L1 antibody, showing anti-tumor immune responses in preclinical lung cancer models.

Applications of human organoids in the personalized treatment for digestive diseases

Digestive system diseases arise primarily through the interplay of genetic and environmental influences; there is an urgent need in elucidating the pathogenic mechanisms of these diseases and deploy personalized treatments. Traditional and long-established model systems rarely reproduce either tissue complexity or human physiology faithfully; these shortcomings underscore the need for better models. Organoids represent a promising research model, helping us gain a more profound understanding of the digestive organs; this model can also be used to provide patients with precise and individualized treatment and to build rapid in vitro test models for drug screening or gene/cell therapy, linking basic research with clinical treatment. Over the past few decades, the use of organoids has led to an advanced understanding of the composition of each digestive organ and has facilitated disease modeling, chemotherapy dose prediction, CRISPR-Cas9 genetic intervention, high-throughput drug screening, and identification of SARS-CoV-2 targets, pathogenic infection. However, the existing organoids of the digestive system mainly include the epithelial system. In order to reveal the pathogenic mechanism of digestive diseases, it is necessary to establish a completer and more physiological organoid model. Combining organoids and advanced techniques to test individualized treatments of different formulations is a promising approach that requires further exploration. This review highlights the advancements in the field of organoid technology from the perspectives of disease modeling and personalized therapy.

Enhancing anti-tumour innate immunity by targeting the DNA damage response and pattern recognition receptors in combination with radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is one of the most effective and frequently used treatments for a wide range of cancers. In addition to its direct anti-cancer cytotoxic effects, ionising radiation can augment the anti-tumour immune response by triggering pro-inflammatory signals, DNA damage-induced immunogenic cell death and innate immune activation. Anti-tumour innate immunity can result from recruitment and stimulation of dendritic cells (DCs) which leads to tumour-specific adaptive T-cell priming and immunostimulatory cell infiltration. Conversely, radiotherapy can also induce immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory mediators that can confer radioresistance. Targeting the DNA damage response (DDR) concomitantly with radiotherapy is an attractive strategy for overcoming radioresistance, both by enhancing the radiosensitivity of tumour relative to normal tissues, and tipping the scales in favour of an immunostimulatory tumour microenvironment. This two-pronged approach exploits genomic instability to circumvent immune evasion, targeting both hallmarks of cancer. In this review, we describe targetable DDR proteins (PARP (poly[ADP-ribose] polymerase); ATM/ATR (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated and Rad3-related), DNA-PKcs (DNA-dependent protein kinase, catalytic subunit) and Wee1 (Wee1-like protein kinase) and their potential intersections with druggable immunomodulatory signalling pathways, including nucleic acid-sensing mechanisms (Toll-like receptors (TLR); cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) and retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors), and how these might be exploited to enhance radiation therapy. We summarise current preclinical advances, recent and ongoing clinical trials and the challenges of therapeutic combinations with existing treatments such as immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Organoids in lung cancer: A teenager with infinite growth potential

Despite the rapid advancement in lung cancer research, morbidity and mortality remain high in recent years. Therefore, deeper learning of the underlying molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis and discovery of novel effective therapeutic strategies of treatment in lung cancer research are around the corner. Among these, applying an efficient and reliable preclinical model would be a critical step that exists throughout the whole process. Traditional 2D models used in lung cancer research, including lung cancer cell lines and cell-derived xenograft models, cannot recapitulate the situations of patients due to the lack of a tumor microenvironment or tumor heterogeneity. Organoids, newly developed 3D in vitro structures, more comprehensively imitate the architecture, interaction and genetics of human organs. Cancer organoids, especially those derived from individual patients, can better resemble primary tumor tissues and thus have a greater potential for making breakthroughs in future cancer studies. Here, we mainly review recent advances in the methodologies and applications of lung cancer organoids, which are just developing but have huge potential.

Lung Organoids—The Ultimate Tool to Dissect Pulmonary Diseases?

Organoids are complex multicellular three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models that are designed to allow accurate studies of the molecular processes and pathologies of human organs. Organoids can be derived from a variety of cell types, such as human primary progenitor cells, pluripotent stem cells, or tumor-derived cells and can be co-cultured with immune or microbial cells to further mimic the tissue niche. Here, we focus on the development of 3D lung organoids and their use as disease models and drug screening tools. We introduce the various experimental approaches used to model complex human diseases and analyze their advantages and disadvantages. We also discuss validation of the organoids and their physiological relevance to the study of lung diseases. Furthermore, we summarize the current use of lung organoids as models of host-pathogen interactions and human lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, we discuss the use of lung organoids derived from tumor cells as lung cancer models and their application in personalized cancer medicine research. Finally, we outline the future of research in the field of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids.

Establishment of an experimental model of normal dog bladder organoid using a three-dimensional culture method

Dog bladder cancer (BC) is mostly muscle-invasive (MI) with poor prognosis, and its pathogenesis is close to human MIBC. Three-dimensional (3D) organoid culture ensures novel knowledge on cancer diseases including BC. Recently, we have established dog BC organoids (BCO) using their urine samples. BCO recapitulated the epithelial structures, characteristics, and drug sensitivity of BC-diseased dogs. However, organoids from dog normal bladder epithelium are not established yet. Therefore, the present study aimed to establish dog normal bladder organoids (NBO) for further understanding the pathogenesis of dog BC and human MIBC. The established NBO underwent various analyzes including cell marker expressions, histopathological structures, cancer-related gene expression patterns, and drug sensitivity. NBO could be produced non-invasively with a continuous culturing and recapitulated the structures and characteristics of the dog's normal bladder mucosal tissues. Different drug sensitivities were observed in each NBO. The analysis of RNA sequencing revealed that several novel genes were changed in NBO compared with BCO. NBO showed a higher expression of p53 and E-cadherin, but a lower expression of MDM2 and Twist1 compared with BCO. These results suggest that NBO could be a promising experimental 3D model for studying the developmental mechanisms of dog BC and human MIBC.

A novel pyroptosis-related lncRNA prognostic signature associated with the immune microenvironment in lung squamous cell carcinoma

Background

A growing body of evidence suggests that pyroptosis-related lncRNAs (PRncRNAs) are associated with the prognoses of tumor patients and their tumor immune microenvironments. However, the function of PRlncRNAs in lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) remains unclear.

Methods

We downloaded the transcriptome and clinical information of 551 LUSC samples from the The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and randomly separated patients with complete information into two cohorts. Based on the training cohort, we developed a pyroptosis-related signature. We then examined the signature in the test cohort and all retained patients. We also clustered two risk groups in each cohort according to the signature and performed survival analysis, functional analysis, tumor immune microenvironment analysis and drug sensitivity analysis.

Results

A prognostic signature containing five PRlncRNAs (AP001189.1, PICART1, LINC02555, AC010422.4, and AL606469.1) was developed. A principal component analysis (PCA) indicated better differentiation between patients with different risk scores. Kaplan–Meier (K–M) analysis demonstrated poorer survival among patients with higher risk scores (P < 0.001). A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis provided evidence confirming the accuracy of the signature, and univariate (p = 0.005) and multivariate (p = 0.008) Cox regression analyses confirmed the independent value of the risk score in prognoses. Clinical subgroup validation indicated that the signature was more suitable for patients with early-stage LUSC. We also created a nomogram to increase the accuracy of the prediction. Moreover, functional analysis revealed that pathways related to tumor development and pyroptosis were enriched in the high-risk group. Furthermore, the prognostic signature was proven to be a predictor of sensitivity to immunotherapy and chemotherapy.

Conclusions

We developed a novel pyroptosis-associated signature with independent value for the prognosis of LUSC patients. PRlncRNAs are closely associated with the tumor immune microenvironment in LUSC and might offer new directions for immunotherapy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-022-09790-z.

Combination therapy with CAR T cells and oncolytic viruses: a new era in cancer immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is an encouraging and fast-growing platform used for the treatment of various types of tumors in human body. Despite the recent success of CAR T-cell therapy in hematologic malignancies, especially in B-cell lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the application of this treatment approach in solid tumors faced several obstacles resulted from the heterogeneous expression of antigens as well as the induction of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Oncolytic virotherapy (OV) is a new cancer treatment modality by the use of competent or genetically engineered viruses to replicate in tumor cells selectively. OVs represent potential candidates to synergize the current setbacks of CAR T-cell application in solid tumors and then and overcome them. As well, the application of OVs gives researches the ability to engineer the virus with payloads in the way that it selectively deliver a specific therapeutic agents in tumor milieu to reinforce the cytotoxic activity of CAR T cells. Herein, we made a comprehensive review on the outcomes resulted from the combination of CAR T-cell immunotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy for the treatment of solid cancers. In the current study, we also provided brief details on some challenges that remained in this field and attempted to shed a little light on the future perspectives.

Tumor organoids: applications in cancer modeling and potentials in precision medicine

Cancer is a top-ranked life-threatening disease with intratumor heterogeneity. Tumor heterogeneity is associated with metastasis, relapse, and therapy resistance. These factors contribute to treatment failure and an unfavorable prognosis. Personalized tumor models faithfully capturing the tumor heterogeneity of individual patients are urgently needed for precision medicine. Advances in stem cell culture have given rise to powerful organoid technology for the generation of in vitro three-dimensional tissues that have been shown to more accurately recapitulate the structures, specific functions, molecular characteristics, genomic alterations, expression profiles, and tumor microenvironment of primary tumors. Tumoroids in vitro serve as an important component of the pipeline for the discovery of potential therapeutic targets and the identification of novel compounds. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in tumoroid cultures as an excellent tool for accurate cancer modeling. Additionally, vascularization and immune microenvironment modeling based on organoid technology will also be described. Furthermore, we will summarize the great potential of tumor organoids in predicting the therapeutic response, investigating resistance-related mechanisms, optimizing treatment strategies, and exploring potential therapies. In addition, the bottlenecks and challenges of current tumoroids will also be discussed in this review.

Effect of CRISPR/Cas9-Edited PD-1/PD-L1 on Tumor Immunity and Immunotherapy

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated nuclease9 (CRISPR/Cas9) gene editing technology implements precise programming of the human genome through RNA guidance. At present, it has been widely used in the construction of animal tumor models, the study of drug resistance regulation mechanisms, epigenetic control and innovation in cancer treatment. Tumor immunotherapy restores the normal antitumor immune response by restarting and maintaining the tumor-immune cycle. CRISPR/Cas9 technology has occupied a central position in further optimizing anti-programmed cell death 1(PD-1) tumor immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in exploring the regulatory mechanism of tumor immune PD-1 and programmed death ligand 1(PD-L1) based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its clinical application in different cancer types. In addition, CRISPR genome-wide screening identifies new drug targets and biomarkers to identify potentially sensitive populations for anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy and maximize antitumor effects. Finally, the strong potential and challenges of CRISPR/Cas9 for future clinical applications are discussed.

Progress and perspective of organoid technology in cancer-related translational medicine

Organoids are in vitro simplified and miniature microcosms of internal organs, which have aroused great interest in tissue development, multiple disease models, clinical diagnosis, as well as high-throughput drug screening and personalized medicine and so on. The success of physiology-related organoid culture has greatly advanced the translational medicine research in the field of cancer treatment, which was once troubled by the inconsistency between two-dimensional (2D) cell culture and in vivo studies. Especially in recent years, the success rate of establish an organoid has been greatly improved, and the types of organoids have been gradually enriched. Moreover, the utilizing of some the cutting-edge technologies, including gene editing technology such as CRISPR-Cas9, the scope of application of organoid is broadened. In this review, we discuss the latest progress and applications of organoids, and also outline the potential challenges of organoids for future improvement.

Impact of baseline culture conditions of cancer organoids when determining therapeutic response and tumor heterogeneity

Representative models are needed to screen new therapies for patients with cancer. Cancer organoids are a leap forward as a culture model that faithfully represents the disease. Mouse-derived cancer organoids (MDCOs) are becoming increasingly popular, however there has yet to be a standardized method to assess therapeutic response and identify subpopulation heterogeneity. There are multiple factors unique to organoid culture that could affect how therapeutic response and MDCO heterogeneity are assessed. Here we describe an analysis of nearly 3500 individual MDCOs where individual organoid morphologic tracking was performed. Change in MDCO diameter was assessed in the presence of control media or targeted therapies. Individual organoid tracking was identified to be more sensitive to treatment response than well-level assessment. The impact of different generations of mice of the same genotype, different regions of the colon, and organoid specific characteristics including baseline size, passage number, plating density, and location within the matrix were examined. Only the starting size of the MDCO altered the subsequent growth. These results were corroborated using ~ 1700 patient-derived cancer organoids (PDCOs) isolated from 19 patients. Here we establish organoid culture parameters for individual organoid morphologic tracking to determine therapeutic response and growth/response heterogeneity for translational studies.

The expanding role of WEE1

Upon DNA damage, complex transduction cascades are unleashed to locate, recognise and repair affected lesions. The process triggers a pause in the cell cycle until the damage is resolved. Even under physiologic conditions, this deliberate interruption of cell division is essential to ensure orderly DNA replication and chromosomal segregation. WEE1 is an established regulatory protein in this vast fidelity-monitoring machinery. Its involvement in the DNA damage response and cell cycle has been a subject of study for decades. Emerging studies have also implicated WEE1 directly and indirectly in other cellular functions, including chromatin remodelling and immune response. The expanding role of WEE1 in pathophysiology is matched by the keen surge of interest in developing WEE1-targeted therapeutic agents. This review summarises WEE1 involvement in the cell cycle checkpoints, epigenetic modification and immune signalling, as well as the current state of WEE1 inhibitors in cancer therapeutics.

ERAP2 Is Associated With Immune Infiltration and Predicts Favorable Prognosis in SqCLC

Background

Immunotherapy has been proven effective among several human cancer types, including Squamous cell lung carcinoma (SqCLC). ERAP2 plays a pivotal role in peptide trimming of many immunological processes. However, the prognostic role of ERAP2 and its relationship with immune cell infiltration in SqCLC remains unclear.

Methods

The differential expression of ERAP2 was identified via GEO and TCGA databases. We calculated the impact of ERAP2 on clinical prognosis using the Kaplan-Meier plotter. TIMER was applied to evaluate the abundance of immune cells infiltration and immune markers. SqCLC tissue microarrays containing 190 patients were constructed, and we performed immunohistochemical staining for ERAP2, CD8, CD47, CD68, and PD-L1 to validate our findings in public data.

Results

In the GEO SqCLC database, ERAP2 was upregulated in patients with better survival (p=0.001). ERAP2 expression in SqCLC was significantly lower than that of matched normal samples (p<0.05) based on TCGA SqCLC data. Higher expression of ERAP2 was significantly associated with better survival in SqCLC patients from TCGA (p=0.007), KM-plotter (p=0.017), and our tissue microarrays (TMAs) (p=0.026). In univariate and multivariate Cox analysis of SqCLC TMAs, high ERAP2 expression was identified as an independent protective factor for SqCLC patients (Univariate Cox, HR=0.659, range 0.454-0.956, p<0.05. Multivariate Cox, HR=0.578, range 0.385-0.866, p<0.05). In TIMER, ERAP2 was positively correlated with several immune markers (CD274, p=1.27E-04; CD68, p=5.88E-08) and immune infiltrating cells (CD8⁺ T cell, p=4.09E-03; NK cell, p=1.00E-04). In our cohort, ERAP2 was significantly correlated with CD8⁺ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) (p=0.0029), and patients with higher ERAP2 expression had a higher percentage of PD-L1 positive patients (p=0.049) and a higher CD8⁺ TILs level (p=0.036).

Conclusions

For the first time, our study demonstrates that higher expression of ERAP2 is tightly associated with the immuno-supportive microenvironment and can predict a favorable prognosis in SqCLC. Meanwhile, ERAP2 may be a promising immunotherapeutic target for patients with SqCLC.

Research Progress, Challenges, and Breakthroughs of Organoids as Disease Models

Traditional cell lines and xenograft models have been widely recognized and used in research. As a new research model, organoids have made significant progress and development in the past 10 years. Compared with traditional models, organoids have more advantages and have been applied in cancer research, genetic diseases, infectious diseases, and regenerative medicine. This review presented the advantages and disadvantages of organoids in physiological development, pathological mechanism, drug screening, and organ transplantation. Further, this review summarized the current situation of vascularization, immune microenvironment, and hydrogel, which are the main influencing factors of organoids, and pointed out the future directions of development.

Tumor organoids: synergistic applications, current challenges, and future prospects in cancer therapy

Patient-derived cancer cells (PDCs) and patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) are often used as tumor models, but have many shortcomings. PDCs not only lack diversity in terms of cell type, spatial organization, and microenvironment but also have adverse effects in stem cell cultures, whereas PDX are expensive with a low transplantation success rate and require a long culture time. In recent years, advances in three-dimensional (3D) organoid culture technology have led to the development of novel physiological systems that model the tissues of origin more precisely than traditional culture methods. Patient-derived cancer organoids bridge the conventional gaps in PDC and PDX models and closely reflect the pathophysiological features of natural tumorigenesis and metastasis, and have led to new patient-specific drug screening techniques, development of individualized treatment regimens, and discovery of prognostic biomarkers and mechanisms of resistance. Synergistic combinations of cancer organoids with other technologies, for example, organ-on-a-chip, 3D bio-printing, and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated homology-independent organoid transgenesis, and with treatments, such as immunotherapy, have been useful in overcoming their limitations and led to the development of more suitable model systems that recapitulate the complex stroma of cancer, inter-organ and intra-organ communications, and potentially multiorgan metastasis. In this review, we discuss various methods for the creation of organ-specific cancer organoids and summarize organ-specific advances and applications, synergistic technologies, and treatments as well as current limitations and future prospects for cancer organoids. Further advances will bring this novel 3D organoid culture technique closer to clinical practice in the future.

Organoid Technology: A Reliable Developmental Biology Tool for Organ-Specific Nanotoxicity Evaluation

Engineered nanomaterials are bestowed with certain inherent physicochemical properties unlike their parent materials, rendering them suitable for the multifaceted needs of state-of-the-art biomedical, and pharmaceutical applications. The log-phase development of nano-science along with improved "bench to beside" conversion carries an enhanced probability of human exposure with numerous nanoparticles. Thus, toxicity assessment of these novel nanoscale materials holds a key to ensuring the safety aspects or else the global biome will certainly face a debacle. The toxicity may span from health hazards due to direct exposure to indirect means through food chain contamination or environmental pollution, even causing genotoxicity. Multiple ways of nanotoxicity evaluation include several in vitro and in vivo methods, with in vitro methods occupying the bulk of the "experimental space." The underlying reason may be multiple, but ethical constraints in in vivo animal experiments are a significant one. Two-dimensional (2D) monoculture is undoubtedly the most exploited in vitro method providing advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, high throughput, and reproducibility. However, it often fails to mimic a tissue or organ which possesses a defined three-dimensional structure (3D) along with intercellular communication machinery. Instead, microtissues such as spheroids or organoids having a precise 3D architecture and proximate in vivo tissue-like behavior can provide a more realistic evaluation than 2D monocultures. Recent developments in microfluidics and bioreactor-based organoid synthesis have eased the difficulties to prosper nano-toxicological analysis in organoid models surpassing the obstacle of ethical issues. The present review will enlighten applications of organoids in nanotoxicological evaluation, their advantages, and prospects toward securing commonplace nano-interventions.

Mapping lung squamous cell carcinoma pathogenesis through in vitro and in vivo models

Lung cancer is the main cause of cancer death worldwide, with lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) being the second most frequent subtype. Preclinical LUSC models recapitulating human disease pathogenesis are key for the development of early intervention approaches and improved therapies. Here, we review advances and challenges in the generation of LUSC models, from 2D and 3D cultures, to murine models. We discuss how molecular profiling of premalignant lesions and invasive LUSC has contributed to the refinement of in vitro and in vivo models, and in turn, how these systems have increased our understanding of LUSC biology and therapeutic vulnerabilities.

Recent advances in preclinical models for lung squamous cell carcinoma

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) represents a major subtype of non-small cell lung cancer with limited treatment options. Previous studies have elucidated the complex genetic landscape of LUSC and revealed multiple altered genes and pathways. However, in stark contrast to lung adenocarcinoma, few targetable driver mutations have been established so far and targeted therapies for LUSC remain unsuccessful. Immunotherapy has revolutionized LUSC treatment and is currently approved as the new standard of care. To gain a better understanding of the LUSC biology, improved modeling systems are urgently needed. Preclinical models, particularly those mimicking human disease with an intact tumor immune microenvironment, are an invaluable tool to study cancer development and evaluate new therapeutic targets. Here, we discuss recent advances in LUSC preclinical models, with a focus on genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) and organoids, in the context of evolving precision medicine and immunotherapy.

Trends in CRISPR-Cas9 technology application in cancer

The evolution of the CRISPR-Cas9 technology in cancer research has tremendous potential to shape the future of oncology. Although this gene-editing tool's pre-clinical progress is into its nascent stage, there are many unanswered questions regarding health benefits and therapy precision using CRISPR. The application of CRISPR is highly specific, economically sustainable, and is a high throughput technique, but on the other hand, its application involves measured risk of countering the toxic immune response of Cas protein, off-target effects, limitation of delivering the edited cells back into cancer patients. The current chapter highlights the possibilities and perils of the present-day CRISPR engineering in cancer that should highlight CRISPR translation to therapy.

Organoids for the Study of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer is the second most lethal malignancy worldwide. Cell lines and murine models are the most common tools for modeling human liver carcinogenesis. Most recently, organoids with a three-dimensional structure derived from primary tissues or cells have been applied to liver cancer research. Organoids can be generated from induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic or adult, healthy or diseased tissues. In particular, liver organoids have been widely employed in mechanistic studies aimed at delineating the molecular pathways responsible for hepatocarcinogenesis. The introduction of clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated protein 9 (Cas9) and microengineered miniorganoid technologies into liver organoids for cancer study has significantly accelerated these investigations. Translational advances have been made by utilizing liver tumor organoids for anticancer drug screening, biobanking, omics profiling, and biomarker discovery. This review summarizes the latest advances and the remaining challenges in the use of organoid models for the study of liver cancer.

Progress towards non-small-cell lung cancer models that represent clinical evolutionary trajectories

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Although advances are being made towards earlier detection and the development of impactful targeted therapies and immunotherapies, the 5-year survival of patients with advanced disease is still below 20%. Effective cancer research relies on pre-clinical model systems that accurately reflect the evolutionary course of disease progression and mimic patient responses to therapy. Here, we review pre-clinical models, including genetically engineered mouse models and patient-derived materials, such as cell lines, primary cell cultures, explant cultures and xenografts, that are currently being used to interrogate NSCLC evolution from pre-invasive disease through locally invasive cancer to the metastatic colonization of distant organ sites.

Pharmacological Inhibition of WEE1 Potentiates the Antitumoral Effect of the dl922-947 Oncolytic Virus in Malignant Mesothelioma Cell Lines

Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is a very aggressive asbestos-related cancer, for which no therapy proves to be effective. We have recently shown that the oncolytic adenovirus dl922-947 had antitumor effects in MM cell lines and murine xenografts. Previous studies demonstrated that dl922-947-induced host cell cycle checkpoint deregulation and consequent DNA lesions associated with the virus efficacy. However, the cellular DNA damage response (DDR) can counteract this virus action. Therefore, we assessed whether AZD1775, an inhibitor of the G2/M DNA damage checkpoint kinase WEE1, could enhance MM cell sensitivity to dl922-947. Through cell viability assays, we found that AZD1775 synergized with dl922-947 selectively in MM cell lines and increased dl922-947-induced cell death, which showed hallmarks of apoptosis (annexinV-positivity, caspase-dependency, BCL-XL decrease, chromatin condensation). Predictably, dl922-947 and/or AZD1775 activated the DDR, as indicated by increased levels of three main DDR players: phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX), phospho-replication protein A (RPA)32, phospho-checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1). Dl922-947 also increased inactive Tyr-15-phosphorylated cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1), a key WEE1 substrate, which is indicative of G2/M checkpoint activation. This increase in phospho-CDK1 was effectively suppressed by AZD1775, thus suggesting that this compound could, indeed, abrogate the dl922-947-induced DNA damage checkpoint in MM cells. Overall, our data suggest that the dl922-947-AZD1775 combination could be a feasible strategy against MM.

Drug screening model meets cancer organoid technology

Tumor organoids inherit the genomic and molecular characteristics of the donor tumor, which not only bridge the gap between genome and phenotype but also circumvent the disadvantages such as genetic information change by using 2D cell lines and the mouse-specific tumor evolution in patient-derived xenograft (PDX). So, cancer organoid has been widely applied to preclinical drug evaluation, biomarker identification, biological research, and individualized therapy. Besides, cancer organoid can be preserved, resuscitated, passed infinitely, and mechanically cultured on a chip for drug screening; it has become one of the partial models for low/high-throughput drug screening in the preclinical trial in vitro. Therefore, this review presents the recent developments of tumor organoids for drug screening, which will introduce from four aspects, including the stability/credibility, types, application, deficiency and prospect of the tumor organoids model for drug screening.

Functional characterization of SOX2 as an anticancer target

SOX2 is a well-characterized pluripotent factor that is essential for stem cell self-renewal, reprogramming, and homeostasis. The cellular levels of SOX2 are precisely regulated by a complicated network at the levels of transcription, post-transcription, and post-translation. In many types of human cancer, SOX2 is dysregulated due to gene amplification and protein overexpression. SOX2 overexpression is associated with poor survival of cancer patients. Mechanistically, SOX2 promotes proliferation, survival, invasion/metastasis, cancer stemness, and drug resistance. SOX2 is, therefore, an attractive anticancer target. However, little progress has been made in the efforts to discover SOX2 inhibitors, largely due to undruggable nature of SOX2 as a transcription factor. In this review, we first briefly introduced SOX2 as a transcription factor, its domain structure, normal physiological functions, and its involvement in human cancers. We next discussed its role in embryonic development and stem cell-renewal. We then mainly focused on three aspects of SOX2: (a) the regulatory mechanisms of SOX2, including how SOX2 level is regulated, and how SOX2 cross-talks with multiple signaling pathways to control growth and survival; (b) the role of SOX2 in tumorigenesis and drug resistance; and (c) current drug discovery efforts on targeting SOX2, and the future perspectives to discover specific SOX2 inhibitors for effective cancer therapy.